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COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 























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Copyright, 1895, by V. A. Kreidler. 

THOMAS A. EDISON, THE WORLD’S MOST FAMOUS INVENTOR. 
Photographed in front of his office at his Ogden, N. J., iron mines. This picture of Edison in his 
■working clothes is very life-like, and the only one of its kind that has been taken. 



. ... 




- 'F. 2 








THE 


INDUSTRIAL EDUCATOR 


A COMPENDIUM OF THE MARVELOUS ACHIEVE¬ 
MENTS OF MAN AND THE MORES OF NATURE 


V MANUAL FOR THE ARTISAN OF THE 
FACTORY OR THE STUDENT . 

AT HOME 


EMBRACING COMPREHENSIVE TREATISES ON THE 
PROCESSES OF INDUSTRY ALL OVER THE WORLD 


J3Y 


TRUMBULL WHITE 


MORE THAN FOUR HUXDRED PHOTOGRAPHIC ILLUSTRATIOXS 


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THE 


CHICAGO 

MADISON BOOK CO 

1903 
















THE LIBRARY OF 
CONGRESS. 

Two Copies Received 

MAR 16 1903 

Copyright Entry 

‘Zjk-J?-] 0$ 

CCA* 3 (x, XXd No. 

S ■S" H- 1. i 
copy a 


COPYRIGHT 1903 
BY 

JOHN SLACK 



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♦ » • 
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• * * 







NOTICE 

THE ILLUSTRATIONS IN THIS BOOK 
ARE COPYRIGHTED, AND ANY INFRINGE¬ 
MENT WILL BE VIGOROUSLY PROSE¬ 
CUTED 































(V 







To 

The Ambitious, the Studious 
and the Industrious, 

Be They in High or Humble Station, 
in Whatever Walk of Hife, 

Work ts IDebtcateb. 


To Them the World’s Progress 
Toward Enlightenment 
and Happiness 
I s Due. 


















































































' 





























































. 
















PREFACE 


The work here presented is calculated to serve the needs of at least two distinct 
classes of readers, neither purpose primary, neither purpose secondary, but both kept con¬ 
stantly in mind as standards by which all matter considered for entrance into the pages 
should be measured. In one aspect it is intended to be a book for the busy reader, the 
practical reader, the reader in haste, who seeks definite information and facts about the 
world as it is to-day. In the other aspect it is planned to be a book for the entertain¬ 
ment and instruction of the studious reader, who wishes to understand the processes and 
progress of modern conditions the world over. It is a book of live subjects, on the 
achievements of man and the works of nature, so presented as to make it equally adapt¬ 
able for pleasant reading, ready reference, accurate instruction or careful study. 

The educational qualities of the work have been kept prominently in mind from the 
first planning of it. Never before was there so great a demand for the knowledge which 
is power. What the world wants is the man who knows. This is the age of universal 
education. There is no excuse for ignorance to-day. The demand for men of broad 
mental equipment is never wholly supplied. The positions demanding such men are 
much more numerous than qualified candidates to fill them. The men whose energy and 
ambition prompt them to strive patiently for mental improvement in spare hours, are few 
in number, compared with the vast majority content to stagnate, year after year, in 
poorly paid subordinate positions. Those who pay court to knowledge by systematic 
home study, eventually secure the choice places. The field is open, the opportunities 
were never more numerous. It is believed that the volume in hand is a storehouse of 
such essential information as will assist the ambitious reader to take advantage of the 
manifold opportunities, by acquiring the methods of modern progress which lead to pros¬ 
perity and success. 

Here are arrayed those marvelous facts which make modern life and methods 
supreme in interest and importance. The fairy tales of the past, told to while away an 
idle hour with mysterious impossibilities, are outdone by the realities of the present. Here 
the true relations of all phases of human activity are shown, in their bearing upon the 
affairs of the world of to-day, so that the w r ork becomes, in the highest sense, a book of 
new, fresh and accurate information. 

To make more readily available such a wide variety of matter in a work of such 
extensive scope, it has been subdivided into five comprehensive books, all contained in a 
single volume. 

Book I.—The Industrial Age.—We are manifestly in the midst of the Industrial 
Age, when every force of nature and every conception of the mind of mankind are being 
turned into such channels as will lead to greater industrial power. American enterprise 
is forging ahead into the world-markets so rapidly as to alarm the rival nations. Embodied 
here are all the facts of highest importance concerning the great undertakings of to-day, 
in these lines of activity. The methods, combinations and achievements of the money 
captains and the captains of industry are made clear. The railway, bank, manufacturing, 
lumbering, mining, stock-raising, meat-packing, shipping, and other interests which come 
into contact with all people, are depicted by graphic chapters and artistic illustrations. 

9 



10 


Preface 


In addition, suck recent triumphs of inventive genius as are just passing over the iine 
that divides the scientific discovery from the practical industry, are treated with special 
fullness and care. 

Book II.—The World’s Science and Invention.—No longer do great men, making 
triumphant discoveries in the realm of science and invention, ha,ve to fight for recogni¬ 
tion, as did Galileo of old and many a man of more recent time. Instead, the world is 
eager to welcome advance in these, as truly as in other directions. The great captains 
of industry have enlisted with them the masters of science, and the world moves faster in 
its progress as a result of the powerful alliance. Here are gathered such triumphs of sci¬ 
ence, invention and discovery as are most significant in their universal interest to-day. 
The navigation of the air, the development of the automobile, the applications of elec¬ 
tricity, the wonderful machinery created by inventive genius and utilized in the great 
industries, all these and a host of other kindred topics are included, with a multitude of 
valuable illustrations accompanying the graphic descriptive text. 

Book III.—Marvelous Peculiarities and Noteworthy Facts of All Nations and 
Countries of the World.—In this age no man nor no country can live in absolute inde¬ 
pendence of all others. The interests of all mankind are so closely interwoven the world 
over, that what affects conditions in one land has its effect even to the antipodes. So it 
becomes of the highest importance to be fully informed of our neighbor nations near 
and far, their peculiarities, their industries, and the facts of interest and significance 
about them. In this splendid volume the whole world is viewed in the light of modern 
life and progress, to discover the relations of industry, commerce, natural conditions, 
history and travel in every land. 

Book IV.—Amazing Wonders of Nature.—Contrasting vividly with the industrial 
and intellectual triumphs of man in the present age of the world, are the eternal works 
of nature. Here these wonders are depicted by graphic description and artistic illustra¬ 
tion. From the glaciers of the Arctic regions to the earthquakes and volcanoes of the 
Tropics, the most important and interesting subjects are here treated in this limitless 
field of inquiry. In every instance the newest discoveries in the realm of natural science, 
bearing on the phenomenal facts of the planet which is our home, are recorded and 
explained here. 

Book V.—Things We All Should Know.—Under this broad classification have 
been gathered a multitude of subjects and selected information of the utmost value. The 
list includes such topics as legal facts and forms, medicine and the prolongation of life, 
civil service, athletic sports, military, religious, commercial, geographical and other 
statistics, and a mass of general knowledge, both technical and popular, concerning which 
all need be informed. 

To the foregoing array of facts included, must be added a mention of the hundreds 
of selected photographic illustrations of modern conditions in the industries and the life 
of the world to-day. Finally, the arrangement of the matter and the comprehensive 
indexing of the volume are such as to make the whole readily and promptly convenient 
for immediate reference and use on any subject. With the assurance that by its time¬ 
liness and its merit the work will win a wide welcome from the reading public, it is 
offered for consideration by 


THE PUBLISIIEBS. 


TABLE OF CONTENTS 

. PAGE 

Introduction . .. 21 


BOOK I. THE INDUSTRIAL AGE. 

Wireless Telegraphy, a Triumph of Modern Discovery . 

The Railway, the World’s Greatest Industry . 

Great Railway Consolidations. 

The Greatest Freight Transfer Yards in the World . 

The American Industrial Invasion of Europe . 

Ocean Traffic—Its Stupendous Growth. 

Shipping on the Great Lakes... 

The Great Industries of the Seas and Lakes. 

Progress in Methods of Naval Warfare. 

Maximite, the New Explosive. 

Naval Battles in the Future.*. 

The Submarine Vessel. 

Floating Docks for Men-of-War. 

The First Cable Across the Pacific Ocean. 

Unique Novelty in Hotel Construction. 

Iron and Steel Industries. 

Coal Mining and Coke Making. 

Zinc and Other Products of the Mines. 

The City “Sky-Scraper”.. 

Great Offices for Great Businesses. 

Phases of Street Life in a Great City. 

The Chicago Stock Yards—The World's Meat-Market . .. 

Great Packing-Houses of Chicago. 

How a Great City Is Fed. 

Tapioca and Cassava from the Manioc. 

Lumbering in American Forests. 

Textile Fabrics in America. 

Paper, its History, and How It Is Made. 

How a Great Newspaper Is Made. 

How Books and Magazines Are Illustrated. 

Locomotives and Their Construction. 

Power, Its Development and Transmission. 

Up-to-Date Methods in Farming. 

Glass and Its Uses. 

The Work of the Potter. 

How Pianos Have Multiplied. 

The World’s Big Canals... 

Financial Methods of Today. 

Where Our Money Is Made. 

Eight Million Dollars in One Check. 

Orange Groves and Their Products. 

Olive Orchards and the Olive Industry. 

Coffee, Tea and Chocolate. 

Beet Sugar and Cane Sugar. 

Opium and Its Production. 

Tobacco Raising and Cigar Making. 

H ow Trunks Are Made. 

Salt and Its Production. 

Flour and Flour Mills. 

Ice, Artificial and Natural. 


33 

41 

49 


03 

07 

73 

SI 

SO 

so 

91 
93 
95 
98 
101 
109 
119 
121 
129 
131 
134 
137 
145 
148 
151 
157 
101 
107 
172 
175 
179 
184 
187 
1S9 
190 
194 
201 
205 
207 
209 
213 
215 
220 
220 
22,S 
235 
239 

244 

245 


11 






















































12 


Table of Contents 


page 

Ivory, How Obtained and Used. 251 

Ostrich Farms in Africa and California. 255 

BOOK II. THE WORLD’S SCIENCE AND INVENTION. 

Air-Ships a Success. 257 

Triumphs of Photography. 200 

The Automobile and Its Development.. 204 

The Roentgen or “X” Rays. 207 

Modern Developments of Electricity. 270 

Basket Making by Machinery. 275 

Liquid Air. 277 

Luxfer Prisms as Light Transmitters. 279 

The Weather Bureau and Its Work. 281 

Moving Pictures and How They Are Made. 285 

The Phonograph and Its Uses.*. 287 

Compressed Air and Pneumatic Tubes. 288 

Great and Famous Telescopes. 290 

Size of Greatest Telescopes in the World. 292 

Telephones, Their Mechanism and Development . 292 

Telephoning Without Wire. 297 

Perpetual Motion Machines. 302 

Clocks Which Furnish Light. 303 

Acetylene Gas. 305 

Finding Value in Cornstalks. 30G 

Saving Gold from Soot. 308 

The Mariner’s Compass. 309 

The Nautical Almanac and Its Importance. 312 

Thermometers and the Measures of Temperature.315 

Rouen’s Air Ferry, Oddest of Bridges. 318 

BOOK III. NOTEWORTHY FACTS OF ALL NATIONS. 

Settlements and Migrations of Nationalities in the United States.321 

Greatest Facts in the History of the United States . 323 

How Immigrants Come to America. 325 

Immigration Statistics ...' . 32S 

Our American Archives and National Institutions . 32S 

Population Areas of the United States. 329 

Facts About Our Postal Service. 331 

Peary and the North Pole. 331 

The Region of the Yukon. 337 

Great Fur-Trading Companies of Canada. 338 

The Walled City of the North. 340 

Pilgrims and Shrines in Canada. 341 

North American Totemism. 343 

Bermuda, the Island of Lilies and Onions. 345 

Negro Life in the Bahamas. 340 

Cuba’s First President. 348 

Santo Domingo—The Bones of Columbus. 351 

Voodoo Worship in Haiti. 353 

The Cocoanut and Its Uses. 354 

Torto Rico and Its Characteristics... 355 

Saint Helena—The Island of Exiles. 357 

Danish West Indies. 357 

Where Mexican Rulers Dwell. 358 

Mines of Riches in Mexico.. v .359 

Tulque, the National Drink of Mexico.3G1 






















































Table of Contents 


13 


PAGU 

Mysterious Copan, a City of the Dead in Honduras . 303 

Quito, the Strangest City in the World. 304 

Lima, the City of Mud. 3 (>(; 

Bolivia, the Backward Republic. 3(57 

Climbing the Highest American Mountain. 308 

Prosperity in the Argentine Republic. 309 

Paraguay and Its History of Violence. 371 

India Rubber in the Brazilian Forests. 371 

London, the World’s Metropolis. 373 

The Tower of London. 370 

Interesting Facts Concerning Great Britain. 378 

The Cathedrals of England. 379 

Welsh Eisteddfods, Bards and Druids. 380 

The Round Towers of Ireland.381 

Castles of France.383 

Catacombs of Paris.385 

Fontainebleau . 387 

Belgium’s Great Trade.389 

Holland's Abandoned Cities.389 

Martin Luther’s Prison, Wartburg Castle. 391 

The Kremlin of Moscow. 394 

Hungarian Gipsies . 397 

The Referendum of Switzerland.399 

Geneva and Its Lake. 400 

The Vatican . 401 

The Leaning Tower of Pisa.. 402 

Cork in Portugal and Spain.. 403 

Gibraltar . 404 

The Island of Crete. 400 

The Strange Sea Mills of Cephalonia, in Greece . 400 

Life in a Turkish Harem. 409 

Egypt as It Is Today. 411 

Recent Discoveries in Egyptian Antiquities. 413 

The Great Pyramids of Egypt. 415 

The Troglodytes of Africa. 417 

Liberia, the American Colony in Africa. 418 

Pygmies in Central Africa. 419 

Who Are the Boers?. 421 

The Diamond Mines of Kimberley. 423 

Abyssinia and Its Ancient Christian Faith. 420 

The Railway Race for the Indian Ocean. 428 

Dancing and Howling Dervishes. 430 

Pilgrims to Mecca. 433 

Mountains and Oil Wells of the Caucasus. 430 

Afghanistan, the “Buffer Nation”. 437 

Bokhara and Central Asia. 439 

Tibet, the Hermit Nation. 439 

The Yogi of India. 440 

The Island Temples of India. 441 

Siam and Its Strange People. 441 

Chinese Food and Cookery. 447 

Chinese Beggars . 451 

Russia’s Port on the Pacific. 453 

Korea and Its Awakening.,. 455 

The Temples of Nikko, Japan. 457 

Secret Societies in the Philippines. 459 


























































14 


Table of Contents 


Borneo and Its White Rajah. 

Three Centuries of War in the East Indies. 

The United States of Australia. 

New Zealand, the Land of Liberal Laws. 

Tutuila, Our Samoan Island. 

Hawaii, the “Paradise of the Paeific”. 

The Leper Island of Molokai. 

Robinson Crusoe’s Island, Juan Fernandez. 

In the Falkland Islands.. 

Easter Island and Its Strange Ruins. 

The Mutineers of the “Bounty”. 

French Islands in the Pacific Ocean. 

Fiji and Its People. 

The Island of Guam. 

Tasmania, Past and Present. 

BOOK IV. AMAZING WONDERS OF NATURE. 

Greenland and Its Glaciers.. 

Iceland and Its Geysers. 

The Great Lava Desert of Iceland. 

The Gulf Stream. 

The Maelstrom. 

The Spectre of the Brocken. 

Famous Fountains of Palestine. 

Saghalien, a Paradox of Climate. 

The Arabian Desert. 

The Great Trees of California. 

How Glaciers and Icebergs are Made. 

Trinidad and Its Bituminous Lake. 

Death Valley. 

Borax and Its Production. 

The Grand Canyon of Arizona. 

The Dakota “Bad Lands”. 

'Crater Lake, an Oregon Wonder..•. 

Cause of Earthquakes and Volcanoes. 

Famous Volcanic and Earthquake Disasters. 

Around the South Pole. 

Mines of Ice in Arizona. 

Little Planets in Our Solar System. 

Great Caves of the World. 

The Land of the Midnight Ssn. 

Niagara Falls. 

Wonders of the Deep Sea. .. 

Extinct Monsters. 

Man and Nature Before the Deluge. 

BOOK V. THINGS WE ALL SHOULD KNOW. 

Civil Service and Its Laws. 

Compulsory Education. 

Child Labor Laws. 

Standard Time Over the World. 

Public Libraries, Their Growth and Administration . 

American Colleges and Their Growth. 

American College Sports. 

Ocean, Lake and Mountain Resorts. 

Winter Sports in Northern Cities. 


PAGE 

460 

461 
463 
465 

467 

468 

469 

470 
472 

472 

473 

471 

476 

477 

478 


481 

481 

483 

483 

481 

485 

486 

487 

488 

489 
491 

495 

496 
499 
502 
507 
509 
511 
515 
519 
521 

r.oo 

* 4 --/ 

524 

527 

530 


035 

541 


545 

548 

549 
549 
551 
553 
55(1 

559 

560 






















































Table of Conienis 


15 


PAGE 

Horse Racing the World Over. 563 

Armies and Wars of the World Today. 565 

The German Emperor’s American Yacht. 56S 

The Second and Greater Brooklyn Bridge. 560 

How Maps and Globes Are Made. 570 

Watches and Clocks. 573 

Mirrors and Their Manufacture.576 

Art Work in Brass. 578 

Bells and How They Are Made. 580 

How Artesian Wells Are Bored. 5S3 

Discoveries in Medicine and the Prolongation of Life. 585 

Special Cults and Cures. 587 

Systems of Medical Treatment. 588 

Elements of Physical Health. 580 

The Pulse in Health. 500 

Contagious and Eruptive Diseases. 500 

First Aid to the Injured. 501 

Antidotes for Poisons. 501 

Special Poisons and Antidotes... 502 

Rules in Case of Fire. 502 

Accidents in the United States. 503 

Life and Death Rates. 503 

Cremation .503 

Legal Facts and Forms. 504 

Single Tax, Its Meaning and Its Theories.508 

How Fires Are Extinguished. 500 

Asbestos Cloth That Will Not Burn. 601 

Mineral Wool and Its Uses. 604 

How Artificial Silk Is Made. 606 

Buttons, Their Invention and Manufacture. 607 

In a Type Foundry. 610 

Binding Twine Made from Manila Hemp. 614 

How Varnish Is Made. 616 

Beeswax and How It Is Prepared. 610 

Tar and Its Uses in the Sciences. 620 

Turpentine and Resin. 623 

Dyes from Coal. 625 

Carbon Black and Its Uses. 627 

Pearls from American Rivers.'. 628 

Precious Stones, Real and Artificial. 632 

Value of Diamonds. 637 

How Sheet Music Is Printed*. 638 

Ropes and Rope-Making. 641 

Shoddy—What It Is and How Made.•. 643 

Broom-Corn and Broom Making. 646 

Wire and Its Manifold Uses. 640 

Fireworks and Their Manufacture. 651 

Match Making in Various Countries. 654 

Veneers for Fine Furniture. 657 

Graphite and Lead Pencils. 650 

How Rubber Goods Are Made. 663 

Barrels and Kegs. 666 

Seeds and How to Test Them. 660 

Eggs and How They Are Inspected. 672 

Mince Meat Made by Machinery. 674 

Butterine and Oleomargarine. 676 


























































16 


Table of Contents 


Peanuts and Their Uses. 

In a Macaroni Factory.,.... 

Vinegar and Its Manufacture.■. 

How Fruit Flavoring Extracts Are Made. 

Extract of Beef and Its Preparation. 

Pepsin and Its Production. 

Starch and How It Is Made. 

Glucose and How It Is Made. 

Rock Candy and How It Is Made. 

Common Food Adulterations. 

Baking Powder, Pure and Adulterated. 

Adulteration in Alcoholic Liquors. 

Toilet Preparations from the Tropics. 

American Progress in Twenty Years. 

The Principal Planets. 

Strength of Various Substances. 

The Average Velocities of Various Bodies. 

How to Mix Paint for Tints. 

United States Postal Regulations... 

Center of Population in the United States. 

Public Lands in the United States. 

National Park Reserves in the United States . 

Grain Production of United States. 

Number of Farm Animals in the United States . 
Number of Farm Animals in the Various States . 

Hogs Packed and Marketed. 

World’s Production of Wheat. 

World’s Production of Wool. 

Cane and Beet Sugar of the World. 

Pounds Ter Bushel. 

Comparative Yield of Various Vegetables. 

Ages to Which Animals Live. 

Value of Foreign Coins. 

Average of Wealth for Each Inhabitant. 

Consumption of Liquor Throughout the World . 

Anniversaries, Historical. 

Table of Memorable Dates. 

Marriage Anniversaries. 

The States and the Union. 

The Electoral Vote in 1004. 

The Civil War of 1861-65.. 

Wars of the United States... 

Number of Pensioners and Amount of Pensions . .. 

Military Resources of Europe. 

Great Libraries of the World. 

Illiteracy Statistics. 

Heights of Waterfalls. 

Religions and Denominations of the World. 

Largest Cities of the Earth. 

The World’s Highest Mountains. 

Heights of Tallest Monuments, Towers and Steeples 

Lengths of the World’s Principal Rivers. 

Area and Depth of the Oceans. 

Races of Mankind. 

Gazetteer of the World.7 ’ ‘ j [ ] ’ 

Index . 


PAGE 

679 

681 

683 

685 

688 

690 

691 
693 
696 
698 
TOO 
703 

706 

707 

709 

710 
710 

710 

711 

712 

712 
7*12 

713 
713 

713 

714 
714 

714 

715 
715 
715 

715 

716 
716 

716 

717 

717 

718 

719 
719 

719 

720 

720 

721 
721 
721 

721 

722 
724 
726 
726 

726 

727 

728 

729 
753 




























































LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 


PAGE 

Edison in His Working Clothes... .Frontispiece 


Guglielmo Marconi, the Genius of Wireless 

Telegraphy . 32 

Marconi in His Working Clothes. 33 

Marconi at His Receiving Instrument.... 34 
Marconi’s Assistants Preparing to Raise the 

Kite . 35 

Marconi Wireless Telegraph Station. 36 

Cabot Memorial Tower. 37 

Signal Hill, St. John’s Harbor, Newfound¬ 
land . 39 

Special Train of H. R. H. Prince Henry Show¬ 
ing Searchlight Headlights. 41 

Carrying Night Lanterns to Top of Rail¬ 
way Signal Post. 42 

The Track Walker. 42 

All Aboard . 43 

Solid Comfort in the Library Car. 43 

Operator in the Signal Tower. 44 

In the Dining Car. 45 

Railway Construction in the Mountains... 46 
Transcontinental Express Running Sixty 

Miles an Hour. 47 

Interior of a Railway Snowshed in the 

Mountains . 48 

Snow Plow at Work in the Rocky Moun¬ 
tains . 48 

Across the Continent. 49 

Pictorial History of Car Building. 50 

Rapid Transit in a Great City. 51 

Chicago Transfer Yards. 54 

Launching of the “Kroonland” at Cramps’ 

Shipyards, Philadelphia. 56 

The First and Only Seven-Masted Schooner 

in the World. 59 

New York Docks. 61 

East River Docks, New York. 62 

The Campania . 63 

Shipwreck on the Ocean. 65 

The Great Philadelphia Ship Yards. 66 

Iron Ore Dock on Lake Erie. 67 

Entrance to Chicago River from Lake Michi¬ 
gan . 68 

Iron Mine in the Lake Superior Region. 69 

Passenger Steamer Shooting the Lachine 

Rapids on the St. Lawrence. 71 

Along the Waterfront, New York City. 72 

Fishmarket at Grimsby, England. 73 

Stripping Blubber . 74 

Evening’s Haul of Salmon at a British 

Columbia Cannery . 75 

Making Tin Cans by Machinery for a Great 

Salmon Cannery . 76 

Cleaning Fish in an Oregon Salmon Can¬ 
nery . 77 

Lobster Pens on the North Atlantic Coast.. 78 

Grain Elevator on the Chicago River. 79 

Launching of the New American Battleship, 

the “Maine” . 80 

Launching of the “Constitution,” Famed in 
American History .. 81 


PAGE 


Test of Armor Plate for an American Man- 

of-War . 82 

The Fastest Ship Afloat. 83 

Practical Experiments with New Armor and 

Projectiles . 84 

Placing a Big Gun on Board a Battleship... 85 

Coaling a Battleship at Sea. 86 

Factory for High Explosives, Showing 

Earthen Walls . 87 

Armored Boat for River Service in Central 

Africa . 89 

The “Holland” at Full Speed on the Surface 91 

Submarine Boat “Holland” Diving. 92 

Floating Dock Showing Battleship Illinois 

in Place . 93 

Launching a Great Floating Dock. 94 

Machines for Braiding Wires into Sub¬ 
marine Telegraph Cables. 96 

Unique Novelty in Hotel Construction. 99 

Making a Steel Casting. 100 

Ore Docks at Ashtabula, Ohio. 101 

Bird’s-Eye View of a Pennsylvania Steel 

Mill . 102 

Blast Furnaces of a Great Steel Mill. 104 

Steel “Ingots” and “Billets” Ready for Manu¬ 
facturers’ Use . 105 

A 137-Ton Steel Ingot for a Modern Gun.... 106 

Making Car Wheels. 107 

Opening the Molds. 107 

A Flotilla of Coal Barges on the Ohio River 

Below Pittsburg . 108 

Coal Miner with Safety Lamp. 109 

“Drift” and “Tunnel” in a Coal Mine. 110 

Down in the Tunnel of a Coal Mine. Ill 

Motive Power in a Mine—Past and Present. 112 

A Great Coal “Breaker”. 113 

“Breaker Boys” or Coal Pickers in a Penn¬ 
sylvania Mining Town. 114 

Coal from Mine to Market. 115 

Coke Ovens . 116 

Device for Moving Coke from Ovens. 117 

Loading Coke Into Cars. 118 

A Zinc Mining Scene. 119 

Typical New York “Sky-Scrapers”. 120 

The Masonic Temple, Chicago. 122 

“Newspaper Row,” New York City. 123 

Philadelphia Sky-Scrapers at Broad and 

Chestnut Streets . 125 

“Bargain Day” on a Shopping Street. 126 

“Blue Monday” in the City—Washday in a 

Crowded Block . 127 

A Typical Crowd on State Street, Chicago... 128 

The Largest Office in the World. 130 

New York in a Blizzard. 132 

Street Scene in the Jewish Quarter of New 

York City on a Busy Market Day. 133 

Packing House Feeding Pens, Chicago Stock 

Yards . 134 

Among the Cattle Pens, Chicago Stock Yards 135 
Government Inspectors at Work in the Stock 
Yards . 136 


17 

























































































18 


List of Illustrations 


PAGE 

Cattle Killing in a Great Packing House.... 137 
The Beef Refrigerating Room of a Great 

Packing House . 138 

Cooking the Meat for Canning Purposes.... 139 
Labeling the Product, Scene in the Cannery. 140 

Boxing Meats for Export. 140 

Making Butterine . 141 

Refrigerator Car as Prepared for Shipment. 141 

Preparing Hams and Bacon for Market. 142 

Picking Chickens for the City Market.142 

Dressing Mutton in a Packing House. 143 

Packing Sauer Kraut. Ill 

Dressed Hogs in the Cooling-Room. 144 

Making Sausages . 115 

South Water Street, Chicago. 146 

Preparing Turtles for Soup. 147 

Field of Cassava in Florida. 148 

The Smithfield Meat Market, London....... 149 

Lumbermen Boating Down a Mountain Side 150 

Logging Camp in Michigan. 151 

Rafting Saw Logs Through a Drawbridge... 152 

Elephant Piling Teak Logs, Burma.153 

Log Jam in the Lumbering Region of Michi¬ 
gan . ; . 154 

Sawing a Big Log in an Oregon Mill. 155 

Cotton Ready for Export on the Wharves of 

Savannah, Georgia. 156 

In a Cotton Mill. 151 

Cotton Weaving from the Spool to the Cloth 157 
Making Hosiery—Interior of a Great Stock¬ 
ing Manufactory . 158 

Weaver at the Loom. 159 

Silk Winders at Work. 159 

Weaving Velvet in a Silk Mill. 159 

Operatives in a Great Garment Factory.160 

Sorting Rags for Fine Book Paper in a Paper 

Mill . 151 

The Raw Material of the Daily Newspaper.. 162 

Interior View of a Great Paper Mill. 163 

At Work in a Book Bindery, Folding Ma¬ 
chines in the Foreground. 164 

Trimming and Mailing Magazines in a Bind¬ 
ery . 165 

Press-Room of a Great Metropolitan News¬ 
paper . 166 

Linotype Room in a Daily Newspaper Office 168 
Octuple Rotary Color Perfecting Printing 

Press .... 170 

Machine for Making White Paper for News¬ 
papers . HI 

Office of a Great Illustrating and Engraving 

Company . 113 

Locomotive Boilers in the Process of Con¬ 
struction . Ill 

An Oil-Burning Locomotive. 175 

Blacksmith Shop in Baldwin’s Locomotive 

Factory . Ill 

Making Locomotive Springs. 118 

Interior of a Cable Railway Power-House. .. 179 
Machine Shop of Baldwin’s Locomotive 

Works ... 18® 

Firing by Hand... 181 

Automatic Equipment for Furnaces in a 

Great Power-House . 182 

Making Binder Twine from Manila Hemp.. 183 
Harvest Time on a North Dakota Wheat 
Farm .. 181 


PAGE 


Threshing Machines in the Field. 185 

The Largest Poultry Plant in the World, in 

the State of Ohio. 185 

Window Glass Makers at the Melting Fur¬ 
naces ..'. 186 

Glass-Bottle Blowers at Work. 188 

Night Scene in a Pottery. 189 

Artist Decorating Pottery. 190 

Making Grand Pianos, Showing Interior 

Construction . 191 

Finishing Cases of Upright Pianos. 192 

A “Whaleback” in the Great Canal Lock at 

Sault Ste. Marie, Mich. 193 

Dam at Lockport, on the Chicago Drainage 

Canal . 194 

Route of the Nicaragua Canal from Ocean to 

Ocean . 195 

Great Dam Across the Nile—Upper Egypt.. 196 
Compressed Air Drill, Chicago Drainage 

Canal . 197 

Building a Power-Transmission Tunnel from 

a Great Canal. 198 

Halsted Street Lift Bridge Over the Chicago 

River .,. 199 

Interior of a Great City Bank. 200 

Bank of England and Royal Exchange, 

London . 201 

“Wall Street,” the Famous New York Stock 

Exchange . 202 

Bank Vault Door Open. 203 

“Throgmorton Street,” the London Stock 

Exchange . 203 

The Chicago Board of Trade. 204 

Bank Vault Door Closed. 205 

The New United States Mint at Philadelphia 206 
Hauling Ingots of Silver Bullion in the 

Philadelphia Mint . 207 

Check for Over Eight Million Dollars That 

Went Through Bank and Was Paid. 208 

Picking Oranges in a California Grove. 209 

Sorting and Packing Oranges for Shipment. 211 

Alligators on the Indian River, Florida. 212 

Italian Peasants Making Olive Oil. 213 

Largest Coffee-Roasting Plant in the World. 215 

Coffee Yard Near Jalapa, Mexico. 216 

Drying Tea in Ceylon. 217 

Gathering Tea in Ceylon. 218 

Drying Tea by Hot Blast. 219 

Delivering Sugar Beets at the Factory. 220 

Screw Elevator to Beet Sugar Factory. 221 

Diffusion Batteries . 222 

Carbonators in a Beet Sugar Mill. 223 

The Centrifugals . 223 

Sugar Drier . 224 

Sugar Defecating Pans. 224 

Cutting, Stripping and Hauling Sugar Cane. 225 
Field of White Opium Poppies in Bloom.... 226 

A Camphor Tree. 227 

Cutting Tobacco on a Plantation. 228 

Cutting Tobacco in Cuba. 230 

Baled Tobacco in Warehouse. 232 

Unpacking Tobacco in a Cigar Factory. 234 

Interior of a Trunk Factory. 236 

Making Valises and Traveling Bags. 237 

The Remarkable Salt Fields in Southern 

California . 238 

Gathering Salt in Mexico. 239 
























































































List of Illustrations 


19 


PAGE 


Dry Salt in the Desert. 

At Work in the Salt Fields. 

Plowing Salt by Steam. 

Flour Mills Facing the Mississippi River at 

Minneapolis . 

Testing Flour in the Laboratory of a Big 

Mill . 

Baking Bread by Electricity. 

Artificial Ice in Storage. 

Freezing Tank Room in an Ice Factory. 

Ivory Market at Antwerp. 

Bringing Ivory from the African Jungles.. . 

Santos-Dumont and His Airship. 

Rounding the Eiffel Tower. 

The Successful Santos-Dumont Airship. 

Preparing to Take a Great Photograph. 

The Largest Camera Ever Made. 

Ready for a Farm Picture. 

The Modern Chariot Race. 

Ready for a Winter Spin Through the Coun¬ 
try . 

A Roentgen Ray Photograph of a Broken 

Arm . 

Hatpin in the Stomach of a Three-Year-Old 

" Child . 

Thomas A. Edison. 

Electrical Illumination of a City Street. 

Dynamos of an Electric Light Plant. 

Trackless Trolley Car. 

Switch Room of Niagara Falls Power-House 
A Trolley Car Snow Plow on a Montre'al 

Street Railway . 

Grape Basket Machine in Operation. 

How the Prism Acts. 

Luxfer Prisms in Use. 

On the Auditorium Tower—Home of the 

Weather Bureau in Chicago. 

Medicine Hat. on the Saskatchewan River.. 
Forecasting Room, Chicago Station of the 

Weather Bureau . 

Instruments and Equipment of a Weather 

Bureau Station . 

The Modern Talking Machine. 

The Yerkes Observatory, Williams Bay, Lake 

Geneva, Wisconsin . 

The Largest and Most Powerful Telescope in 

the World . 

Part of Operating Room in a Telephone Ex- 
change »•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 

Part of Distributing Racks in Rear of 

Switchboard . 

Corner in Exchange Battery Room. 

Mr. Stubblefield Receiving Messages by 

Wireless Telephone . 

Nathan Stubblefield and His Son Transmit¬ 
ting Messages by Wireless Telephony.... 
•‘Aladdin Clock,” Equipped with Electric 

Connection for Night Use. 

Mill Equipped for Treating Cornstalks. 

The Mariner’s Compass.. 

Thermometer with Fahrenheit and Centi¬ 
grade Scales . 

Ferry Across the River Seine at Rouen, 

France ... 

Irrigation Methods in an Oasis in the Sahara 

Desert . 


240 

241 

242 

244 

245 

246 
248 
250 
252 
254 

256 

257 

258 
260 
261 
262 
263 

265 

267 

269 

270 

271 

272 

273 

273 

274 
276 
279 

279 

280 
281 

282 

284 

287 

289 

291 

293 

295 

296 

298 

301 

304 

307 

310 

315 

318 

320 


PAGE 


The American Liberty Bell Leaving Phila¬ 
delphia for a Great Exposition. 321 

Castle Garden and Battery Park, New York 

City . 324 

“Liberty Enlightening the World”. 325 

Russian Immigrants, “The Doukhobars”_327 

Population Areas of the United States. 329 

Taxidermist at Work. 330 

At Work in the Census Bureau. 331 

Cases of Highly Condensed Provisions, 
Ready for Shipment to the Far North.... 333 
The Great Peary Meteorite — Weight 100 

Tons . 336 

Gold Prospecting in the Yukon Country_337 

Trappers at Work in the Far North. 338 

Ice Jam on the St. Lawrence River at Mont¬ 
real . 340 

Canadian Boatmen in the Rapids of the St. 

Lawrence River . 341 

Totem Poles in an Alaskan Village. 344 

Bermuda Lilies—Part of a Field of Thirty 

Acres . 345 

Gathering Bananas in Jamaica. 347 

Tomas Estrada Palma, Cuba’s First Presi¬ 
dent . 349 

A Country Homestead in Cuba. 350 

The Cuban Farmer. 351 

The Horrible Ceremonies of Voodooism. 353 

Husking Cocoanuts . 355 

Women Carrying Bananas from the Fields.. 356 
View of Harbor and Town of Charlotte Ama¬ 
lia, St. Thomas. 356 

Castle of Chapultepec, City of Mexico. 357 

Giant Cactus of the Prickly Pear Variety, 

Mexico . 358 

Maguey Plant, from Which Pulque is Ex¬ 
tracted .•._360 

Albatross Colony on the Coast of Chile. 365 

Mountain Climbing . 368 

Sheep Shearers on the South American 

Pampas . 369 

Collecting Albatross Eggs for Market on a 

South Pacific Island. 370 

Flower Farm in the Scilly Islands. 372 

Trafalgar Square and Nelson Monument, 

London . 373 

Westminster Abbey . 374 

Cheapside, London . 374 

The Tower Bridge, London. 375 

The Crystal Palace, Lofidon. 376 

The Tower of London. .. 377 

Canterbury Cathedral, Built 1070-1184. 377 

One of the Noted Round Towers of Ireland.. 382 
St. Patrick’s Grave at Downpatrick, Ireland. 383 

Palace of Fontainebleau. 387 

Wartburg Castle . 391 

Night Illumination of the Kremlin at Mos¬ 
cow . 395 

Miss Stone After Her Release. 398 

City and Lake of Geneva, Switzerland. 400 

In the Vatican Gardens. 401 

Leaning Tower of Pisa. 402 

Botanical Gardens at Lisbon, Portugal. 403 

The Famed Stairs of Capri, Italy. 404 

Italian Field Laborers. 407 

Constantinople—Yildiz Palace and Mosque.. 409 

























































































20 


List of Illustrations 


PAGE 


The Favorite of the Harem. 410 

In the Shadow of the Great Pyramid. 411 

The Great Sphinx. 412 

Egyptian Village. 413 

Camel Race . 413 

Pyramid of Cheops. 414 

An Army Kitchen on the Nile. 415 

Slave Market in Morocco. 416 

On the March in Central Africa. 418 

An Ostrich Farm. 420 

Boer Prisoners of War in India. 422 

Abyssinian Women in Holiday Dress. 423 

A Group of Abyssinians. 424 

Wife of a Bedouin Chief. 426 

An Arab School. 427 

The Evening Camp. 428 

Mohammedan Pilgrims Drawing Near to 

Mecca . 429 

Georgian Military Road. 432 

Departure of the Sacred Carpet from Cairo 

for Mecca . 434 

A Gushing Oil Well in Russia . 435 

Lhassa, the Forbidden City of Tibet. 438 

A Snake Charmer. 441 

Entrance to the Caves of Elephanta. 442 

Hindu Baby in Its Cradle. 443 

A Siamese Belle. 444 

A Street in Colombo. 445 

Tea-Picker—Ceylon . 446 

Sailing Sledges in China. 448 

Buddhist Temple . 450 

Vladivostok Harbor . 453 

Winter Scene in Siberia. 454 

Bayonet Exercise of Russian Army. 456 

Nikko, Japan . 457 

Temple at Nikko.. 458 

American Soldiers in the Philippines. 459 

Filipinos in Manila Hospital. 459 

Quinine Trees—Java . 462 

Caught by a Shark. 466 

Grass-Thatched House . 468 

Strange Stone Figures on Easter Island.... 473 

Tahitian Youth with Tropical Fruits. 475 

An Afternoon Tea in the South Pacific, 

Island of Tahiti. 477 

The Grand Canyon of the Colorado River in 

Arizona . 480 

The Giant Geyser. 482 

Travelers in Palestine. 486 

Two Giants in Comparison. 489 

The Great Asphalt Lake of Trinidad. 495 

Team of Twenty Mules Hauling Borax from 

Death Valley. 500 

In the Grand Canyon of Arizona. 503 

In the Dakota “Bad Lands”. 508 

Diagram Showing Cause of a Volcano. 512 

Ruins of St. Pierre, Martinique. 514 

Ruins of Ozaki, Japan, After the Great 

Earthquake . 517 

Bird’s-eye View of the South Polar Regions. 520 

The Orbits of the Minor Planets. 522 

Blue Grotto of Capri, Italy. 524 

The Bottomless Pit, Mammoth Cave. 526 

The Midnight Sun, off the North Coast of 

Norway . 528 

Niagara Falls, the World-Famed Cataract.. 531 


PAGE 

Stomias Boa. Half Natural Size. From a 


Depth of a Mile and a Quarter. 533 

Collosendeis Arcuatus, from a Depth of One 

Mile . 534 

A Gigantic Armored Dinosaur, Length about 

Thirty Feet. 536 

A Gigantic Horned Dinosaur, Length about 

Twenty-five feet . 538 

Group of Small Flying Dragons or Ptero¬ 
dactyls . 539 

A Gigantic Armadillo from Buenos Ayres, 

Length Nine Feet . 540 

Steller’s Sea Cow, Length Thirty-five Feet. 542 

Flags of All Nations.facing 544 and 545 

Clock Indicating Simultaneous Time Around 

the World . 550 

Library Book Stack Room. 552 

Dynamos and Ventilating Pipes, Chicago 

Public Library. 552 

Buildings of Columbia University, New York 

City . 554 

Buildings of the University of Pennsylvania, 

Philadelphia . 555 

Bringing Out the Shell. 557 

The Pole Vault . 557 

College Crew in an Eight-oared Racing Shell 558 
Football Game between Annapolis and West 

Point Cadets. 559 

Bathing Beach and Pier, Atlantic City, N. J. 560 
Crowd on the Famous Boardwalk, Atlantic 

City, N. J. 561 

On the Toboggan Slide—Canada’s Favorite 

Winter Sport . 562 

“The Bounce” . 563 

Over the Hurdle in a Snowshoe Race. 563 

“Derby Day” at Washington Park Race 

Course, Chicago . 564 

Bengal Lancers Routing Chinese Cavalry... 565 

A Bicycle Brigade in the British Army. 566 

Camel-Gun with British Army in the Sudan. 567 

Laboratory Work in a Medical College. 586 

Application of the Light Cure in a London 

Hospital . 587 

Operating Room in a Great Dental College. 589 

Firemen’s Extension Ladder in Service_ 600 

Net for Catching Those Who Jump from 

Burning Buildings . 601 

Buttons from Mississippi River Pearl Shells. 608 
Type in the Various Stages of Manufacture. 612 
Pearl Fishermen at Work on a Wisconsin 

R iver . 628 

Group of Pearl Fishermen in Camp. 630 

A Barge Load of Pearl Shells. 631 

Diamond Cutting and Its Technicalities.... 633 

From the Hemp to the Finished Rope. 641 

Broom-Making Machine . 646 

At Work in a Fireworks Factory. 652 

Making Parachutes . 653 

Putting the Charges into Roman Candles.. 655 

In a Ceylon Graphite Mine. 660 

Sorting and Sifting Graphite in Ceylon. 661 

Row of Old India Rubber Trees. 664 

Making Flour Barrels. 667 

Experimental Farm in Canada Producing 

Seed Wheat . 670 

“Candling” or Inspecting Eggs. 673 

Areca-Nut, Fruit of the Betel-Palm....!..*. 706 
































































































INTRODUCTION 


THE PROGRESS AND TENDENCIES OF CIVILIZATION 

This is the Industrial Age, the age of triumphant knowledge. Follow the records 
of mankind down through all the centuries, scrutinize the achievements of the race, and 
more and more conspicuous becomes the fact that in no other period of the world have 
such marvelous advances in material and industrial progress been made. Within the 
last decade we have seen a dozen inventions and discoveries, any one of which would be 
sufficient to illuminate a whole century of the Middle Ages. 

The history of the planet is recorded in the eternal hills themselves, and the mighty 
phenomena of nature. The history of man is shown in his works. From the days of 
the cave and cliff dwellers, the days of stone hatchets and bronze tools, the days of 
primitive life and primitive emotions, we have come to a day when the race is housed 
and fed and clothed and enlightened as never before, with improvement still a constant 
tendency. A palace in medieval times did not contain the genuine comforts of a 
mechanic’s home of to-day. A British monarch two centuries ago. could not have half 
the real conveniences or the luxuries at his command that are readily in the posses¬ 
sion of any modern American householder. So it is of high interest to examine the 
tendencies of to-day, to discover the drift of society and industry, to observe the sources 
and the methods of the amazing activities that are enthroned in our high places. 

We are taught by the records of man and nature that in the beginnings of the race, 
individualism ruled. Every man’s hand was for himself and against all others. Food, 
shelter and safety from attack were the only demands made by primitive man, and for 
those things he strove. Out of individualism developed the first forms of social organ¬ 
ization, stimulated by the discovery that in union was strength. In other words, man 
could better provide food, shelter and defense by joining with his neighbors than by 
opposing them. The growth of society from this nucleus was logical and natural. The 
history of civilization is one of the most interesting and important subjects for the atten¬ 
tion of students, but even a summary is forbidden here by the limitation of space. 
Through individualism, primitive society, and organized competition, we have reached 
the conditions now in effect. 

The conspicuous tendency ruling to-day is the consolidation of enormous commer¬ 
cial, industrial, and financial powers, into what we characterize as “monopolies,” 
“syndicates,” and “trusts.” But even the trust itself, in its most extreme form, is 



22 


Introduction 


merely a natural outgrowth of conditions long developing. There is no essential dif¬ 
ference in principle between the great department store of the metropolis and the general 
store of the country crossroads. Size is the only vital distinction. The village hanker 
embodies all the characteristics of the money captain of Wall Street, except that of magni¬ 
tude. The owner of the transfer line which carries passengers and their baggage from 
railway to hotel is a transportation magnate on a smaller scale. Any man who has goods 
■which another wants, and holds up the price therefor to the limit of his customer’s 
ability and willingness to pay, is illustrating the principles of monopoly. And so it is 
through all our relations, that the parallels of the monopolies, the syndicates and the 
trusts may he found, be they small or large. 

Broadly speaking, any form of organization which economizes labor and produces a 
given result with the least demands upon man and material, is good. The surplus 
thus released becomes available for other service, and the general tendency is toward 
a broadening of industry and opportunity. This is not less true because in many 
instances the process of readjustment is a painful one, bringing hardship to individuals 
or classes. Nor is it controverted by the fact that monopolies and their kin are sometimes 
oppressive, claiming for themselves all the benefits of economized labor and material 
that should accrue to the public they serve. 

It is beyond question that the telegraph service of the country is more adequate and 
efficient, to the advantage of every patron, consolidated as it is, than if it were scat¬ 
tered among a score or a hundred small companies, each confined to a certain district, or 
all competing for trade in every community. And yet it may be retorted with some rea¬ 
son that it is just as truly an extravagance of labor and equipment for three milk 
wagons to traverse a given neighborhood at the same time every day, each serving one- 
third of the householders, when one could do it just as well, thus leaving the surplus 
men, wagons and horses to some employment actually productive. If closely parallel 
lines of railway, each requiring to earn interest and profits, are an improper drain 
on the country they traverse, where one would serve all purposes equally well, in less 
degree the same is true of parallel routes for the milk wagons. It is a long line of 
query thus opened up. 

✓ Inventions have had to face opposition throughout the whole history of the world, 
even until to-day. The self-binding reaper was one of the triumphs of modern inven¬ 
tion in the mechanical field, but it was riotously assailed as revolutionary and disastrous 
to industry by mobs of agricultural laborers who saw their occupation vanishing. 
Yet the broad prairies of the Mississippi valley have been brought under cultivation, and 
homes and employment have been created for millions, by the improvement in agricul¬ 
tural machinery. The typesetting machine was opposed because one would do the work 


Introduction 


23 


of several hand compositors, and many men would be discharged, but newspapers have 
multiplied and enlarged by its introduction, and the whole craft has ultimately benefited 
thereby. 

Let the reader meditate on these conditions, thus briefly suggested, and reason out 
for himself the lessons of the fundamental principles involved. We are living in the 
Industrial Age, with all that is signified by the phrase, an age in which expansion and 
consolidation go hand in hand. The amazing progress of invention and discovery helps 
to make more rapid the development of the dominant tendencies. Great movements become 
conspicuous, and drawing attention as they do, they are the objects of scrutiny to discover 
wherein things may be made better. Already the trusts are the subject of controversy 
as to whether they are good or bad. Their friends declare that they serve the public 
better than it has been served before. Their enemies declare that the trust powers reserve 
for their own profit all the benefits that should be general. One radical may demand 
the disintegration of the trusts; another may see in them organizations which could be 
taken into public ownership with the utmost ease. Some thoughtful men observe evi¬ 
dences of a return toward individualism of a modern type, not the reign of contention 
such as ruled in the childhood of the race, but something higher and better. 

Manual training and true domestic science are having their influence already, and 
this training is destined to exert a transforming influence in the social and economic 
life of the people, if the prophecies of students in these great fields are to be accepted. 
Before the Industrial Art League of Chicago, a famous preacher and sociologist, after 
speaking of the rapid substitution of electricity for steam-power and the possibility of 
carrying .to an indefinite number of shops and factories the new power—it may be 
transmitted to a residence and employed for running a sewing machine or a dish¬ 
washer—said: “The factory system of to-day will become unnecessary, and into every 
house power can be brought which will drive each wheel for the artisan in his own little 
workshop. The masses, which are causing the students of sociology so much study, will 
disintegrate until they become not independent, but interdependent artisans, artists in 
their work, who shall have the opportunity to develop the best within them.” 

There is romance even in statistics when one seeks the lessons behind the figures. It 
is a startling array of facts which one finds in the bulletin on manufactures issued by the 
United States Government, out of the census returns of 1900. The total value of man¬ 
ufactured products in the United States during the year 1900 reached the stupendous 
sum of $13,000,000,000. This was an increase of 39 per cent over 1890. 

In 1890, however, there was increase of 74 per cent over 1880; in 1880 an increase 
of 27 per cent over 1870; in 1870 an increase of 124 per cent over 1860; and in 1860 an 
increase of 85 per cent over 1850. It will be seen, therefore, that the increase from 


24 


Introduction 


1890 to 1900 was not abnormal. When one turns to the individual items which together 
form the total of manufactured products, one is struck with the fact that the iron and 
steel industry, though a colossus, is not the only colossus in the country. The value 
of the iron and steel product in 1900 was $835,000,000. Compare with this the 
value of the products with which men clothe themselves. Textiles amounted to $9G6,- 
000,000; hoots and shoes to $261,000,000; a total of $1,227,000,000. Consider also 
the industries which are concerned with the preparation of food and drink. Slaughtering 
products amounted to $736,000,000; flouring and grist mill products to $560,000,- 
000; liquors, vinous, malt, and spirituous, to $340,000,000; cheese, butter and con¬ 
densed milk to $131,000,000; a total of $1,767,000,000. It appears, then, that in 1900 
the consumer took thought of what he should eat and what he should drink and where¬ 
withal he should be clothed, to the extent of just about $3,000,000,000. His demand 
for iron and steel was not much more than one-fourth that sum. 

Perhaps, however, the most interesting deduction that can be made from the bulletin 
on manufactures is concerned not so much with products themselves as with produc¬ 
tivity. The capacity to produce is increasing. If we take the half century from 1850 to 
1900, the population has increased about two and a quarter fold. Meanwhile, wage-earn¬ 
ers have increased about five and a half fold; wages about ten fold; capital about nineteen 
fold, and the value of product about thirteen fold. It is evident that the productive 
capacity of the people of the United States is increasing rapidly with the improvement 
of machinery and the more extended investment of the capital. It is the conclusion 
of the chief statistician for manufactures that “the apparent value of products per 
wage-earner has increased from $1,065 to $2,451 in 1900.” 

It is these significant facts and others akin to them that justify the characterization 
that this is the Industrial Age, the age of triumphant knowledge. 

HOW CIVILIZATION HAS DEVELOPED 

Let us note now, briefly, the history and progress of civilization, illustrating these 
fundamental principles that have led us to the Industrial Age of to-day. 

Civilization has developed to its present high standard through the ability of man 
to acquire, retain and use knowledge. The brute creation is not perceptibly better quali¬ 
fied mentally at this time than it was when the first records of men were made. The 
reason is that brutes acquire nothing beyond their instincts except what is within 
their own experience, received within the narrow bound of their activity and in the small 
space of time through which they live. 

Man classifies, specializes, accumulates, and saves from all parts of the earth and for 


Introduction 


25 


all time. One person is thus enabled to make use of the achievements of all and all 
may profit by the labors of every one. Thus civilization has the advantage of the compos¬ 
ite mind of the entire human race and such a vast mental force with countless eyes and 
ears for new things, must by necessity continue to advance. 

In other words, civilization is a mental universe consisting of suns, stars, planets and 
satellites in a process of evolution wherein the fittest survive and the least worthy perish. 
Civilization is therefore the establishment of social order in the place of individual 
independence and the lawlessness of barbarous life. It exists in as many degrees as 
there are communities or nations, and it is susceptible to continuous progress on up to 
the perfectibility of man. Sometimes the progress is in one direction, then it sways 
over to another. At various stages it makes different objects the principal aim, and 
where the preservation is complete it never recedes or retrogrades in its general advance. 
In time of war, patriotism is the chief virtue; in occasions of distress, charity; in periods 
of national defeat, humility, and so with people as with individuals, the progress 
toward perfection is largely emotional, but what is gained is not lost. 

Civilization has been defined as the discovery and gratification of human needs; in 
other words, the multiplication of wants. It is not solely the organization of society, 
for organization is but the house in which society lives. The whole man is not con¬ 
tained within any organization, for states perish and man endeavors to fit himself for 
a life beyond it all. There has always been the struggle of ideals as to whether civiliza¬ 
tion should exalt the people, the church or the state. This has given rise to the many 
political sects and cnlts. In every case there has been a leader of great enthusiasm and 
ability to advance the standard of a given idea, and set it firmly in the forefield of civ¬ 
ilization. In general, the term civilization designates the condition and powers of society 
as to its industrial, ethical and educational well-being. 

Far back of the ability of man to make records of his thoughts or achievements the 
mutual dependence of man made it necessary for him to form social communities 
either to ward off the encroachments of enemies or to satisfy the ambition of some 
primitive warrior or statesman. The social community began with the Jews in urehis- 
toric times with the family and its patriarch. Likewise in Scotland the original neucleus 
of civilization was the clan with its chief 

Buckle in his “History of Civilization” sets forth the following principles as gov¬ 
erning the development of civilization: 

1. Free-will rests on the erroneous belief in the infallibility of consciousness, since 
statistics prove that human actions, development and progress are governed by laws as 
fixed and regular as those which rule in the physical world. 

2. The favorable relation of climate, soil, food, and the aspects of nature, are the 


26 


Introduction 


principal causes of intellectual progress, in which man may become stronger than nature 
and manipulate it to his own advantage. 

3. Moral agencies everywhere sum up about an average and are very stationary, 
while intellectual activity is varying, advancing and of perpetual accumulating power. 

4. The value of intellectual advancement depends upon its being grounded in the 
common morality, therefore religion, literature and government are not the causes, but 
the expression of civilization. 

5. Civilization advances with the disposition to doubt and to investigate. 

Laurent and other writers, especially the theologians, hold that the advancement of 

civilization is the result of the direct influence of a Supreme and Infinite Intelligence. 

Guizot, one of the greatest of writers, presents no material or theological theory, 
but attributes the growth of civilization to the nature of individual and social develop¬ 
ment through the accumulating of useful material, as the tree might develop could 
it study and provide for its own wants. The greatest factors in the line of progress he 
believes to be the church, the crusades, the feudal system, the free cities, growth of 
monarchies and the reformation. In material things, the invention of gunpowder, of 
printing and of the uses of steam have made possible otherwise unthought of achievements. 

Only in movement has there been progress. Such nations as India, Egypt and China 
have kept to the past, unchangeable, while the turmoil and struggles of the West devel¬ 
oped the nations to their highest capabilities. No one can read ancient history without 
being struck with the strange progress and ruins of nations from migrations and con¬ 
quests. The Scythians flow into southern and western Asia like a great flood, overcom¬ 
ing everything in their way, and long after that the Turks almost succeed in doing the 
same thing for Europe. Greece, Rome, Spain and France take turns in the conquest 
of the world. The discovery, exploration and colonization of unknown portions of the 
earth, the greed for gold, the rise of great cities, the creation of great manufactories 
by invention, the consequent incentive to industry and commerce, are all in the line of 
development that lead up to our present systems of order and law. 

With the rise and establishment of modern nations on their present basis of national 
organization came security in personal achievements and possessions, and in this the 
individual found his self improvement and the people their present advancement. 

THE ORDER OE SOCIAL EVOLUTION 

Here then is the order of evolution: E irst the simple, next the complex, finally a 
return to the simple. Never a backward step is this last; merely a correction of the 
errors of the primary state, which was in principle right, but in many of its methods 


Introduction 


27 


wrong. Having in mind this orderly procession of development, and considering exist¬ 
ing conditions, we recognize the present as the moment of the greatest and most com¬ 
plex organization in the world’s history. The trust is, indeed, the natural evolutionary 
product of the capitalistic side, and the trade union, forced into existence to meet it, is the 
natural result also of conditions in the labor world. Both are top-heavy, both in the ulti¬ 
mate are menacing to the world’s peace and prosperity, both aim to destroy individual 
initiative and personal liberty and responsibility. In the nature of things this condi¬ 
tion of things will not long endure. That the change will come quickly, however, is 
not possible. Just as the development of the trust and union have been step by step, 
one thing leading to another, and covering a long period of time, so will be their disin¬ 
tegration, and the development of that fine individual life which shall make for a more 
social life, be brought about step by step. The hopeful fact is that it is coming as surely 
as the sun will shine on the morrow, and through laws as immutable as those which 
govern the movements of the spheres and compel the sun to give to the earth its light 
and warmth. Such a thought and an abiding faith in its ultimate materialization must 
give new hope and courage to the world. 

And if we turn to the farm, we find this condition already largely in existence. It 
cannot work out perfectly there, of course, so long as we are so far from its realization 
in other directions; for man liveth not to himself alone, but is bound up in the social 
bundle in such a way as to make it impossible for him to extricate himself. And it is 
a wise providence that this is so. Yet the farmer more nearly typifies the ideal here 
presented, than any other calling to-day. Let him not surrender one jot or tittle of his 
splendid heritage of independence. Let him not be lured by the false lights of wealth 
quickly acquired, to leave his farm home for the glittering bauble of city life and city 
loss and decadence. The independent man to-day, that is, the man of largest independ¬ 
ence, is the farmer who finds his living on the farm and his profits in whatever surplus 
products he may raise. With the telephone, with the extension of the electric railway, 
with the better local school and the agricultural college, with all these beneficent aids 
reaching out to him, the social life of the farmer is becoming year by year more ideal, 
lie is to-day the dividing line between the old and the new, between the simple and the 
complex in the economic world. The least disturbed by the tremendous changes involved 
in the trustification of business, he also will fall the most naturally into the new order 
when we return once more to the path which makes the strong individual and leads to 
a purer society. How great a factor he may be in the world’s uplift depends wholly 
upon the manner in which he shall employ his transcendent opportunities. 

Great inventions and discoveries mark the real epochs of civilization far more truly 
than do the wars of the nations or the reigns of powerful monarchs. Marshalled here in 


28 


Introduction 


chronological order are indicated the greatest of these noteworthy achievements of 
human genius and energy, a significant array of evidence of the progress of man from 
the days of the childhood of the race to this Industrial Age of to-day. 

GREATEST DISCOVERIES AND INVENTIONS 

Alphabet of letters attributed to the Phoenicians. 

Iron anchors originated with the Greeks. 

Manufacture of glass by Phoenicians and Chinese. 

Second Century—First European manufacturing of glass in Normandy. 

Third Century—Specific gravity by Archimedes. 

Seventh Century—Sun dial by Anaximander. 

Twelfth Century—The compass by an Italian. Used centuries before by Chinese. 
1320—Gunpowder by Schwarz. A crude form used in 1280 by the Moors and long 
before by the Chinese. 

1422—Printing bv Lawrence Coster. 

1438—Metal types by Gutenberg. 

1543—Copernican System of Astronomy, the basis of present astronomical knowledge. 
1590—The microscope by Janssen. 

1G08—Telescope by Lipperscheim. 

1G16—Circulation of blood by Harvey. 

1G40—Bayonets by Puseygur. 

1643—Barometer by Torricelli. 

1G51—Electricity discovered and named by Dr. Gilbert. 

1682—Laws of gravitation by Newton. 

1705—Steam engine by Newcomen. 

1720—Pianoforte by Cristofori. 

1720—Thermometer by Fahrenheit. 

1762—Chronometer by Harrison. 

1767—Spinning jenny by Hargreaves. 

1783—Balloon by the Montgolfier brothers. 

1785—Weaving loom by Cartwright. 

1785—Life boat by Lukin. 

1793—Cotton gin by Whitney. 

1796—Vaccination by Jenner. 

1796—Lithography by Senefelder. 

1807—Steamboat by Fulton. 


Introduction 


29 


1814—Locomotive by Stephenson. 

1816— Safety lamp by Davy. 

1817— Velocipede by Von Drais. 

1824—Spectroscope by Ivirchoff. 

1828—Photography by Hiepce. 

1833—Guncotton by Bracounot. 

1835—Telegraph by Morse. 

1S37—Phonography or “shorthand” by Isaac Pitman. 

1840— Penny postage established by Sir Rowland Hill. 

1841— Sewing machine by Elias Ilowe. 

1847— Cylinder printing press by Richard Iloe. 

1848— Chloroform by Simpson. 

1858— Evolution by Charles Darwin. 

1859— Bessemer steel by Bessemer. 

1S67—Typewriter by Slides and Glidden. 

1876—Telephone by Bell. 

1878— Phonograph by Edison. 

1879— Electric light by Edison. 

1S98—Liquid air by Tripler. 

1899—Wireless telegraphy by Marconi. 

THE WORLD AS IT IS TO-DAY 

So much for the past. How let us look at the present. In the volume presented 
herewith, it has been planned to put in the possession of the reader such an array of 
facts and information of genuinely educational character as would enable him to observe 
clearly the greatness of this industrial age and its tendencies. The methods and re¬ 
sults of the great industrial and commercial undertakings of the world; the modern 
world of invention, discovery and scientific enlightenment; the more noteworthy works 
of nature which bear upon man and his achievements; the nations of the earth and 
the most conspicuous facts about them at the jiresent moment, and a mass of matter 
concerning the things we need to know in every channel of human activity and interest— 
these are the general contents of the volume in hand. 

The work is not a history, though it contains much of historical enlightenment. It 
is not an encyclopedia, though it contains an encyclopedic volume of information. In¬ 
stead of these it is a book of the world to-day, of the Industrial Age, for reading, for 
reference, for education and for study. In it the mass of material has been so arranged 


30 


Introduction 


bv a natural classification as to be readily at band for convenient use for any purpose. 
Under the general heading of The Industrial Age are included accounts of the great 
commercial, manufacturing, industrial and financial undertakings which have risen so 
rapidly of late years. Their interesting phases are explained and pictured and the 
great cities of the world contribute to these pages. 

The triumphs of modern science, invention and discovery are grouped in startling 
array, an evidence of the capacity of the human mind to encompass almost any 
achievement that genius suggests. 

The world at large is moving with the spirit of this same Industrial Age. Its inter¬ 
national relations are shifting, thanks to the influence of new political, military, and 
industrial conditions. Such facts are noted here about the peoples of the earth and the 
nations which they have established, as seem in each case most interesting to the reader 
or throwing light upon their present conditions and significant of their general charac¬ 
teristics. Sometimes this is a historical fact, sometimes commercial, sometimes personal. 
The very variety adds interest to the pages. 

The works of nature, which outvie all the deeds of man, are an exhaustless field of 
inquiry and interest. Here such are selected as are commanding in their importance and 
of immediate interest at the present day for some special reason that brings them into 
prominence. 

Finally, as a source of varied information of general scope, are included the multi¬ 
tude of subjects under the comprehensive heading, “Things we all should know,” a 
treasury of facts sufficient, to fill a whole volume, if in more expanded form. 

With the assurance that this work will command and justify attention by its plan 
and execution, placing readily at hand as it does the information for which everyone is 
seeking in regard to the world, its conditions and its activities to-day, it is presented 
herewith to the reader. 

Educational it is believed to be in the highest sense, in the real significance of the 
word. Going back to its derivation, to educate means not merely to present certain 
facts or to place a mass of knowledge at the command of the individual, but it means to 
lead him outward into the wider range of thought, to develop his mentality, to put in 
his possession a larger body of significant truths from which he shall be able to reason 
and deduce for himself the lessons and the tendencies of life. And so the information 
here compiled is intended to be of educational value to any thinking man. 

It is unnecessary to suggest that in a work of such magnitude the editor has had 
recourse to extremely varied sources of information. Based on the fundamental pur¬ 
pose of having its facts brought up to the very latest possible moment, they had to be 
sought far and wide, sometimes in places little accessible to the usual reader. Encyclo- 


Introduction 


31 


pcdic as the work is in many features and characteristics, it is not from the encyclopedias 
that its matter could be culled. Those ponderous and valuable works are necessarily years 
behind their publishers’ dates in the contents of the volumes, and except in the unchange¬ 
able things of the world—and there do not appear to be many such nowadays—they must 
be supplemented by later information at the very time they are issued, if the reader is 
not to be led astray. 

With the desire to occupy a field created for itself, and therefore peculiarly its own, 
the present work has kept timeliness in the foreground, and its pages are absolutely “up 
to date.” The daily newspaper is the only printed matter against which a time compari¬ 
son is never to be challenged. 

Whatever measure of success has been achieved in the effort to produce a worthy work 
must be credited in common to the liberal scope on which it was planned by the publish¬ 
ers, the able editorial and literary assistance rendered by the specialists who shared in the 
writing and compilation of it, and the generosity invariably shown by all who were 
approached in the search for information or photographs which were needed to assist 
the undertaking. It is a pleasure, no less than an obligation, to acknowledge these essen¬ 
tial aids with the utmost cordiality. Rarely, if ever, has such a noteworthy collection 
of views of the world’s industries and industrial processes been gathered within a single 
volume, and the series of illustrations in the other divisions of the work are no less strik¬ 
ing in their variety and the freshness of the subjects chosen. Energy and liberality on 
the part of the publishers and courteous co-operation on the part of many from whom 
rare and valuable photographs had to be obtained after considerable difficulty and expense, 
united to make such elaborate illustration possible. 

In like manner the search for new and interesting facts, which, indeed, had to pre¬ 
cede the quest for illustrations, met a hearty response from the men who know things 
and the men who do things all over the world. Most of the facts herein contained have 
been gathered at first hand from the original sources of information, by travel, by 
research or by interview, and from such sources may be accepted as accurate within the 
limitations of human imperfection. Where books or other printed matter contained facts 
that would serve in this connection they have been levied upon appreciatively for a 
share of their learning, adapted and modified to suit the present purposes. Such writings 
are properly included in the foregoing acknowledgments. 

Row that the work is completed, it remains but to place it before the reader, with the 
desire that it may serve him well in the manner planned. That this desire may be realized 
is the earnest hope of THE EDITOR. 



GUGLIELMO MARCONI. 

THE GENIUS WHO DEVELOPED WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. 

Marconi was born at Marzabotto, Italy, on April 17, 1875. From his Italian father, who was a land 
owner, he gets his name, Guglielmo, which he prefers to William, its English equivalent. His mother, 
however, was of Irish birth, and he speaks English as perfectly as he does Italian. Indeed, he has 
quite the appearance of an Englishman, and for a considerable part of his life his associations have 
been English. 

Marconi was educated in Italian universities. He had not reached his majority when the idea of 
telegraphy without wires began to interest him, and he decided upon it as his special field of labor. 
His father’s backing for the necessary outlay enabled him to carry on his experiments, and by April, 
1899. he was ready to startle the world by sending messages across the English Channel. In October 
of the same year, the young scientist came to America to report the international yacht races between 
the Columbia and the Shamrock for the New York papers, and messages were flashed across space when 
both yachts and sending ship were enveloped in fogs and out of sight of land. By this time the 
inventor has taken out 132 patents in every civilized country of the world, which indicates in some 
degree the manifold details which he has had to consider in perfecting his appliances. 






BOOK I 


THE INDUSTRIAL AGE 


WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY, A TRIUMPH OF MODERN DISCOVERY. 

Today the traveler on a transatlantic few years have passed. Most conspicuous 
steamship, far out in midocean, can write of all the recent discoveries in science, and 
a message to his friends at home, hand it to farthest reaching in its possible ultimate 


an operator who sits at the side 
of a simple instrument in a 
cabin of the vessel, and for a 
few cents a word it will be 
transmitted across the interven¬ 
ing space, over the stormy sea, 
to a receiving station on shore, 
and thence by land telegraph 
wires to its destination, all with 
the speed of electricity. 

It is only forty-three years 
since the announcement was 
made to an incredulous world 
that the Atlantic cable was a 
success and that telegraphic 
messages could be sent under 
the ocean from America to 
Europe. Many people remem¬ 
ber the enthusiasm with which 
this amazing achievement was 
greeted, when the conviction 
was established that it was really true. 
Today the world is still enjoying the re¬ 
sults of new scientific discoveries that are 
constantly being made, and the ones that 
seemed most marvelous when they were first 
announced, become commonplace after a 



GUGLIELMO MARCONI IN 
WORKING CLOTHES. 


effect upon our material affairs, 

is the successful svstem of wire- 
«/ 

less telegraphy, developed and 
established by the genius of the 
young inventor, Marconi. It 
was a triumph when his experi¬ 
ments resulted in communica¬ 
tion at will without wires over 
distances of 250 miles. But 
hardly had the public become 
accustomed to this fact, when 
the announcement was made 
upon the authority of the young 
inventor himself, verified by 
unmistakable evidence, that on 
December 12, 1901, he had 
received signals across the At¬ 
lantic by this same system of 
wireless telegraphy. Wonder¬ 
ful as it was, the world lias 
become so accustomed of late 
years to scientific discoveries which, but 
a short time ago, would have seemed 
extravagant and impossible claims, that 
this announcement was promptly received 
as an accepted fact, incredulity existing 
hardly anywhere. The interested public 


33 









34 


The Industrial Age 


liad long before learned that Mr. Mar¬ 
coni’s announcements were never made 
until he was sure of his facts, and con¬ 
sequently people did not need to be re¬ 
assured when this greatest wonder of all 
was announced. It was a red letter day in 
the history of scientific progress, that win¬ 
ter day in Newfoundland, and yet it was 
the direct result of a logical, persistent and 


patient effort on the part of Marconi, the 
result of years of preparation, study, and 
experimentation, leading directly to the 
goal of his ambition. 

Let us examine the process by which mes¬ 
sages are thus transmitted through space 
without the aid of connecting wires through 
which they may pass. Those of us unfa¬ 
miliar with electrical apparatus are accus¬ 
tomed to consider only such electrical 
streams as take their way along wires. But 
there are a great many other electric 


streams unconfined by wires, which can be 
quite as telegraphic as if they kept to paths 
of copper and steel. Discoveries suggesting 
this fact were made as long ago as 1842, 
and others looking in the same direction 
have followed. Marconi makes no claim 
to being the first to experiment along the 
lines which led to wireless telegraphy, or 
the first to signal for short distances with¬ 
out wires. But in spite 
of his prompt acknowl¬ 
edgment to other work¬ 
ers in his field it has re¬ 
mained for Marconi to 
perfect a commercial 
system and put it into 
practical working order 
over great distances. 

The two first essen¬ 
tials in wireless teleg¬ 
raphy, as Marconi has 
developed it, are the 
vertical wire, which he 
suspends in the open 
air to catch his mes¬ 
sages, and the “cohe¬ 
rer,” which by its 
exquisite sensitiveness 
makes it possible to 
register the messages as 
received. Electrical waves cannot be seen, 
but electricians have learned how to incite 
them, to a certain extent how to control 
them, and have devised cunning instru¬ 
ments which register their presence. These 
waves have long been utilized for sending 
messages through wires. Marconi started 
with the assumption that inasmuch as elec¬ 
trical waves may pass through the ether 
which fills all space as readily as through 
wires, if these waves could be controlled they 
would evidently convey messages as easily 



MARCONI AT HIS RECEIVING INSTRUMENT. 





The Industrial Age 


35 


as the wires. So he had to make an in¬ 
strument which would produce a peculiar 
kind of wave, and another apparatus which 
would receive and register this wave at a 
distance from the first. 

The transmitter which resulted from his 
experiments is an apparatus from which a 
current generated by a battery and passing 
in brilliant sparks between the two brass 
balls is radiated from a wire suspended on 


but by the time the waves have passed over 
a long distance they are so weak that they 
could not, of themselves, operate an ordi¬ 
nary telegraphic system. It is here that 
Marconi utilizes the coherer as the final 
essential in the invention. 

The coherer is a little tube of glass, about 
two inches long and as large as a small lead 
pencil in diameter. It is plugged at each 
end with silver, the plugs nearly meeting 



MARCONI’S ASSISTANTS PREPARING TO RAISE THE KITE WHICH SUPPORTED THE 

RECEIVING WIRE. 

(Marconi approaching from the left, indicated by an X.) 


a tall pole. By shutting off and turning 
on this peculiar current the waves are so 
divided as to represent dots and dashes, and 
spell out letters in the ordinary Morse al¬ 
phabet of telegraphy. The waves which 
come from the transmitter are received on 
a suspended wire, elevated either by a mast, 
a kite, or a balloon. This wire is exactly 
similar to the one used in the transmitter, 


within the tube. The plugs are separated 
by a small quantity of nickel and silver 
filings, finely powdered. Under ordinary 
circumstances the filings are jumbled to¬ 
gether like the particles of a sand heap, 
and in that state they form a poor con¬ 
ductor. The moment, however, that they 
receive an electrical wave they cling to¬ 
gether tightly as a solid conducting bridge, 








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The Industrial Age 


37 


that carries a current from a local battery 
to a receiving telephone or a telegraphic 
sounder of common pattern. If it is con¬ 
nected at one end with the suspended wire, 
and at the other end with the Morse instru¬ 
ment, there is a dot or a dash printed, ac¬ 
cording to the signal that has been sent by 
the transmitter, miles away. Then a little 
tapper, actuated by the same current, 
strikes against the coherer, and the particles 
of metal are jarred apart, or decohered, be¬ 
coming instantly a poor conductor, and thus 
stopping the strong current from the home- 
battery. Another wave comes through 
space, down the suspended wire, into the 
coherer, there drawing the particles again 
together, and another dot or dash is printed. 
All these processes are continued rapidly 
until a complete message is picked out on 
the tape. 

In these early experiments Marconi be¬ 
lieved that great distances could not be 
obtained without very high masts and long 
suspended wires, the greater the distance 
the taller the mast, on the theory that the 
waves were hindered by the curvature of 
the earth. But his later theory, substan¬ 
tiated by his experiments in Newfoundland, 
is that the waves follow around the earth, 
conforming to its curve, and it is not neces¬ 
sary, therefore, to erect masts to a great 
height. In the experiments of December, 
1001, the transmitting station in England 
was fitted with twenty masts 210 feet high, 
each with its suspended wire, though not all 
of them were used. A current of electricify 
sufficient to operate 300 incandescent lamps 
was used. 

Marconi landed at St. Johns, Newfound¬ 
land, December 6, 1901, ostensibly to com¬ 
municate with the Cunard liners, traversing 
the North Atlantic Ocean, just along the 



CABOT MEMORIAL TOWER. 

Loaned by Newfoundland Government for Marconi's 
experiments. 


Grand Banks. The dangers of the New¬ 
foundland coast in the vicinity of Cape 
Bace are well known to mariners, and it 
was supposed that his motive was to safe¬ 
guard that coastline so that ships might be 
located when well at sea and kept in touch 
with as they approached there, thus reduc¬ 
ing to a minimum the dangers of disasters. 
The Cunard vessels, like nearly all other 
Atlantic liners, are fitted with his ap¬ 
paratus. 

Marconi brought with him an apparatus 
for the receiving of messages, but not for 
the sending of them, so no specially im¬ 
portant experiments were expected by those 
not in his confidence. For elevating his 
long receiving wire he brought a balloon 
and some kites, which, with his other ap¬ 
paratus, he removed to Signal Ilill to 
begin work. The Newfoundland Govern¬ 
ment placed at his disposal the Cabot Me- 













38 


The Industrial Age 


morial Tower, recently erected on Signal 
Hill, where his appliances were imme¬ 
diately stored. 

On Wednesday, December 11, he sent up 
his balloon, only to see it break away and 
sail off toward Labrador. The rest of his 
experiments were performed with wires 
'hanging from kites, these kites being about 
nine feet square, and possessing a consid¬ 
erable lifting power. They were built of 
bamboo and silk, after the Baden-Powell 
model. By the time he had lost his four¬ 
teen-foot hydrogen balloon and one of the 

kites the wind died down sufficiently to 

«/ 

permit a test, even though not under the 
most favorable conditions. Thursday, the 
12th, was a blustery day, and it required 
the combined strength of the inventor and 
his assistants to hold the kite at the ele¬ 
vation of 400 feet, which was desired. 

Before leaving England Marconi had 
given instructions to his assistants there for 
the transmission of a certain signal at a 
fixed time each day, beginning as soon as 
they received word that everything in St. 
John’s was ready. The transmitting station 
w T as at Poldhu, Cornwall, the southwestern 
tip of England. Marconi cabled his assist¬ 
ants when to begin sending signals, and on 
that bleak winter’s day, on the barren sum¬ 
mit of Signal Hill, were received the dis¬ 
tinct signals across the 1,800 miles of the 
great Atlantic. Again the next dav the 
signals were repeated, and the experiment 
was an assured success. The storminess of 
the day and the consequent impossibility of 
maintaining the kite at a fixed elevation 
were handicaps difficult to overcome with 
the incomplete apparatus at hand. Never¬ 
theless, there was no room for doubt that 
a signal had been actually transmitted from 
England to America without wires. 


The reception which this wonderful 
achievement won, when after two days of 
self-restraint Marconi announced the fact, 
was memorable. The world wondered and 
awaited details. Edison accepted the fact 
as soon as Marconi issued a signed state¬ 
ment. The governor of Newfoundland 
reported the achievement at once to King 
Edward, and, most significant of all, the 
Atlantic Cable Company, which possessed 
a special charter and exclusive rights for 
telegraphic service in Newfoundland, de¬ 
manded the cessation of experiments as an 
infringement upon its rights, a demand to 
which Marconi and the Newfoundland Gov¬ 
ernment had to bow. After that the in¬ 
ventor made two or three journeys back 
and forth across the Atlantic to direct ex¬ 
periments and commercial negotiations, 
and a station for his transatlantic service 
was decided upon, to be located near 
Sydney, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia. 
Newfoundland thus lost for a time the 
distinction of being the scene of Marconi’s 
further experiments. In addition to this 
receiving station there is a large one at 
Cape Cod, on the Massachusetts coast, and 
these two, with the Lizard station in Corn¬ 
wall, will complete a triangular service con¬ 
veniently located for commercial use in the 
transatlantic system. 

Shortly after the transmission of these 
first signals from Cornwall to Newfound¬ 
land came the news of the transmission of 
entire messages for a distance of 1,551 
miles. Marconi was crossing the Atlantic 
on the steamship Philadelphia, and he ex¬ 
changed messages with his assistants on 
land for that distance. The officers of the 
vessel signed and certified the messages as 
they were received, and the last remnant 
of incredulity was banished. The messages 


'The Industrial Age 


39 


were clearly registered on tlie tape, and 
inasmuch as the receiver of the Philadel¬ 
phia was not specially constructed for long 
distance work the achievement was consid¬ 
ered all the greater. 

Marconi’s faith in his invention is bound¬ 
less. He modestly hut firmly maintains 
that what he has done is nothing with what 
lie hopes to accomplish in the future. When 
the world throbbed with the surprise of his 
exploit, and the cables were loaded with 
congratulatory messages, he manifested no 
elation, but calmly declared that he never 
doubted his ability to employ the magnetic 
waves across the Atlantic. “When I am 
able,” said he, “to send a message from 
Cornwall to New Zealand across the Isth¬ 
mus of Panama, the only land that inter¬ 
venes, then I shall count that I have 
accomplished something. The force I shall 


generate shall be sufficient to send the sig¬ 
nals the whole way. And there is an even 
more difficult proposition which I intend to 
tackle, more difficult because it involves 
transmission over land, with all the diver¬ 
sities of the different countries. I shall 
not rest until I have inaugurated wireless 
telegraphy between London and Calcutta, 
overland.” 

The imagination is overwhelmed in the 
effort to look forward to the possibilities of 
a perfected wireless telegraphy system. The 
$400,000,000 invested in cable systems in 
various parts of the world would in large 
measure be lost. The cost of messages would 
be much reduced by this system. An At¬ 
lantic cable costs between $3,000,000 and 
$4,000,000, while wireless telegraphy sta¬ 
tions can be built and equipped on both 
sides of the Atlantic for less than $150,- 



SIGNAL HILL. ST. JOHN’S HARBOR, NEWFOUNDLAND. 

Showing the Cabot Memorial Tower from which Marconi conducted his experiments. 











40 


The Industrial Age 


000, with a very small charge for mainte¬ 
nance. With all vessels and lighthouses 
equipped with apparatus, it should he pos¬ 
sible to avert collisions at sea and wrecks 
on shore. In times of warfare generals 
may signal over the heads of the enemy 
where they could not possibly string tele¬ 
graph wires or send couriers. The steam¬ 
ships in midocean would be in touch with 
the news of the day. It is little wonder 
that Lloyds, the chief marine exchange of 
the world, has contracted for fourteen 
years’ use of the Marconi patents. 

A general impression prevails that wire¬ 
less telegraphy is still largely in the uncer¬ 
tain experimental stage, but as a matter of 
fact it is actually in wide commercial use. 
Most of the ships of the great navies of 
Europe, and all the important ocean liners, 
are now fitted with the wireless instru¬ 
ments. It is being used on many light 
ships, and the New York Herald receives 
daily reports from vessels at sea, commu¬ 
nicating from a ship station off Nantucket. 
Though it is not generally known, messages 
are now received in England at the rate of 
12| cents a word for transmission to ves¬ 
sels that have already sailed from port. 

The one remaining element of doubt 
which has been suggested as to the prac¬ 
tical uses of a world-wide system is dis¬ 
missed by Marconi with the assurance that 
he already has proved that he can overcome 
it. This is the question of whether or not 
messages can be clandestinely read by those 
for whom they are intended; in other 
words, if privacy can be assured by a system 
in which the signals radiate with equal 
force in every direction from the point of 


transmission. Marconi has found that he 
can so harmonize the transmitters and re¬ 
ceivers or “tune” them, so to speak, so that 
they will respond to their own mates but 
not to others. By this system all the ships 
of a fleet can be provided with instruments 
tuned alike, so that they may communicate 
freely with each other without danger of 
the messages being read by the enemy. 
Great telegraph companies would have their 
instruments tuned to receive their own 
messages and no others. In one of Marconi’s 
English experiments he had two receivers 
connected with the same wire, and tuned 
to different transmitters. Two messages 
were sent, one in English and one in 
French. Both were received at the same 
time, on the same wire, but one receiver 
rolled off its message in English, the other 
in French, without the least interruption. 

With the progress of science as rapid as 
it is in these years at the beginning of the 
century one should be prepared for any¬ 
thing, however startling. Impossibility is 
a word to be avoided. Already wireless 
telephone systems are contemplated as a 
natural development to follow the wireless 
telegraph, and even these are hardly more 
wonderful than the phonograph with its 
manifold developments, the sending of 
pictures by telegraph, the moving picture 
machine under its various names, and a host 
of other scientific marvels which might be 
mentioned. Incredulity is no longer a safe 
frame of mind, and after the achievements 
of Marconi still less will we feel inclined to 
disbelieve any statement of invention or 
discovery. 


I 


THE WORLD’S GREATEST INDUSTRY 

THE RAILWAY 


The combined length of the railways of 
the United States amounts to nearly 200,- 
000 miles, and of the whole world to ap¬ 
proximately 500,000 miles. The increase 
is at the rate of about 10,000 miles a year 
the world over. If the actual cost of con¬ 
struction and equipment, the production of 
the materials out of which the lines are 
built, the employees engaged in railway, 


operation, and the interests which depend 
for their prosperity on the railway are con¬ 
sidered, it may be safely said that the rail¬ 
way is the greatest industrial factor in the 
v T orld today. 

The most able financial organizations, 
the most skillful executives, and the most 
ingenious inventors, are devoting their at¬ 
tention to the construction, operation and 



Copyright, 1902, F. A. Miller, Chicago. 

ciPFCTAL TRAIN H R. H. PRINCE HENRY OF PRUSSIA IN CHICAGO MILWAUKEE & ST. PAUL 
^ RAILWAY STATION AT MILWAUKEE, MARCH 4, 1902. 

(Photo taken at 9 p. m. by the light of the searchlight headlights. This is the latest device for 
averting collisions, as the piercing rays can be seen for many miles along the track and flashing against 
the sky.) 





42 


The Industrial Age 



perfection o f 
railway sys¬ 
tems. Improve- 
m e n t in the 
modern r a i 1- 
ways over those 
of only a few 


years 


ago 


Carrying night lanterns to the top 
of a railway signal post. 


C 0 11 S p lCllOUS. 

Old roads are 
reconstructing 
their lines and 
new ones build 
with the ut¬ 
most care to as¬ 
sure the per- 
m anency of 
their tracks, 
the economy of 
their adminis¬ 
tration and the 
comfort of 
their travelers. Heavy steel rails have 
supplanted the light ones of iron; rock 
ballast is used where earth formerly suf¬ 
ficed ; steel bridges span streams and the 
old woodern culverts are burned at the 
roadside; curves are straightened, grades 
are reduced, tunnels penetrate the moun¬ 
tains where trains formerly surmounted 
the summit by slow climbing. All this 
contributes to the safety, ease and speed 
of the journey, but it likewise reduces 
the cost of maintenance and operation, 
so that the railway companies find di¬ 
rect as well as indirect profit from their 
increasing expenditures. The elevation of 
tracks through cities, thus eliminating 
grade crossings, and the perfection of vari¬ 
ous block signals and safety switch systems, 
help to give additional safety to traffic and 
make high speed possible. 



THE TRACK WALKER. 

Rails, ties, switches and signals must be watched 
carefully to guard against accidents, and such patrol 
duty is one of the most important functions in railway 
service. 


Train equipment has improved with the 
increase in travel, and today the railway 
journey may offer comforts and luxuries at 
a moderate price, which are hardly to be 
found in any but the homes of the wealth¬ 
iest. A modern transcontinental train is in 
fact a luxurious home, with all the details 





















The Industrial Age 


43 




of a splendid clubhouse or hotel available, 
while one races across plains and moun¬ 
tains at high speed. Such trains, equipped 
with palace sleeping cars, dining cars, 


drawing¬ 


room and observation cars, a 


library, barber shop, cafe, card room, 
music room, electric lights, and vestibules 
excluding the noise and dust as one passes 
from one car to another, with waiters, 
porters and a lady’s maid ready to serve the 
passengers with everything demanded, add 
enticement to the prospect of a journey, 
where formerly the destination itself was 
the only reward. 

It is not alone in the United States that 
railway construction is advancing rapidly 
and luxurious facilities for travel are pro¬ 
vided. All over the world the same spirit 
of energy rules and the effort to connect 
remote lands by these arteries of commerce 
never ceases. On our own continent, our 
neighbors to the north and the south are 
active. One transcontinental line crosses 
Canada, a second is advancing rapidly, and 


SOLID COMFORT IN THE LIBRARY CAR. 


ALL ABOARD! 

a railway to Hudson’s Bay promises com¬ 
pletion within a few years. The Mexican 
.Republic has seen the construction of 
nearly 10,000 miles of railway within the 

last few years, and the 
country is traversed in 
every direction by lines 
which are extending 
rapidly. 

Surveys have been 
completed for an inter¬ 
continental railway, to 
connect North and 
South America by way 
of the Isthmus of Pan¬ 
ama. In South Amer¬ 
ica the Andes Bange 
has been a difficult ob¬ 
stacle for transconti¬ 
nental lines to over¬ 
come, but already the 
mountains have been 























44 


The Industrial Age 


penetrated from the Pacific coast by sev¬ 
eral lines, and a railway from ocean to 
ocean is a thing of the near future. The 
heart of the continent is penetrated by nu¬ 
merous lines in Argentine and Brazil, lines 
which afford an outlet for the immense pro¬ 
duction of the interior, and novel journeys 
for the inquiring traveler. 


cept for its course across Northern Man¬ 
churia, in order to obtain a shorter route 
to the sea, the entire line is within the 
dominions of Russia, and Manchuria itself 
is so entirely dominated by Russian author¬ 
ity as to he virtually at the disposal of the 
railway. 

On the Pacific the Siberian Railway and 

«/ 



’ r ~W 

nr 1 








v' f lit-MT 


kSfc : ' 

£ 



H 


n 


OPERATOR IN THE SIGNAL TOWER. 

(Showing mechanism by which switches and signals are controlled.) 


In Asia the whole political and military 
situation lias been affected by the construc¬ 
tion of the Trans-Siberian railway, built 
bv the Russian Government. Extending 
all the way from the European provinces of 
the empire as it does, across the whole of 
Asia, to a terminus on the Pacific Ocean, 
it provides a speedy route by which armies 
mav be shifted to any scene of threatened 
difficulty at the will of the Emperor. Ex- 


this connecting line, the Chinese Eastern 
Railway, have one terminus at Vladivostok 
and another at Port Arthur. The former 
is a Russian city, with an impregnable har¬ 
bor on the coast north of Korea. Port 
Arthur was acquired by negotiations with 
the Chinese, and situated as it is at the 
gateway by which Peking must be ap¬ 
proached, it becomes a sentinel port whence 
the Russians can watch their own inter- 

















The Industrial Age 


45 


ests. The entire length of this wonderful 
railway from the Ural Mountains to the 
Pacific, is nearly double that of an Amer- 
ican transcontinental railway, or more 
than G,000 miles, and it was constructed 
at a total cost, including all incidental ex¬ 
penses, of nearly $250,000,000. Prom a 
European port on the Atlantic, Havre for 
instance, it is, therefore, possible to go by 
continuous connecting lines of railway a 
distance of nearly 10,- 
000 miles right across 
two continents, or al¬ 
most half way around 
the world. The Siberian 
line was not begun un¬ 
til 1891, and the com¬ 
pletion of it in eleven 
years across the steppes 
of Siberia, the great 
rivers which flow 
through Asia into the 
Arctic Ocean, the moun¬ 
tain ranges and the wil¬ 
derness, is the most 
noteworthy achievement 
in the history of rail¬ 
way construction. 

Transcontinental trains on the Siberian 
Railway are equipped as our own railways 
are in America, with sleeping cars and din¬ 
ing cars of Russian patterns. In addition 
they have bathrooms, a gymnasium and a 
church car, which travels with the train 
at times, where priests hold services for 
the benefit of the faithful while they are 
speeding through the heart of Asia. 

Russia has yet another railway, extend¬ 
ing eastward into Asia from the Caspian 
Sea, about 1,000 miles south of the Sibe¬ 
rian railway and roughly parallel with it. 
It has been completed for a distance of 


about 1,500 miles, and thus reaches nearly 
to the western boundary of the Chinese 
Empire. At its terminus, this line is less 
than 500 miles from the northern terminus 
of the British railways in India, and if this 
gap could be traversed there would be con¬ 
tinuous rail communication between West¬ 
ern Europe and Calcutta. The great moun¬ 
tain range called the Pamirs intervenes 
here, however, and the connection will have 


to be made some day by an easier route, 
but little longer, across Afghanistan. It 
is the purpose of Russia to connect this 
railway with the Siberian line by a north¬ 
eastern extension, and perhaps, some day 
also, to build directly across the Chinese 
Empire to the Pacific Ocean at Shanghai. 

Africa is not falling behind in the mat¬ 
ter of railway construction. Already the 
line of the Cape to Cairo Railway is suffi¬ 
ciently advanced to make a striking im¬ 
pression when one studies the map. From 
Cape Town northward it has been com¬ 
pleted nearly to the Zambezi River, and 



IN THE DINING CAR. 




46 


The Industrial Age 


from Cairo it extends up the Nile to Khar¬ 
tum, whence construction is steadily ad¬ 
vancing. The gap is still a long one, but 
the surveys are made, capitalists are inter¬ 
ested, and it promises to be not many years 
before the traveler can find a through train 
of palace cars by which he may travel the 
length of the Dark Continent from the 
Cape of Good Hope to the Mediterranean. 
This is a distinctly English enterprise, and 
except for the comparatively short crossing 
of German East Africa, the line traverses 
British territory all the way until it 
reaches the practically British province of 
Egypt. Tn Western Africa, the French 
never halt in their explorations of the 
Sudan, into which they are steadily push¬ 


ing their railways southward from Algeria. 
Before many years Timbuctoo will be a 
way station between Algiers and Dahomey, 
and we may visit the oases of Sahara in 
palace cars. 

Australia, with its immense expanse of 
interior desert, is not yet traversed or en¬ 
circled by a railway line. The capitals of 
the more populous states of the new Com¬ 
monwealth, from Adelaide to Brisbane, are 
connected by rail, and many short lines ex¬ 
tend from ports around the coast toward 
the interior of the continent. From Ade¬ 
laide a telegraph line extends northward 
across the continent to Port Darwin, where 
it connects with the submarine cables to 
Asia and Europe. A railway line has been 



RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION IN THE MOUNTAINS. 












TRANSCONTINENTAL EXPRESS RUNNING SIXTY MILES AN HOUR. 

This train took its own picture, by opening the lens of the camera, that had been made ready, as it ran over the connecting mechanism on the track. 











48 


The Industrial Age 


built from Adelaide northward as far as 
Oodnadatta, 800 miles into the desert, but 
a train service operated once every three 
weeks each way lias not been sufficiently 
profitable to encourage the extension of the 
line. From this desert to Brisbane in the 
far northeast, there is consequently continu¬ 
ous rail connection for some 3,000 miles. 
What the future may bring to this great 
undeveloped land of possibilities hardly 
realized can not be predicted, but it is cer¬ 
tain that Australian energy will not fail to 
multiply railway lines as fast as industry 
would be profited thereby. The three north¬ 
ern continents are crossed by railway lines. 
The three of the south are yet to be trav¬ 
ersed. 



INTERIOR OF A RAILWAY SNOWSHED IN THE 
MOUNTAINS. 



SNOW PLOW AT WORK IN THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS. 



























The Industrial Age 


49 


GREAT RAILWAY CONSOLIDATIONS 



ACROSS THE CONTINENT. 


' Cue of the most noteworthy conditions 
«• of-the present day is the tendency toward 
enormous consolidations of American rail¬ 
way lines in the control of a few individ¬ 
uals. Within the limits of the United 
States we have approximately 200,000 
miles of railroads, and practically half that 
stupendous property is in the possession of 
five little groups of men, who direct it from 
their offices in New York. 

It has taken less than seventy-five years 
for the- railway systems of the United 
States to grow from that first inadequate 
little wooden track with its lonesome loco¬ 
motive of 1829 to this mileage which is 
sufficient to make a single track extending 
eight times around the world. The in¬ 
crease of railway mileage in the United 
States at this time is nearly twelve miles 
a day. For every five miles of railway in 
the country there are twenty-five men at 
work, one locomotive, and eight cars. The 
number of railway employees increases at 
the rate of 240 new men every day. These 
American railways carry more freight than 
all the ships of all the oceans of the world, 
added to one-half the traffic of the Euro¬ 


pean railways. One-fifteenth of all the 
labor in the United States derives its sup¬ 
port directly or indirectly out of the rail¬ 
way industries. When we add to these facts 
the recollection that the success of almost 
every great American industry depends 
upon the railways in some way or other, 
whether it be manufacturing, commerce, or 
farming, it becomes apparent what vast 
importance railway problems have to all of 
us and to the prosperity of the country at 
large. 

There is nothing new about the tendency 
toward consolidation of railway lines, ex¬ 
cept the rapidity and the magnitude of the 
recent achievements in that line. From 
the day when railways first began to be 
constructed smaller lines have been com¬ 
bined to establish greater ones, with the 
invariable result of improved service, and, 
at the same time, opposition to the combi¬ 
nation. Half a century ago passengers had 
to change eight times between Albany and 
New York, and as many more between Al¬ 
bany and Buffalo, even though there were 
railways connecting through the entire dis¬ 
tances. And yet the consolidation of these 
little lines, which now seem almost ridicu¬ 
lous to us, met with distinct opposition, 
both popular and legislative, when the first 
moves were made, just as is the case now 
in regard to the greater consolidations of 
today. 

It seems fair to say that there is no es¬ 
sential evil in consolidation of railway 
systems as a principle. Such consolida¬ 
tions manifestly make for economy of ad¬ 
ministration and for convenience and 
harmony of service in the connecting lines. 




50 


The Industrial Age 


These things and the reduced rates which 
should naturally follow are all to the public 
benefit. As a matter of fact, except for 
short periods and in specific instances, there 
has never been but little real competition 
between railway systems. They might com¬ 
pete in quality of service, but clandestine 
pools have usually protected them from the 
cost of a fight among themselves. 

The real question, therefore, that comes 
from Americans in connection with the rail¬ 
way consolidation is whether the benefits of 
such union are enjoyed by the public, or 
are to be retained entirely as the sources 
of increasing wealth 
and power in the hands 
of the controlling syn¬ 
dicates. In the latter 
case it would seem as if 

1825—First English Car on Record. 

the syndicate managers 


were preparing for the inevitable result of 
public ownership. In the former case the 
public may rest as contented with the pres¬ 
ent relations as it has been in the past. 

Five great syndicate interests, dominated 
in each case by one or two conspicuous 
men, control the five most important groups 
of railways in the United States. In addi¬ 
tion to these, there are certain important 
independent lines, still outside of syndicate 
control, which are continually the subject 
of speculative rumor as to how or when they 
shall be absorbed. 

The most conspicuous of these groups, 
headed by the men who 
are today the most“5lm- 
spicuous, is the Morgan- 
Hill system, headed by 
J. Pierpont Morgan, 
the New York banker, 




1829—Coach Body Car. the “ Ex¬ 
periment,” Stockton and Dar¬ 
lington RJU, England. 



1830—The ** Ohio,” a Double Decl 1831—A Triple Body Car on the Camden Sc Amboy 
Coach Body Car. designed by R-R., designed by Mr. Green. Drawn by 

Mr. Imlay for Baltimore horses and the "John Bull/’ 

Sc Ohio R.R. 



1836—The " Victory,” also by Mr. Imlay. First car with raised roof. 
First car having toilet compartment and bar. 





iLatc Sleeping Car. Length 72 feet, weight 100,000 pounds. 

PICTORIAL HISTORY OF CAR BUILDING. 



































































































































































































































































































The Industrial Age 


51 


and James J. Hill of St. Paul, the 
northwestern railway magnate. The mile¬ 
age which this combination controls meas¬ 
ures a total of 37,500 miles, including 
two transcontinental lines from St. Paul to 
the Pacific coast, by the famous “merger” 
that brought on the attack made by the gov¬ 
ernors of the northwestern states and by the 
president of the United States in the federal 
courts to determine the validity of such 


union. The roads included in this system 
are the Northern Pacific, the Great North¬ 
ern, the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy, 
the Erie, the Lehigh Valley, the Philadel¬ 
phia and Reading, the Ilocking Valley, the 
Southern Railway, and the Mobile and 
Ohio. 

None of the other groups approaches this 
one in mileage, although in importance, 
wealth and profits they may not fall behind. 
The Vanderbilt system has a total of some 


20,000 miles, including all of the New 
York Central lines, the Lake Shore and 
Michigan Southern, the Michigan Central, 
the Chicago and Northwestern, and the Big 
Four, with a host of tributaries, thus in¬ 
cluding three distinct lines between New 
York and Chicago. 

The Pennsylvania system, with mileage 
approaching 15,000, now includes the Bal¬ 
timore and Ohio, in addition to all of the 


lines formerly identified with the Pennsyl¬ 
vania, including the Fort Wayne, the Vau- 
dalia, and the Panhandle. 

The Gould-Rockefeller system, in which 
the Sage interests are also involved, in¬ 
cludes the Missouri Pacific, the Wabash, 
the Iron Mountain, the Texas and Pacific, 
the Missouri, Kansas and Texas, and the 
Denver and Rio Grande, with a total mile¬ 
age of nearly 17,000. 

The ITarriman-Kuhn-Loeb system, with 





RAPID TRANSIT IN A GREAT CITY. 

The Manhattan Tlevated Railway in Up;er New York. Height above ground nearly 100 feet. 






























52 


The Industrial Age 


a mileage of 22,000, includes the Union 
Pacific, the Southern Pacific, the Oregon 
Short Line, the Chicago and Alton, the Illi¬ 
nois Central, and the Kansas City South¬ 
ern. In addition to these syndicate systems 
of railways there still remain, as has been 
said, a number of independent systems with 
a total mileage of some 37,000, of which 
the Santa Fe, the Rock Island and the 
Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul are the 
most important. It is more than possible 
that several of these, particularly those of 
the southeastern states, will find a final 
refuge in the Morgan-IIill system or in 
some other syndicate organized for the pur¬ 
pose. 

Says a recent student of this picturesque 
situation: “A strip of land hundreds of 
miles wide, beginning at the Washington 
ports in the northwest and sweeping east 
to the lakes, is practically an industrial fief 
of Mr. Hill and Mr. Morgan. In Mr. Har- 
riman’s hands, in some measure, is the pros¬ 
perity of California and the southwestern 
states, as well as of a broad strip up the 
Mississippi Valley, a fertile band through 
the prairie states, and all the habitable land 
reaching west from the Rockies to the coast. 
The central Atlantic states live to the 
rhythm of the iSTew York Central and the 
Pennsylvania Railroad. It is true that one 


can go from Boston to San Francisco, from 
the Gulf to St. Paul, and travel not a mile 
on the roads of the railroad giants, but 
only through a very narrow path and for the 
most part within view of competing syndi¬ 
cate lines on either side. When it is re¬ 
membered, furthermore, that Morgan men 
are directors in Vanderbilt roads, Hill men 
in Pennsylvania roads, Gould men in Har- 
riman roads, and that every other possible 
interweaving of common control exists 
throughout the great groups, the lines of 
demarkation melt away.” 

And yet, within twenty years, the aver¬ 
age rate of freight has decreased from a 
cent and a quarter a ton for each mile to a 
little over seven mills, and the tonnage has 
quadrupled. The passenger rate has like- 
Avise gone down, and passenger traffic is 
growing 15,000,000 a year. With all these 
picturesque conditions in effect the situa¬ 
tion becomes a puzzling one, and it will be 
of the highest interest to Avatch the course 
of events for the next feAv years. Whether 

or not Ave are to return to a SA T stem of indi- 

*/ 

vidual competitive roads, Avhether railways 
Avill be a private monopoly or a government 
monopoly, can only be knoAvn after the 
period of adjustment has passed and the 
public has taken its OAvn hand in the settle¬ 
ment of the proposition. 


The Industrial Age 


53 


THE GREATEST FREIGHT TRANSFER YARDS IN THE WORLD. 


Any enterprise which promotes economy 
in the shipping and transfer of freight car¬ 
ried hy the railway systems of the United 
States is necessarily of interest to every¬ 
one. In the end such economy results in 
the reduction of cost of all commodities and 
the consequent profit to every consumer. 
One of the most interesting plans to facil¬ 
itate the prompt exchange of traffic has 
been devised in the interest of the railways 
entering Chicago. It is a great distribut¬ 
ing vard where all the freight cars of all 
the roads can be classified for their out¬ 
going journeys, and it thus serves the 
same purpose in the world of traffic that 
the clearing-house does in the world of 
finance. The volume of traffic entering and 
leaving Chicago by rail is stupendous. Ten 
thousand cars of freight are handled in 
Chicago every dav, and of this number 
sixty per cent are loaded with through 
freight or have entered the city on one rail- 
road and must be transferred to another. 
Under the superseded system most of these 
6,000 cars had to be hauled over fif¬ 
teen miles of track in order to prop¬ 
erly distribute them, and this in most in¬ 
stances caused a delay of a whole day in 
making the transfer. The usual svstein 
of breaking up trains and sorting cars is at 
best slow and unsatisfactory, and it often 
happens that a through car reaching the 
yards shortly after the company’s transfer 
train has left is held several hours before it 
can be started out for the other road. 

There are twenty trunk lines entering 
Chicago, and the vastness of any system of 
switching and classifying cars that could 
handle the business of all of them can 


easily be appreciated. For years it has 
been done by the various belt lines that 
were compelled to operate a total of twenty- 
seven different yards, which are from a 
tenth of a mile to sixteen miles apart. 

In order to obviate all of this duplicated 
labor and expense, a new system was per- 
fected whereby the difficulties of the former 
plan have been overcome by centralizing 
the work in one immense clearing-yard. 
Under this arrangement it is claimed 8,000 
cars can he switched and handled in a sin¬ 
gle day, and this is an important achieve¬ 
ment to the managers of the railway com¬ 
panies, who had long realized the waste¬ 
fulness of the ancient system. All of the 
railway lines entering Chicago united in 
a mutual organization for the purpose of 
establishing and operating these great 
yards, so that it was assured that they 
would make immediate use of the system as 
soon as it was completed. 

The new clearing-vard is located west of 
Chicago, a few miles beyond the city limits, 
and is connected with three of the belt lines 
which encircle the city and communicate 
with all of the railways interested. The 
original plans for the undertaking were 
formed some years ago bv President A. B. 
Stickney of the Chicago Great Western 
Raihvay, and a beginning was made at that 
time. From him the tract took its name 
of Stickney, but the work was interrupted 
before a great deal had been accomplished, 
and in the newer reorganization an entirely 
different plan was put into effect. The 
tract available for these great clearing 
yards is about two by five miles, but at the 
beginning not near all of this area was 


54 


The Industrial Age 


be thus utilized. The first 
yard is 670 feet in width 

t j 

and 13,000 feet in length, 
its greater measurements 
being east and west. 
There is room for this 
yard to be duplicated as 
many times as may prove 
necessary with the growth 
of traffic in Chicago. 

Extending along the 
whole length of the north 
and south boundaries there 
are three thoroughfare 
tracks, with double track 
“Y” connections at each 
end to the belt lines. Bi¬ 
secting the yard, on an 
east and west line, is a cen¬ 
tral through track known 
as “track No. 25.” There 
are two sets of classifica¬ 
tion tracks, known as the 
“classification yards.” The 
tracks in these yards are 
2,400 feet long and they 
extend the full width be¬ 
tween the thoroughfare 
tracks. Midway between 
the two classification yards 
is an artificially con¬ 
structed “gravity mound,” 
and on each side of it and 
parallel to it on the level 
plain are sets of receiving 
tracks which are from 
1,600 to 3,200 feet in 
length. The gravity 
mound has an elevation at 
its summit of 21^ feet 
above the o-eneral level of 

O 

the yard. For a short dis- 



CHICAGO TRANSFER YARDS—LOOKING EAST FROM SIGNAL TOWER ON GRAVITY MOUND. 







The Industrial Age 


tance each side of the summit there is a 
grade of 1^ per cent and then for a distance 
of 1,800 feet a grade of 0.9 per cent, and a 
grade of 0.5 per cent for a distance of 300 
feet further, the foot of the gravity mound 
tracks being several hundred feet beyond 
the apex of the classification yards. 

Running diagonally across the classifica¬ 
tion yards there are double “ladder tracks,” 
and east and west of the classification 
tracks there are parallel overflow tracks, 
which extend parallel with the classification 
ladders at the outer end of the classification 
yards. Parallel with the double ladder at 
the inner ends of the classification tracks 
are two tracks, the one next to the ladder 
being a “poling” and the outer one a “drill¬ 
ing” track. The double ladders, which con¬ 
nect by switches with each track in the 
classification yard, converge at a three- 
throw switch into the central track, Xo. 25, 
already mentioned, which extends through 
the center of the whole yard. Consequent¬ 
ly there extend over the summit of the grav¬ 
ity mound five parallel tracks with leader 
tracks and crossovers. 

The object of the gravity mound is to 
allow the transfer of the various cars to the 
various classification tracks to be accom¬ 
plished by gravity and save a great amount 
of engine mileage, which would necessarily 
be if the cars had to be pushed on to the 
various tracks by switching engines. The 
method of operation is as follows: A train 
coming in at either end of the yard is run 
into one of the receiving tracks, where the 
engine is uncoupled and takes back a made- 
up train from one of the classification 
tracks. One of the clearing-yard switching 
engines then couples on to the train, backs 
up and pushes it over one of the drilling- 
tracks, which we have mentioned above as 


55 . 

lying alongside the classification ladder. 

As the train is pushed up the summit the 
couplers are disconnected at the proper 
places in the train, and as the cars go over 
on to the down grade on the other side of 
the summit they separate from the train 
and run down on the central track, Ho. 25, 
to the three-throw switch at the apex of the 
classification ladder. Here they are 
switched to either side of the double ladder 
and finally into the desired track of the 
classification yard. 

%J 

The great yards thus described were fin¬ 
ished and ready for operation in the fall 
of 1902, and after that time all freight 
traffic entering and leaving Chicago passed 
through them for classification. In addi¬ 
tion to the form of the enterprise as out¬ 
lined, it is expected that a series of great 
warehouses will be built and placed at the 
disposal of the wholesale houses of Chica¬ 
go, so that they may receive their shipments 
here at the clearing-yards and distribute 
them again to their customers without 
bringing them into the city proper. It is 
manifest that the establishment of such a 
system of warehouses will go far to relieve 
the streets of the city of the immense traf¬ 
fic that now congests them, and that every 
citizen will find himself profited thereby, 
and by the additional comfort and quiet of 
the streets. Furthermore, it is contem¬ 
plated by the railway companies which 
have established this yard that the excep¬ 
tional shipping facilities thus created will 
induce the location of large numbers of fac¬ 
tories. From such a beginning, therefore, 
it is natural to expect the growth of a great 
industrial and manufacturing community 
that will be one of the more conspicuous 
features of the commercial development of 
the great citv. 

O c - 1 



LAUNCH OP THE “KROONL AND,” CRAMPS’ SHIPYARDS, PHILADELPHIA. 

This is a passenger and freight steamship for Atlantic service, 560 feet long and with engines of 10,000 horsepower. 






















THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL INVASION OF EUROPE 


The American industrial invasion of for¬ 
eign lands has reached such proportions as 
to disconcert and even alarm main thought- 
iul men abroad, who see their countries 
being exploited for American profit and 
their opportunities utilized by American 
energy. American industrial pioneers are 
entering the activities of Europe, Asia and 
Africa, in competition with the English, 
French, Germans and Belgians, who have 
believed themselves to be safe in their 
monopoly of their respective fields of en¬ 
deavor. 

Even in London, an English builder, 
manufacturer, engineer or promoter finds 
his American rivals at every turn. Great 
American manufactories are establishing 
branches in England, and in some instances 
actually buying out their former English 
competitors. In/1901, the British match- 
manufactories were absorbed by the Amer¬ 
ican match trust, a fact which greatly dis¬ 
turbed English students of commercial and 
industrial conditions. 

A striking achievement was made a 
year later by an American builder, who 
practically completed in ten months a 
huge work that the most enterprising of 
British contractors declared could not be 
done in less than five vears. He shook 
the traditions of British bricklayers, car- 
penters, builders and theorists to their 
foundations. The London Times devoted 
one of its ponderous editorial columns to 
a lesson to the British workmen, based on 
this American contractor’s success, and 
other papers all over the British Isles took 
up the refrain. 


The British Westinghouse Company, 
which was to supply the electric fittings for 
most of the underground railways that 
American capitalists were building in Lon¬ 
don, found it necessary to erect one of the 
greatest electrical plants in the world at 
Manchester. Being to all intents and pur¬ 
poses a British company, they were natu¬ 
rally very anxious to give the British con¬ 
tractors the job of building it. A Man¬ 
chester company got the contract for 
foundations, and a London companv for 
the steel work, both these contracts being 
allotted in May, 1900. Neither of the con¬ 
cerns could “see their way” to saying when 
the work was likely to be done. The 
foundation people thought the matter over 
and finally began the work in July. In 
November the foundation of one of the 
largest buildings was in such condition that 
the steel work could be begun, and then the 
London contractors arrived on the scene 
and the work proceeded in an eminently 
dignified way. 

Meanwhile the capitalists were making 
things hum, extending their systems right 
and left, pushing through plans for the 
electrification of old-fashioned steam lines 
with such rapidity that it made the old- 
fashioned stockholders dizzy to think about, 
and pouring huge hurry-up orders on the 
Westinghouse Company. 

At the gait things were going the new 
plant would not be ready in time to fill 
the orders, and the great enterprise would 
be delayed, at a cost that might be disas¬ 
trous. George Westinghouse promptly 
took a hand in it, and told the contractors 


57 


58 


The Industrial Age 


that the whole group of buildings must be 
ready in two and a half years. The con¬ 
tractors threw up their hands in holy hor¬ 
ror. It couldn’t be done in less than five. 
No man on earth could do it in less than 
five. 

The situation was serious, for it was be¬ 
ginning to look as if even two and one-half 
years was going to he too long to wait. 
Then somebody called to mind the doings 
of an American contractor named Stewart, 
head of the firm of J. C. & A. M. Stewart, 
of St. Louis, Pittsburg and New Orleans, 
who had taken in hand the principal build¬ 
ing of the Pittsburg Exposition when it 
had burned down three months before the 
day the show was to open. Stewart had it 
up again and finished ahead of time. Ilis 
rush work on some grain elevators was so 
striking that a novel had been based upon 
it. lie had restored the Galveston system 
of docks and storehouses in forty-five days 
from the time they were destroyed. 

The Westinghouse people told Stewart 
they wanted him to take the Manchester 
job, and finish it in fifteen months. The 
agreement was signed in Pittsburg, and 
the contractor took the first steamer for 
Liverpool. He had never been in England 
before, and did not know what was wait¬ 
ing for him. He landed on Januarv 24. 
One week later his best two men got four 
hours’ notice to start for England. One 
of them was in New Orleans and the other 
in Toledo, O., but they both caught the 
Teutonic two days after. Before they 
could reach England, however, Stewart was 
hustling home aboard the Oceanic. The 
two men stopped at Queenstown, hired a 
tender and went out to meet the Oceanic, 
and had a bundle of minute instructions as 
big as a log of wood tossed to them. The 


next day they were at the Manchester 
works, and things had begun to happen. 

Three weeks later, Stewart, who had 
been collecting some of his good men, and 
buying American appliances for handling 
work, was back in Manchester. He brought 
ten young Americans, whom he had trained 
himself, and with them he sailed into the 
biggest fight of his life. Eor the next few 
weeks he and his little band got about four 
hours’ sleep per night. They “rushed” 
things all day and spent half the night in 
discussing how they were to be rushed the 
next day. Stewart slept in a little hotel 
within a hundred yards of the work. His 
two men slept on the plans in the office. 
They were working every morning at six. 

When the American took charge of 
affairs at Manchester there were 236 men 
on the job. In four weeks there were 
2,500. Stewart had an advertisement in 
each of the largest provincial papers, say¬ 
ing that carpenters and bricklayers were 
wanted, and they came in from all over the 
country. As soon as a man came in he was 
set to work. He got a fair trial, and if 
he was no good he Avas discharged. Every 
morning Stewart and tAvo of his men made 
a complete tour of the AA T ork, and all three 
took note of how things Avere progressing. 
Every gang of men that didn’t get ahead 
fast enough had an American foreman 
placed behind him. Every day’s Avork Avas 
carefully measured and compared Avitli the 
record of the day before. If there Avas no 
improvement the contractor found out why. 

Before going any further, it may be Avell 
to give a feAV rather striking figures that 
tell better than any technical description 
could, AA’hat sort of a job the American con¬ 
tractor had tackled. The plant as it was 
completed is the biggest in the Avorld 


The Industrial A.ge 


59 


ever built at one time. When Mr. Stewart 
was asked with what one could compare it, 
lie mentioned the Westinghouse factories 
at Pittsburg and the General Electric Com¬ 
pany’s plant at Schenectady. It consists 
of nine immense buildings, the office build¬ 
ing, machine shop, box-factory, power¬ 


house, steel-foundry, iron-foundry, brass- 
foundry, pattern-shop, and dipping and 
drying-shop. The cost of the buildings was 
about $7,500,000. Twelve million feet of 
lumber were used, and 5,000,000 bricks, 
750,000 feet of glass, and 40,000 square 
yards of paving, or enough to pave a street 
three miles long. About 4,500 men were 
employed. 

Putting up this building was a fight from 
the start. ISfo sooner was one obstacle over¬ 
come than another popped up. In the first 
place, the sub-contractors would not put on 
enough men. They had ten men on the 
job where a hundred have been used in 
America, and when Stewart insisted on the 


force being doubled or quadrupled, they 
wailed that thev could not look after so 

*j 

many men. So they put the men on and 
Stewart did the “looking.” Sometimes 
they wanted to back out of their contracts, 
saying that they couldn’t buy the material 
and make any profit; so Stewart went out 


and bought it for them. When they said 
they couldn’t get some little job finished, he 
told them that there was $100 extra in it 
for them if they did, and somehow the job 
was done on time. When bulldozing 
worked best he bulldozed and held their 
“penalties” over their heads; when they 
seemed like to stand out he cajoled. 

The railway terminus was not far from 
his works, and the contractor built a line 
from the depot to the grounds and ran a 
section of it into every building. Two hun¬ 
dred and fifty carloads of stuff were coming 
in every day, and Stewart’s little engine 
was kept breathless, shunting it where it 
belonged, but the supplies were not enough 



This steel craft is rot only the largest fore-and-after ever built, but it is the largest sailing vessel o. 
any kind in the world. It is 388 feet long at the water line, 50 feet wide and carries 8,000 tons of cargo 
with a crew of only 16 men. Built in Boston, 1902. 


































60 


The Industrial Age 


to keep pace with the work. The fault was 
the contractors’ again. They notified the 
American that they had shipped goods, 
whereas the men he sent flying to look them 
up found the stuff piled up in their yards, 
lie insisted on his advices being sent by 
telegraph, and, insisted, too, that every 
shipper supply the car numbers in which 
the stuff was sent, a demand that never 
before had been made in England. He had 
his men all over England following the cars. 
They called on railway superintendents 
and asked why cars did not get along faster, 
and kept hammering at the officials until 
they did something. 

In dealing with his men he had first to 
fight their prejudice against him because 
he was a “damned Yankee.” The more they 
saw of him, though, the better they liked 
him. lie made a policy of keeping every 
promise he made them. If he said he would 
pay a man extra for a job, the man got his 
pay. If he threatened to “fire” a man if 
he didn’t do better, the man was fired. He 
paid his men two cents an hour above the 
union wages. He allowed them “walking 
time”—half an hour in the morning to get 
to the works. He kept a supply of hot 
water to be served out to them for their tea. 
When they did a job especially well, he 
treated them all to free beer. The union 
rules of England did not allow him to pay 
the men that did the most of the work the 
best wages, but he got around that by keep¬ 
ing only the best men and discharging the 
rest. 

And he made them work as they had 
never dreamed of working before, and as 
none of the men who had been blaming the 
British laborer for the decadence of British 
trade had ever dreamed they could work. 
One reason was that Stewart is a practical 


man himself. He studied under his father, 
who was an architect, and then went out 
and worked at other trades. He can lay a 
brick and can cut stone and do carpenter¬ 
ing, as the men have discovered. 

The way in which he shook up the brick¬ 
laying part of the job is a fair specimen of 
the things he did to the men’s long accus¬ 
tomed ways. When the work first began, 
bricks were being laid as they are laid 
everywhere in England, at a rate of about 
400 a dav. There were no steam “hoists” 

t/ 

for sending the brick up to the scaffolding, 
and the men were using stiff mortar. Un¬ 
der the new regime automatic “hoists” were 
set to work in a jiffy, and soft mortar was 
supplied to the men. 

Stewart explained to the men personally 
how, by using the American mortar, they 
could lay enough with one stretch of the 
trowel for six or a dozen bricks, and lay the 
bricks themselves by a light pressure of the 
hand and a light tap with the trowel, in¬ 
stead of by repeated hammering to force 
the brick into the stiff mortar. He told 
them to their horror and amazement that 
bricklayers in America laid 2,000 bricks a 
day and thought nothing of it. lie had 
hardly got the words out of his mouth, how¬ 
ever, when one of the men contradicted him 
bluntly. He said he had been in America 
and he knew how bricks were laid there. 
Stewart, looking, as usual, as if he had just 
come out of a men’s furnishing shop, with 
glossy derby, natty business suit, and pat¬ 
ent leather shoes, was standing on the 
ground and talking to the men on the scaf¬ 
folding above. He jumped for the ladder 
leaning against the building, and in four 
steps was standing on the scaffolding beside 
the man who had contradicted him. He 
rolled up his sleeves, and, filling a trowel 


The Industrial Age 


61 


with mortar, he laid four complete rows of 
bricks with a deftness and dispatch that 
made the men’s eyes stick out of their 
heads. Then he went on, but left an over¬ 
seer behind him to see that the men worked 
faster and faster. Little by little he got 
them along, until, finally, they, too, could 
and did lay 2,000 a day. Yet the London 
County Council, the governing body of the 
metropolis, reported recently that the aver¬ 
age of bricklayers on municipal works was 
“over” 330 a day. 

The “boss” got just as striking results 

with the other men as with bricklayers. 

«/ 

When he arrived the carpenters were aver¬ 


aging 500 feet of timber a day, and they 
finally averaged 1,000. The steel workers 
were doing their riveting by hand, and the 
union tried to make trouble; Stewart in¬ 
sisted that automatic riveters be used. In 
the beginning the men disposed of from 
ten to fifteen tons of steel a day; they 
learned to use up 100 tons. Their first rate 
of riveting was fifty rivets a day; long after 
it was from 200 to 300. 

The work as originally ordered was done 
in ten months from the time the American 
“hustler” took hold, but the company made 
certain changes in the plans and extended 
the undertaking so that several months’ 



NEW YORK DOCKS. 

Ocean Freight Vessels that carry our goods to foreign ports. 




































62 


The Industrial A.ge 


additional work were required. Mr. Stew¬ 
art had an experience which, while finan¬ 
cially profitable and a valuable lesson to 
his English rivals, was trying to his own 
powers of endurance. Various liberal 
offers were made to him by important Lon¬ 
don institutions, urging him to stay and 
continue similar work in their behalf, but 
he declared that it was too big an under¬ 


taking for one man to revolutionize a whole 
country. “Mr. Westinghouse made it a 
big object for me to come over here,” he 
said, “and I am going back from $30,000 
to $40,000 better off than when I came, but 
I said to him when the work w r as done, 
‘you have had the best five vears of my life, 
but you have had that all in one.’ ” 



EAST RIVER DOCKS, NEW YORK.—Vessels from foreign ports unloading cargo. 









































The Industrial Age 


63 


OCEAN TRAFFIC—ITS STUPENDOUS GROWTH 


In no branch of industry lias progress 
been more noteworthy than in the construc¬ 
tion of the ships that sail the seas. Be¬ 
tween the hollow log on which the first 
savage mariner floated across a lonesome 
river, and the caravels with which Colum¬ 
bus sailed to discover a new world, the dif¬ 
ference was not greater than between those 
little Spanish vessels and the ocean grey¬ 
hounds which now speed back and forth, 
like shuttles weaving the threads of com¬ 
merce together over all the world. Even 
the Great Eastern, which for more than 
forty years held the record as the largest 
vessel that had ever floated, is now sur¬ 
passed by Atlantic liners in regular service. 
And that famous old craft was chiefly dis¬ 
tinguished for its size, proving unprofit- 
ably slow and inadequately engined. 

Greatness is a relative term, and some¬ 
times one vessel excels others in one meas¬ 
urement, while itself excelled in another. 
Length, breadth, depth, carrying capacity 


and other qualifications enter into the tests 
of merit, and the accompanying table will 
serve to indicate these details for the most 
famous of recent Atlantic liners: 


Ship— 


a> 

-«-> , 
bfiaj 

si 


c? . 

cd CO 

D- ^ 


Cl 


Q. a> 

m O 

d 

<v 


a> 


P 

p 

tt 

Q 



& 

bO 

a 

m ® 
xn £3 
o o 
-•-» 

O 


T3 o 
o n 
« 3 

w 


Great Eastern ....1858 692 83 57% 27,000 18,915 14% 


Paris .1888 560 63 42 15,000 10,500 20 

Teutonic .1890 585 57% 42 13,800 9,984 20 

St. Paul .1895 554 63 42 16,000 11,600 21 

Lucania .1893 625 65 41% 19,000 12,950 22 

Kaiser Wilhelm ..1897 649 66 43 21,000 14,349 22.8 

Oceanic .1899 705 68 49 32,500 17,274 21 

Deutschland .1900 686 67 40 1-3 23,500 15,500 23.5 

Celtic .1901 700 75 49 37,700 20,880 16 


It will be seen that there is a gradual 
steady increase in the size of such craft, 
except that the Celtic, greatest of all, is 
slower than some of its immediate prede¬ 
cessors. This seems to suggest a tendency 
toward slower boats once more, on account 
of the very great expense of driving such 
enormous bodies through water at the high¬ 
est rate of speed. The additional space 
required for coal, deducted from cargo 



THE CAMPANIA, A PASSENGER GREYHOUND OF THE ATLANTIC. 

(Length 625 feet- breadth, 65 feet; displacement, 19,000 tons; speed, 22 knots, or 25 statute miles, an hour; 
v ’ capacity, about 2,200 passengers.) 
















64 


The Industrial Age 


capacity, the cost of the great increase in 
coal consumption, and the great additional 
engine power required for adding every 
mile above sixteen knots an hour, go far 
to destroy the profits on a great steamer, 
and except when compelled by the force of 
competition, owners prefer a slower sched¬ 
ule for the vovaffe. 

O 

A dozen or more important transatlan¬ 
tic lines maintain regular passenger service 
between the ports of the United States and 
Europe. Here are some figures which in¬ 
dicate the magnitude of the jwovision that 
must be made for the sustenance of pas¬ 
sengers and crew during the voyages. They 
refer to a vessel which is by no means the 
largest nor the newest of the ocean grey¬ 
hounds, but they are no less significant. 
The same facts would take even more strik¬ 
ing form if they were applied to such ves¬ 
sels as the Deutschland or the Oceanic. 

For a single passage to America the 
Etruria, with 547 cabin passengers, and a 
crew of 287 persons on board, carries the 
following quantities of provisions: 12,550 
pounds fresh beef, 760 pounds corned beef, 
5,320 pounds mutton, 850 pounds lamb, 
350 pounds veal, 350 pounds pork, 2,000 
pounds fresh fish, 600 fowls, 300 chickens, 
100 ducks, 50 geese, 80 turkeys, 200 brace 
of grouse, 15 tons potatoes, 30 hampers of 
vegetables, 220 quarts of ice cream, 1,000 
quarts of milk, and 11,500 eggs (or at the 
rate of one egg per minute from the time 
the ship sails from Liverpool until her ar¬ 
rival in Hew York). 

The quantities of wines, spirits, beer, 
etc., put on board for consumption on the 
round voyage comprise 1,100 bottles cham¬ 
pagne, 850 bottles claret, 6,000 bottles ale, 
2,500 bottles porter, 4,500 bottles mineral 
waters, 650 bottles various spirits. 


Crockery is broken very extensively, be¬ 
ing at the rate of 900 plates, 280 cups, 438 
saucers, 1,213 tumblers, 200 wine-glasses, 
27 decanters, and 63 water-bottles in a sin¬ 
gle voyage. 

As regards the consumption on board the 
whole Cunard fleet for a single year, the 
figures seem almost fabulous—4,656 sheep, 
1,800 lambs, 2,474 oxen are consumed— 
an array of flocks and herds surpassing in 
extent the possessions of many a pastoral 
patriarch of ancient times—besides 24,075 
fowls, 4,230 ducks, 2,200 turkeys, 2,200 
geese, 53 tons of ham, £0 tons bacon, 15 
tons cheese, and 831,603 eggs. 

Other articles are in extensive demand, 
and in the course of a vear there is con- • 

«y 

sumed one ton-and-a-half of mustard, one 
ton and three-quarters of pepper, 7,216 bot¬ 
tles of pickles, 800 tins sardines, 33 tons 
salt cod and ling, 4,192 four-pound jars of 
jam, 15 tons marmalade, 22 tons raisins, 
currants and figs, 18 tons split peas, 15 tons 
barley, 17 tons rice, 34 tons oatmeal, 460 
tons flour, 23 tons biscuits, 33 tons salt, 
48,902 loaves of bread of 8 pounds each. 

The Cunard passengers annually drink 
and smoke to the following extent—8,030 
bottles and 17,613 half-bottles of cham¬ 
pagne, 13,941 bottles and 7,310 half-bottles 
claret, 9,200 bottles other wines, 4S9,344 
bottles ale and porter, 174,921 bottles 
mineral waters and 344,000 bottles spirits; 
and 34,360 pounds tobacco, 63,340 cigars, 
and 56,875 cigarettes. 

The heaviest item in the annual con¬ 
sumption of the company is of course coal, 
of which 356,764 tons are burnt, nearly 
equal to 1,000 tons for every day in the 
year. 

With regard to the aggregate employ¬ 
ment of labor by the Cunard Company, it 


65 



The Industrial Age 


includes 34 captains, 146 officers, 628 en¬ 
gineers, boiler-makers and carpenters, 665 
seamen, 916 firemen, 900 stewards, 62 
stewardesses, 42 women to keep the uphols¬ 
tery and linen in order, with 1,100 men 
of a shore gang, or about 4,506 people to 
run the ships, which traverse yearly a dis¬ 
tance equal to five times that between the 
earth and the moon! 


shipyards build our men-of-war and the 
passenger liners of American companies. 
At San Francisco, for instance, was built 
the Oregon, which became the most con¬ 
spicuous battleship in the world by virtue 
of its wonderful voyage from Puget Sound 
to the Caribbean Sea by way of Cape Horn 
and thence to the Philippine Islands, dur¬ 
ing the Spanish-American war. On the 


SHIPWRECK ON THE OCEAN. 

Terrible storms and collisions in logs sometimes cause frightful disasters and the loss of many lives. 


Great Britain, France, Germany and the 
United States are the homes of the great 
shipyards of the world. Russia, Austria, 
Italy and Japan, it is true, have their ship¬ 
yards where the smaller vessels for their 
own service are built, and even in some 
instances great battleships. But generally 
speaking, even they and most other nations 
come to the countries first named for most 
of their more important naval construc¬ 
tions. In the United States, several great 


Atlantic coast Philadelphia, Hew London 
and Hewport Hews are known as the loca¬ 
tion of the most important American ship¬ 
yards. Here great battleships are con¬ 
structed, not only for our own navy, but 
for the navies of Japan, Russia and other 
countries. Here, too, have been built many 
of the largest and finest ships that cross the 
Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans in passen¬ 
ger traffic. The Hew England shipyards 
still build many of the sailing vessels, in 













66 


The Industrial Age 


which Yankee sailors have carried the 
American flag to every quarter of the world, 
and of late years there appears to be a re¬ 
vival of the popularity of sails, in spite of 
the great increase in the steamship fleets. 

As the world tends to become smaller, 
with the extension of international trade 
and friendship, it becomes more important 
and more profitable to develop the shipping 
industries upon these highways which 
nature has provided free to all. There was 
a time when the Yankee skipper, the 
Yankee sailor and the Yankee ship stood 
at the head of the list, with a just share in 
the world’s commerce. In later years this 


condition changed, and the American flag 
has not been so well known in the ports of 
the world as it was from 1860 to 1860. 
Again the pendulum is swinging in the 
other direction, and we have the prospect 
that in a few years Americans will once 
more begin to control their share of ocean 
commerce. The same men whose genius 
in organization unites railways, banks, steel 
mills, packing houses and the other great 
industrial and commercial enterprises, into 
powerful syndicates making themselves felt 
the world over, have turned their attention 
to this department of business activity, and 
the results are bound to be seen. 



Copyright, 1900, by Detroit Photographic Co. 

THE GREAT PHILADELPHIA SHIP YARDS. 
Showing an Ocean Liner in the dry dock for repairs. 












The Industrial Age 


67 


SHIPPING ON THE GREAT LAKES 


From the Atlantic Ocean to the very 
heart of the American continent, by way 
of the St. Lawrence River and the Great 
Lakes, there is a commercial route over 
which traffic passes throughout the eight 
months of open navigation every year, so 
immense in its magnitude that it never fails 
to astonish those who consider it for the 
first time. From Niagara Falls to the sea 
this route is virtually uninterrupted for 
more than 1,000 miles, except by the short 
canals which are necessary to pass around 
the rapids of the St. Lawrence. Niagara 
Falls, however is an obstacle difficult to 


surmount, and although the Welland Canal, 
connecting Lake Erie and Lake Ontario, 
makes it possible for vessels to continue 
their journey, yet in practice not a great 
deal of the trade is carried through unin¬ 
terruptedly. 

From Buffalo to Duluth at the head of 
Lake Superior, and Chicago at the head 
of Lake Michigan, however, the travel 
routes are unbroken. Indeed there is no 
interruption in direct navigation among all 
the ports of the upper lakes, except that at 
Sault Stc. Marie the United States Gov¬ 
ernment has built a great canal lock, the 



IRON ORE DOCKS ON LAKE ERIE. 













68 

largest in the 
world, by the 
aid of which 
vessels over- 
c o m e the 
twenty -one- 
foot differ¬ 
ence in level 
between Lake 
Superior and 
its lower 
neighbors. 

Bv way of 
Lake Snpe- 
r i o r, Lake 
Michigan and 
Lake Huron 
come the im¬ 
mense s h i p- 
ments of agri¬ 
cultural and 
lumber prod¬ 
ucts from the 
n u merous 
ports around 
their shores. 
From the 
Lake Superior 
region come 
the huge car¬ 
goes of iron 
ore and cop- 
per from 
n o r t h e r n 
M i c h i g a n, 
W i s c o 11 - 
sin and Min¬ 
nesota. Duluth 
and West Su¬ 
perior, at the 
head of this 
greatest lake, 



The Industrial Age 


<v 


£ « 
p ^ 

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Qy W C3 

£ a; ^ 
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tfi a> 

*b 


























The Industrial Age 


69 



IRON MINE IN THE LAKE SUPERIOR REGION. 


also ship immense quantities of grain from 
the wheat fields of the northwest. It was 
at the shipyards of West Superior that 
those peculiar craft, the “whalebacks,” 
known to all lake men as the “pigs,” were 
built, and in them are carried millions of 
tons of grain, ore and coal every season. 
There is no trouble in finding return car¬ 
goes for vessels on the Great Lakes, which¬ 
ever way they sail. The great wheat, lum¬ 
ber and ore carriers from Lake Michigan 
and Lake Superior discharge their cargoes 
at Detroit, Cleveland, Erie or Buffalo, and 
return laden with coal or manufactured 
products, so that there is a constant ex¬ 
change between east and west, with profit 
to all interests concerned. 


Few people realize that the traffic on the 
great lakes of North America is one of the 
largest industrial enterprises in the world. 
The commerce of such a port as Chicago is 
as great as that of New York. The volume 
of traffic passing up and down through 
the great canal connecting Lake Superior 
and Lake Huron at Sault Ste. Marie, is 
greater than that passing through the Suez 
Canal, and the traffic passing the city of 
Detroit on the Detroit River is much 
greater than the ocean traffic at the port of 
New York City. 

For a few months in the winter all this 
navigation system is closed by ice, and 
traffic is halted until the ice breaks up in 
the spring. It is evident, therefore, that 



















70 


The Industrial Age 


the date of opening navigation is of great 
importance to the immense interests in¬ 
volved. So regular is the season, that 
steamship owners are able to calculate in 
advance about what time the first vessels 
may pass through the narrow channels con¬ 
necting; the different lakes. But sometimes 
all rules fail. In the spring of 1901 navi¬ 
gation was closed by ice later in the season 
than it had been for fifty-seven years, or 
virtually since the trade of the lakes grew 
to important proportions. The April ice 
jams forbade communication between the 
upper and lower lakes until well into the 
month of May, a whole month later than 
the average date of opening. Of course, 
every day’s delay meant great loss to ves¬ 
sel owners and those who were dependent 
upon shipments by water, and the total loss 
in this month of delay reached an enor¬ 
mous figure. 

There are three places that are watched 
for the signs of opening navigation. These 
are, respectively; the St. Mary River, which 
connects Lake Huron with Lake Superior; 
the Straits of Mackinac, connecting Lake 
Michigan and Lake Huron, and the St. 
Clair River, connecting Lake Huron with 
Lake St. Clair, just above Detroit. The 
last of these being the farthest south, is 
usually the first to open, and when vessels 
find a channel through the straits of Mack¬ 
inac, that is usually considered as a signal 
that navigation from the upper to the lower 
lakes is once more free. In 1901, however, 
although the Straits and the “Soo” were 
open to free navigation almost as early as 
usual, it was not possible to go from Lake 
Huron into the lower lakes. A succession 
of northeast winds carried the great ice 
floes of Lake Huron into the southern ex¬ 
tremity of the lake, where they packed and 


jammed instead of melting and scattering 
in open waters, as they would have done 
under other circumstances. The current 
of the lakes flowing into the St. Clair River 
at this point aided the winds in blocking up 
the narrow channel, and the result was that 
a solid mass of ice accumulated at the foot 
of Lake Huron, perhaps fifteen by twenty- 
five miles. The jam extended into the St. 
Clair River, which is about thirty miles 
long, and for weeks that stream was packed 
solidly with the great cakes of ice. 

All the vessels which had sailed trom 
ports on Lake Michigan and Lake Superior 
were blocked by ice jams above, and all 
those from the lower lakes were held at 
Detroit, unable to go farther up stream. It 
was not until April 29 that one boat got 
through to Detroit from the upper lakes, 
and two days later fourteen came through. 
After that the jam packed, solidly again, 
and it did not finally open until the 8tli 
of May. In the St. Clair River itself, and 
in the narrow canal which extends from 
the mouth of the river into deep water in 
Lake St. Clair, the ice cakes had actuallv 
filled the stream from top to bottom until a 
great dam was formed. Above the jam 
the water rose, but below fell so far that in 
Lake St. Clair and the Detroit River navi¬ 
gation was greatly embarrassed by the shal¬ 
low water. 

Although the commercial loss by this un¬ 
fortunate delay was great, the people who 
lived on the St. Clair River and in Detroit 
and other neighboring cities had some rec¬ 
ompense in the picturesque and interest¬ 
ing conditions that existed. On shore the 
season was almost summerlike, with flow¬ 
ers, grass and foliage as far advanced as 
ever in early May. Excursionists by the 
hundreds came out on the electric cars that 


The Industrial Age 


71 


run along the river bank, wearing their 
summer suits and straw hats, to see the 
marvelous masses of ice that were blockad¬ 
ing the commerce of the lakes. Scores of 
great vessels were held captive for from one 
to four weeks, some of them above or below 
the ice jams, and others in the very midst. 
The latter experienced all the sensations 
of Arctic exploration, cut off from shore 
as they were, except when they sent men 
to make perilous trips back and forth over 
the ice for provisions. 

When the jams finally began to break, and 
the glacier-like masses began to race down 
stream again, the vessels held in their 
clutch were at times in great danger. Docks 
along the shore were torn to pieces, vessels 
were dragged from their moorings and in 



some instances badly damaged, and others 
were left aground. Altogether the condi¬ 
tions were memorable, and those who had 
occasion to deal with the lake traffic at that 
time earnestly hope that nature may play 
no more such tricks upon them. 


AREA OF THE GREAT LAKES OF THE 
UNITED STATES. 


Su- Mich- 

perior. igan. Huron. Erie. Ontario. 
Greatest length in 


miles .. 

. 390 

345 

270 

250 

190 

Greatest 

breadth in 





miles .. 

. 160 

84 

105 

60 

52 

Greatest 

depth in 





feet ... 

. 900 

1,800 

1,000 

204 

412 

Area in square miles 32,200 

22,400 

23,000 

10,000 

6,700 

Drainage 

in square 




miles .. 

. 85,000 

70,040 

74,000 

39,680 

29,760 

Height above sea- 



level in 

feet . 600 

578 

574 

564 

234 

Latitude, 

degrees) 46° 45' 

40° 15' 

43° 20' 

41° 20' 

43° 10' 

north . 

. 1 48° 50' 

46° 55' 

60° 10' 

42° 50' 

44° 10' 

Longitude, degrees 1 84° 30' 

84° 40' 

80° W 

78° 35' 

76° 20' 

west .. 

. 1 92° 15' 

87° 08' 

84° 30' 

S3 3 10' 

79° 50' 

Boundary 

lines . 300 

None 

220 

200 

160 

United States shore 





line in 

miles. 955 

1,320 

510 

370 

230 






















P-H 0> 
£ 2 
s - 

K c3 
& 

Di “ 
H -2 
E- £ 
< 
























The Industrial Age 


73 


THE GREAT INDUSTRIES OF THE SEAS AND LAKES 


Through all the ages, man has drawn a 
large share of his sustenance from sea 
foods, and as the industrial organization of 
the world has advanced, so the industries 
which depend upon the products of tho 
ocean grow in size. To-day fishermen in 
large numbers pursue their vocations in 
steam craft instead of sail boats; refrigera¬ 
tor cars running on all lines of railway dis¬ 
tribute sea food to inland markets in all 
its delicacy ; even the 
firms and the compa¬ 
nies which formerly 
conducted fishing oper¬ 
ations in a small way 
have begun to form 
their own corporations, 
svndicates and trusts, 
so that in our time all 
processes of modern 
commercial energy are 
enlisted in what was 
once one of the most 
primitive of industries. 

ISTo longer does the 
whaler tell dramatic 
stories of his dangerous 
pursuit of the monster 
of the deep, of arms- 
length charges with the 
harpoon, of overturned 
boats, and ferocious as¬ 
saults by the wounded 
prey. Instead, steam- 
powered whaling ships 
seek the far north, 
armed with peculiar 
guns from which they 
hurl fatal missiles at 


long range, with safety .to themselves. 
Whaling indeed is no longer as important 
an industry as it once was. Various artifi¬ 
cial substitutes for whalebone have been in¬ 
vented, while mineral, vegetable and ani¬ 
mal oils, ingeniously manipulated, are sub¬ 
stituted for most of the former uses of the 
whale oil. Nevertheless the North Atlan¬ 
tic, the North Pacific, Bering Sea, and the 
Antarctic regions still support a consider- 



FISHMARKET AT GRIMSBY, ENGLAND. 











74 


The Industrial Age 



STRIPPING BLUBBER. 

Scene at a North Pacific Whaling Station, 



















75 


The Industrial Age 


able number of whalers who find the indus¬ 
try a profitable one. Whales have been re¬ 
duced in number within the last century, 
by the persistent assaults of the hardy sea¬ 
men, and it is fortunate that satisfactory 
substitutes have been found, or virtual ex¬ 
termination would have been their lot. 


fisheries of to-dav are in the North Pacific 

t J 

Ocean, Bering Sea and the Arctic Ocean 
around the Alaskan coast. Every year 
fleets of whalers spend the winter off Point 
Barrow, on the north coast of Alaska, in 
order to be ready for work when the ice 
breaks up in the spring. On these barren 
Alaskan coasts, the whale fishers of to-day 
establish their stations, in order to avoid 
the necessity of delaying their work on ship¬ 
board. These stations are usually situated 
in some sheltered cove, where great boiling 
vats are made ready. When a whale is 
killed it is towed close in shore, and kept 
afloat by barrels and buoys, while the blub¬ 


ber is stripped off for the boiling vats. A 
special gang of men attends to this part of 
the work, remaining on shore, and the ves¬ 
sel itself with sailors and whale hunters 
aboard, returns to the open sea to find more 
game. Such whale stations are odorous 
places at best, and their existence is be¬ 
tokened by great flights of gulls attracted 

from a long distance 
by the smell from the 
boiling vats, and the 
carcasses upon which 
the birds live in lux¬ 
ury after all the blub¬ 
ber has been removed. 

It is a long distance 
from the whale fish¬ 
eries of the Arctic to 
the sardine fisheries of 
the Mediterranean, but 
the taking of the little 
fish for table use is an 
industrv not second in 
importance and not less 
interesting. Multitudes 
of fishermen around 
the Mediterranean 
coasts are busily engaged in the sardine 
fisheries, which are supplemented for the 
perfection of the industry by the olive 
groves along the same coasts, which provide 
oil for canning purposes. On the Califor¬ 
nian coast, too, the sardine and olive oil 
industries are likewise developing together 
into commercial importance. 

The southern coast of Alaska, British 
Columbia, Oregon and Washington are the 
sources of the immense product of salmon 
which now enters every market either fresh 
or canned. The salmon fisheries of the 
Columbia River and the adjacent waters are 
among the most important of the industries 


The most important commercial whale 



EVENING’S HAUL OF SALMON AT A BRITISH COLUMBIA CANNERY. 
















MAKING TIN CANS BY MACHINERY FOR A GREAT SALMON CANNERY. 































The Industrial Age 


77 


of our Pacific northwest. The scene in a 
great salmon cannery is a striking one, and 
by the rapidity and deftness of the proc¬ 
esses, from the time the great fish is drawn 
from the water until it appears symmet¬ 
rically canned and labeled for the market, 
it suggests no parallel but the packing 
house in our great stock yards. 

On the other side of the continent, over 
the Grand Banks of Newfoundland, the 
hardy fishermen of the New England coast 
drop their nets and their lines for the enor¬ 
mous schools of cod and mackerel. This 
is one of the most picturesque of all the 
fisheries of the world, in the novelty of its 
methods, the bravery of the fishermen them¬ 
selves and the perils of the work. Storms, 


fogs, and swift passenger liners speeding 
across the Atlantic, unite to threaten dis¬ 
aster to the Banks fishermen, but men rise 
to the demands upon them, and these very 
fisheries have bred a race of sailors known 
wherever ships sail, as unexcelled in cour¬ 
age, reliability and seamanship. 

Another phase of the American fisheries 
is found in the inland waters of the Chesa¬ 
peake Bay, where the oyster trade employs 
thousands of men in a pursuit more difficult 
and dangerous than is generally understood. 
The lobster industry on the Maine coast is 
likewise an important one, and rapidly in¬ 
creasing as this food increases in favor with 
epicures. 

Inland fisheries lack some of the charac- 



CLEANING FISH IN AN OREGON SALMON CANNERY. 















LOBSTER PENS ON THE NORTH ATLANTIC COAST. 































The Industrial Age 


79 


teristics of those of the ocean, but they have 
their own great commercial importance and 
do not lack picturesque features. From 
early spring till late autumn, hundreds of 
hardy men are busily engaged in the Great 
Lakes, chiefly in Lake Superior, to obtain 
the enormous quantities of whitefish and 
trout sold in every city and village. 

There are river fisheries, too, of great 
importance, with the Mississippi and Volga 
as types of this department of the traffic. 
From the Volga, that greatest river of 
European Russia, comes most of the 
caviare which is a favorite delicacy on 
many tables. The only American supply 
which rivals it comes from the Lake of the 
Woods, on the northern boundary of Minne¬ 


sota, where sturgeon fisheries, which pro¬ 
duce the caviare, have grown to consider¬ 
able proportions. 

The maritime nations of Europe, which 
have a crowded population and a large pro¬ 
portionate sea coast, depend more upon sea 
foods than do we in the United States. 
Those countries facing the North Sea and 
the Baltic have developed fishing industries 
which are growing in magnitude. A large 
part of the product is consumed locally, but 
there is also a considerable shipment across 
the North Sea to the English markets. One 
of the most important receiving ports is 
Grimsby, where fishing vessels discharge 
their cargo for the markets of London and 
the other large cities. 



GRAIN ELEVATOR ON CHICAGO RIVER. CAPACITY, 700,000 BUSHELS. 




















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The Industrial Age 


81 


PROGRESS IN METHODS OF NAVAL WARFARE 


If it be true that the most certain way to 
put an end to warfare is to make war more 
terrible, we should include the Krupps, the 
Gatlings and the Maxims in the list of our 
true promoters of peace. Improved artil¬ 
lery, rifles, armor plate and explosives have 
been devised of late years with a rapidity 
not second to industrial inventions. 

The world’s naval wisdom received a sur¬ 
prise and a shock when Ericsson’s little 
iron-sided Monitor fought its duel with the 
ponderous Merrimac, ribbed with railroad 
iron. American ingenuity, both north and 
south, had grappled with the problem of 
invulnerable warship construction, ignor¬ 
ing absolutely all other naval architects of 

o «/ 


the world and their cumbrous lore. Slow- 
going conservatism had to be abandoned, 
and the old wooden hulks then constituting 
the navies of the earth’s great powers were 
doomed to the scrap heap. 

Since that time there has been a con¬ 
stant rivalry between the ship-builder and 
armorer on the one hand, and the gun, gun¬ 
powder and projectile manufacturer on the 
other hand. Every improvement in armor 
plate has been met by a further advance, 
either in the gun, the projectile, or the pro¬ 
pelling charge of the gunpowder. An 
armor-maker would announce the produc¬ 
tion of a steel plate which no existing can¬ 
non could penetrate. Then the projectiles 



FAMED IN AMERICAN HISTORY, 


LAUNCHING OF THE “CONSTITUTION 








82 


The Industrial Age 


were made conical, and with a sharp point, 
having a fine temper, and the gun was rifled 
to give the projectile rotation and true 
flight, and the guns were made to load at 
the breech instead of the muzzle, adding 
greatly to the rapidity and facility of fire. 
Another inventor then came forward with 
a method of hardening the surface of the 
plate, by a process bearing his name. A 
Harveyized plate is so hard that it cannot 
be scratched with a file or cut with a cold 
chisel, hfickel was put in the plate, add¬ 
ing still more to its hardness and toughness. 
Then smokeless powder was produced, de¬ 


veloping much greater energy than its black 
predecessor, and made to burn with accel¬ 
erating combustion, and with it projectiles 
could be hurled with such velocity that the 
energy of their impact could not be resisted 
by the plate, and the gun had to be length¬ 
ened and strengthened forward to meet the 
new demands upon it. The limit in the 
weight of armor plate was soon reached. 
Twelve inches in thickness came to be about 
the maximum for the belt of the strongest 
warship, for she could not carry thicker and 
float. The projectile was still more im¬ 
proved, being made of the finest forged steel 



TEST OF ARMOR PLATE FOR AN AMERICAN MAN-OF-WAR. 













The Industrial Age 


83 


and tempered with great skill. Then came 
Kruppized plate, and the projectile was 
again turned aside or smashed upon its sur¬ 
face. Lastly a soft nose made of mild steel 
was placed on the point of the armor-pierc¬ 
ing projectile, and the gunner could again 
laugh at the thickest Kruppized plate that 
could he carried by the battleship. 

Contemporaneous with this work, the 
high-explosive manufacturer and inventor 


to learn by experiment. It was believed by 
many that high explosives must of neces¬ 
sity be very ticklish, and that their sensi¬ 
tiveness- must ^ be in direct proportion to 
their explosive power. The word dynamite 
was sufficient to cause a person of average 
information to seek safety in flight from its 
vicinity. It was generally believed that if 
high explosives could only be thrown in any 
considerable quantity from guns they 





THE FASTEST SHIP AFLOAT. 

The British torpedo-boat destroyer “Viper,” steaming at 38 knots, or more than 43 land miles, an hour. 


have been busv, but so burdened has been 
their work by popular misunderstandings 
of the nature of the high explosives, that 
they have had a much stronger barrier in 
the form of prejudice and ignorance to get 
through than has the gun manufacturer in 
keeping ahead of the armorer. 

There was such a wholesale dread enter¬ 
tained by even rational investigators, and 
some inventors themselves, of high explo¬ 
sives, that they chose rather to theorize than 


would destroy anything they might hit, or 
if they should strike in the water anywhere 
near a warship it would be sent to the bot¬ 
tom. But it was thought that guns must 
be constructed in some peculiar way, and 
a propelling means especially adapted to 
lessen the shock be employed for throwing 
some special kind of bomb, in order to get 
the dynamite out of the gun very gently. 

The most notorious of these freaks in 
ordnance is the so-called pneumatic dyna- 





PRACTICAL EXPERIMENTS WITH NEW ARMOR AND PROJECTILES. 
Gunnery practice against an obsolete battleship by our North Atlantic Squadron. 





The Industrial .A ge 


85 


mite gun, a battery of which guns was 
erected at Sandy Hook and protected at 
great expense, and a similar battery was put 
up at San Francisco. The expense of these 
outfits was enormous, and absolutely to no 
purpose whatever. Their range is limited 
to about a mile and a half. The projectile 
has no power of penetration whatever, and 


must necessarily go off on impact outside 
of an object, should the gunner be so lucky 
as to hit anything with it; but the angle 
of fire is so high, and the range so short, 
that the question of hitting an enemy’s bat¬ 
tleship with one of these weapons can be 
no longer seriously considered. A fleet of 
modern battleships could lie with perfect 


safety within close gunshot of these bat¬ 
teries and bombard them out of existence, 
and it would be impossible for the pneu¬ 
matic guns to get a single shot within half 
a mile of any of the battleships. 

In 1899 Gen. A. II. Buffington, the Chief 
of Ordnance of the United States Army, 
determined to thoroughly investigate the 

O t/ O' 


subject of high explosives, and he arranged 
that the Ordnance Board, with headquar¬ 
ters at Sandy Hook Proving Ground, Hew 
Jersey, should carry out a line of experi¬ 
ments in such a thorough and efficient man¬ 
ner as to settle once for all what known high 
explosives were the most suitable for use 
in the service, and also to test thoroughly, 



PLACING A BIG GUN ON BOARD A BATTLESHIP. 

This extraordinary gun, 36 feet 8 inches long, has a range of 14,000 yards, or eight miles. It fires a 
shot weighing more than half a ton with a charge of 650 pounds of powder. 













86 


The Industrial Age 



COALING A BATTLESHIP AT SEA. 


fire, it would simply burn away like 
asphalt, without exploding. When cast into 
shells, it not onlv solidifies into a dense, 
hard incomprehensible mass on cooling, but 
it expands and sets hard upon the walls of 
the projectile like sulphur, that is to say, 
in the same way as water does in freezing. 

Hiram Maxim, the inventor of this ex¬ 
plosive, describes its effects as follows, and 
adds his opinions on the tendencies of mod¬ 
ern warfare: “When a shell filled with it 
strikes armor-plate, the Maximite does not 
shift a particle, and it is so insensitive that 
it not only stands the shock of penetration 
of the thickest armor-plate which the shell 
itself can go through, but it will not ex¬ 
plode, even if the projectile breaks upon the 
plate. In one experiment a six-pounder pro¬ 
jectile, filled with Maximite, fired against 
a thick plate, entered the plate about 


and without partiality, any and all new 
high explosives which might be submitted 
by different inventors and manufacturers, 
provided they appeared to offer sufficient 
merit to warrant investigation. 

MAXIMITE, THE NEW EXPLOSIVE. 

Maximite, which was adopted by the 
Government, satisfactorily stood every test 
to which it was subjected. It is very inex¬ 
pensive of manufacture; has a fusion point 
below the temperature of boiling water; 
cannot be exploded from ignition, and, in¬ 
deed, cannot be heated hot enough to ex¬ 
plode, for it will boil away like water 
without exjjloding. It is, therefore, per¬ 
fectly safe to melt over an open fire for fill¬ 
ing projectiles, in the same manner that 
asphalt is melted in a street caldron. 
Should the material by any chance catch on 





















87 


The Industrial Age 


half its length and upset—that is to say, 
shortened nearly two inches and burst 
open at the side, and some of the Maximite 
was forced through the aperture and the 
projectile rebounded from the plate about 
200 feet and struck in the front of the gun 
from which it was fired, and all without 
exploding. Some lyd¬ 
dite shells—that is to 
say, shells charged 
with picric acid, the 
high explosive adopted 
by the British Gov¬ 
ernment,—filled in the 
same way as was Max- 
imite, into the same 
kind of projectiles and 
fired at a thin plate 
an inch and a half in 
thickness, all exploded 
on impact. So insen¬ 
sitive is this high ex¬ 
plosive that melted 
castiron may be poured 
upon a mass of it 
without causing an explosion. The 
writer has repeatedly made this experiment. 
When a projectile, however, charged with 
Maximite, is armed with a proper detonat¬ 
ing fuse, such as that used in these experi¬ 
ments, the invention of a United States 
Army officer, it is exploded with such ter¬ 
rific violence that a 12-inch armor-piercing 
projectile was broken into at least 10,000 
fragments; 7,000 were actually recovered. 
This armor-piercing projectile, weighing 
1,000 pounds, was filled with seventy 
pounds of Maximite, armed with a fuse, 
and burned in the sand. After exploding, 
the sand was sifted to obtain the fragments. 
There were other high explosives tested 
with Maximite, which also produced re¬ 


markable results. Had not Maximite been 
invented, the Ordnance Board would still 
have in its possession a high explosive de¬ 
veloped by the Army Department itself, far 
superior to anything that has ever been em¬ 
ployed in any other country, and the work 
of that Board for the last two years would 


have still been highly rewarded. Maximite 
has been adopted for the sole reason that it 
fulfills the largest number of the highest 
requirements sought for by the Ordnance 
Board.” 

Hot since the lesson taught by Ericsson’s 
Monitor has anything been accomplished in 
military science more pregnant with mean¬ 
ing than these results at Sandy Hook. 
They have demonstrated that nothing what¬ 
ever can be made to float with armor which 
will be capable of withstanding the destruc¬ 
tive effects of Maximite shells thrown from 
modern high-power guns, which are capable 
of penetrating the thickest Kruppized 
plates, to explode into a battleship. 

Should the United States now become in- 



FACTORY FOR HIGH EXPLOSIVES, SHOWING EARTHEN WALLS, TO 
PROTECT AGAINST DISASTERS. 







88 


The Industrial Age 


volved in war with any other great power, 
we should be able to throw these high ex¬ 
plosive projectiles through the thickest 
armor of our enemies, to explode inside 
their warships, while they, in turn, would 
be able to penetrate our armor with solid 
shot, or, at least, with projectiles carrying 
no bursting charge whatever. 

Mr. Maxim also says: “The moral 
taught by these new developments is that 
the ponderous battleships must go and be 
replaced by the small, swift torpedo boat or 
torpedo gunboat and cruiser, and practic¬ 
ally unarmored, as no protection whatever 
can avail against such missiles. There 
must be no sacrifice of mobility for cumber¬ 
some armor. While Maximite places this 
government far in the lead of any other 
power in its weapons of offense and de¬ 
fense, it will, as well, save this government 
manv hundreds of millions of dollars 
which should otherwise have been expended 
in the building of unwieldy battleships, for 
which other powers have squandered fabu¬ 
lous sums, and which must soon be recog¬ 
nized as obsolete. The competition between 
the great powers for naval and military 
supremacy is about as keen as it could be in 
an actual state of war, and the drain upon 
their resources is enormous, and the burden 
year by year is growing heavier. It is 
problematical whether England, France or 
Germany would prove the stronger in the 
event of war, and it is equally problematical 
which can longest endure the ever increas¬ 
ing drain upon its resources as a measure 
of insurance in the event of hostilities. 
And there is another problem—and one of 
vast concern—and it is whether these stu¬ 
pendous preparations are altogether wise 
on present lines; but no power dares to de¬ 
viate too far from the main course pursued 


by the other powers for fear of making an 
irreparable, mistake, and so big battleship 
building still goes on, with a sort of half- 
awakened consciousness that these craft 
will prove a source of weakness rather than 
of strength. 

“Along with the ponderous, armor-clad 
battleship, we have seen developed means 
for its destruction, so that to-day it holds 
no higher place with respect to invulnera¬ 
bility in face of these means, than did the 
wooden hulk of a half century ago in the 
face of the weapons then used. Indeed, it 
is probable that the modern battleship, cost¬ 
ing five or six millions of dollars, will be 
in still greater danger of being sent to the 
bottom in a modern naval engagement than 
was the wooden craft of Nelson’s time. 

“Let us consider what will be the chief 
forces that will oppose the battleship and 
oppose one another in the next great naval 
engagement. First, there will be the tor¬ 
pedo boat and the torpedo boat destroyer, 
capable of traveling at a speed double that 
of the battleship, armed with Whitehead 
automobile torpedoes, which launched be¬ 
low the water lines will run beneath the 
surface as straight as an arrow to deal the 
battleship a fatal blow below T its armored 
protection. There will also be the sub¬ 
marine boat, similarly armed, which has 
already shown itself capable of stealing up¬ 
on the battleship wholly unobserved, to deal 
it a deadly blow, even in the glare of noon, 
as well as at the dead of night. And there 
will be another form of torpedo craft, 
armed with automobile torpedoes, which 
will run upon the surface of the water like 
an ordinary torpedo boat, but at railroad 
speed, and which will dive to a semi-sub¬ 
merged position when coming within the 
range of the enemy’s guns. Half a dozen 


The Industrial Age 



torpedoes will be launched by it in a mo¬ 
ment, and the little boat will be endangered 
only by the huge vortexical gulf down 
which the battleship takes its plunge to the 
bottom of the sea. 

“ISTow that a high explosive has been de¬ 
veloped, which is capable of withstanding 


' 89 

ton or more of high explosive at high 
velocity, to explode and crush the walls of 
the battleship or demolish its superstruct¬ 
ure, or, if falling in the water, to crush 
in the sides below the armored belt. Each 
of these systems will have its advantages 
over the other, and will also have its dis¬ 


ARMORED BOAT FOR RIVER SERVICE IN CENTRAL AFRICA. 


the shock of penetration of the hardest steel 
wall of the biggest armor-clad, to explode 
in vital parts, the battleship has another and 
most formidable antagonist. By means of 
this invention the destructiveness of the 
present high-power gun is enormously in¬ 
creased. There will be two systems of guns 
and projectiles employed—the one the pres¬ 
ent quick-firing, high-power cannon, throw¬ 
ing armor-piercing projectiles carrying rela¬ 
tively small bursting charges of high explo¬ 
sives, to explode on the interior of the war¬ 
ship, or within the armor, to rip it from the 
sides. The other will be the torpedo gun, 
throwing aerial torpedoes carrying half a 


advantages. While the large quantity of 
explosive carried in the aerial torpedo will 
be capable of working wide destruction 
when landing fairly on the mark, yet the 
quick-firing cannon, with equal range, and 
able to fire many times as fast, with pro¬ 
jectiles capable of penetrating the strongest 
armor, to explode inside, will remain no 
mean rival to the torpedo gun, and any and 
all other forms of attack. 

NAVAL BATTLES IN THE FUTURE. 

“The first and most important lesson 
which will be learned from the next great 
naval battle will be that armored protection 
















90 


The Industrial Age 


will not protect, and the fight will soon be 
a duel between battleships at long range, 
aided by various forms of torpedo boats, 
and light unarmored cruisers, throwing high 
explosives; and these latter will he the fac¬ 
tors which will determine the fight. The 
heavy armorclad will he discredited, and 
then will he a wild scramble by the nations 
in the endeavor to make up for the lost time 
wasted on its construction, and light and 
very swift unprotected war vessels will be 
constructed, depending for their safety up¬ 
on their speed, and upon their own ability 
to strike death-dealing blows. These are 
the true principles which must, sooner or 
later, he recognized. 

“The British Government now proposes 
building still larger and heavier battleships 
and, of course, enormously more expensive. 
Within the next decade, and sooner, in the 
event of the great war, this will be learned 
by the British War Office to be a great mis¬ 
take. The writer pointed out some years 
ago that the introduction of gunpowder 
w’as long opposed on grounds which, accord¬ 
ing to twentieth century ideas, are su¬ 
premely ridiculous. To us moderns noth¬ 
ing could be more apparent than the supe¬ 
riority of firearms over bows and arrows as 
weapons of war. A few years hence, the 
present panorama of the nations will ap¬ 
pear ludicrous, vying with one another for 
naval and military supremacy, and exhaust¬ 
ing their treasuries in the construction of 
huge battleships, a dozen of which will be 
sunk by a torpedo fleet costing no more than 
one of them. Such battleship destroyers 
are now an accomplished fact, and lie under 
the eyes of all the world to-day, but are not 
seen. Their merits are told into ears that 
are as deaf as death. It is like knocking at 
the doors of an empty house for admission. 


Only the issue of a great naval battle can 
bring the torpedo fleet into proper recogni¬ 
tion. 

“When firearms were first introduced, 
the foot-soldier was clothed in armor, which 
was constantly increased in w T eight and 
thickness to resist improved weapons, until 
it became so ponderous and unwieldy as to 
sadly interfere with mobility. It w 7 as 
found impossible, however, for the soldier 
to carry armor thick enough to protect him 
against missiles hurled by gunpowder. As 
a result, all the armor was discarded. The 
modern war vessel has now entered upon a 
similar phase of its evolution, and for ex¬ 
actly the same reason that the soldier was 
obliged to discard his armor, so will armor 
have to be sacrificed in the coming war ves¬ 
sel, and the most practical means of de¬ 
fense will then be found to consist in the 
very means which serve best for offense.” 

The naval authorities of most of the 
maritime powers have studied with great 
interest the progress of experiments in sub¬ 
marine craft. Inventors for years have 
been endeavoring to perfect vessels that 
could be submerged and still propelled and 
controlled with safety to their occupants. 
This series of investigations has been en¬ 
couraged by the governments with some 
spirit of rivalry as to which country should 
first obtain such a practicable craft. In 

our own countrv the vessel known as the 
«/ 

Holland, named for its inventor, has 
achieved remarkable success and has been 
adopted by the government as a worthy ad¬ 
junct to our coast defense. The vessel trav¬ 
els at fair speed on the surface, may be 
submerged for several hours without dis¬ 
comfort or danger to its crew, and can 
travel slowly under water, so that it may 
advance clandestinely upon an enemy with- 


The Industrial Age 


91 



out danger of discovery. For launching 
torpedoes against the side of a battleship 
without danger to the attacking party, such 
craft have every advantage. They have 
not been perfected yet to a degree that en¬ 
ables them to make long voyages, but the 
present success is sufficient to promise great 
improvements in the future. 

THE SUBMARINE VESSEL. 

The French experiments have been suc¬ 
cessfully achieved through the skill and 
genius of Gustave Zade, an inventor of 
Toulon, who has built two interesting craft 
of which the latest, named for himself, is 
the most successful. This latter boat is 
147 feet long and is propelled by electric 
motors with storage batteries. The hull is 
cigar-shaped, with very sharp ends, and the 
speed is eight-and-a-half knots an hour be¬ 
low, and fourteen knots above the surface. 
A crew of ten men is carried, with com¬ 
pressed air, stored in tanks, enough to last 
them while below. Torpedoes may be dis¬ 
charged from an opening in the bow of the 
boat. This vessel has been operated in 
deep and shallow water with remarkable 
success, and has made trips up to seventy 
miles without difficulty. All of these sub¬ 


marine craft are oper¬ 
ated on the same gen¬ 
eral principle, being 
sunk by admitting 
water to tanks pro¬ 
vided for the purpose, 
and raised to the sur¬ 
face again by the 
buoyancy of these 
tanks when the water 
is pumped out. 

For warfare in the 
interior of uncivilized 
countries, the light- 
draft armed vessel also has been brought 
to a high degree of adaptability. The 
British in Africa use what they term 
an armored canoe, . although the word 
canoe is a misnomer. It is a heavy 
steam launch, covered with boiler iron, 
and with shields to protect the men and 
the rapid-firing machine guns which it 
carries. Such a boat can penetrate the Af¬ 
rican jungles by way of the rivers and can 
assist in campaigns against savage tribes 
who could with difficulty be reached at all 
by the trails through the forests. The 
United States, like other powers, utilizes 
light-draft gunboats for service in the 
rivers and archipelagoes of the Asiatic 
coasts, and the Pacific islands where such 
service is needed. The rivers of China and 
Korea, at the time of native attacks on 
foreigners, have been the frequent scene of 
such operations. ' 

In order to still more facilitate the oper¬ 
ations of warships at sea, a device has been 
invented by which the fighting craft may 
take coal without making port. Wire cables 
are strung between the masthead of the 
battleship and the collier, and upon these 
cables iron baskets are hauled back and 















92 


The Industrial Age 


forth until the coal is transferred. This is 
an application of the trolley system by 
which ore and coal are conveyed from 
mines to cars for shipment, where valleys 
and hills intervene. Experiments with this 
method of coaling have been made in the 
American navy and in the British navy, 
and in moderately rough weather forty 
tons per hour have been taken aboard a 
battleship from a collier. With practice it 
is believed that this speed can he greatly 
increased, and such embarrassments as ham¬ 
pered the American navy^in the Caribbean 
during the late war will he eliminated. 

The improvements in the appliances of 
warfare thus briefly indicated are typical 
of others upon which students of the arts 
of war are engaged. In these ante-millen¬ 
nium times, war is occasionally a neces- 
sarv contingencv, and when it comes we 
want the best tools we can get to fight with. 


It is a crime for a nation not to be pre¬ 
pared for war, a crime against those who 
will he called upon to defend her in time 
of war. It is a crime for a nation not to 
be abreast of the times in arms and equip¬ 
ment. At best war is cruelty, hut it is not 
only often a necessity hut unavoidable, and, 
once engaged in, should be made as destruct¬ 


ive as possible, in order that it may be brief 
as possible, thus minimizing the evil in the 
aggregate. 

The approximate dates of the completion 
of the new battleships and cruisers of the 
United States were given by the Secretary 
of the Navy at the beginning of 1902 as 
follows: battleships: Maine, October, 1902; 
Missouri, March, 1903; Ohio, May, 1903; 
Virginia, May, 1904; Nebraska, July, 
1904; Georgia, July, 1904; Rhode Island, 
July, 1904. Armored cruisers: Pennsyl¬ 
vania, January, 1904; West Virginia, Feb¬ 
ruary, 1904; California, August, 1904; 
Colorado, January, 1904; Maryland, Feb¬ 
ruary, 1904; South Dakota, August, 1904. 

With the completion of the above, the 
navy will have seventeen battleships and 
eight armored cruisers. The total number 
of warships of all kinds under construction 
at the same date was fifty-nine, including 

besides those m e n - 
tioned, nine cruisers, 
four monitors, twenty- 
five torpedo boat de¬ 
stroyers, nine torpedo 
boats and seven sub¬ 
marines. In addition 
to these, the navy in 
commission at the same 
date included eleven 
men-of-war of the first 
rate, meaning above 8,- 
000 tons; fifteen of the 
second rate, or between 4,000 and 8,000 
tons, and about eighty of less size, including 
monitors, cruisers, gun-boats and torpedo 
boats. The best calculations therefore credit 
the United States with being fourth among 
the powers in naval strength, surpassed 
only by England, France and Russia, and 
followed by Germany, Italy and Japan. 









The Industrial Age 


93 


FLOATING DOCKS FOR MEN-OF-WAR 


The immense increase in the size of men- 
of-war in the last few years has compelled 
the rapid increase of repair and supply 
and equipment stations wherever such ves¬ 
sels are to sail. The navy without proper 
equipment would be as had as no navy at 
all, and so every country has found it neces¬ 
sary to seek a favorable location for coal¬ 
ing stations all over the world. In time of 
war, the fighting ships of the hostile pow¬ 
ers are limited in their privileges in neutral 
ports. For instance, they are permitted to 
take on board only sufficient coal to enable 
them to steam to the nearest port of their 
own country, and that privilege can not be 
duplicated at a later time during the prog¬ 
ress of hostilities. Powerful and threaten¬ 
ing as a great battleship is, there can be 
nothing more helpless than such a craft 


either out of coal or disabled for want of 
some facility of repair. 

The prime requisite for well-equipped 
navy yards is a dock in which even the 
largest vessels may rest while they are being 
overhauled. There are two types of such 
docks, the drydock which is built on land, 
with gates by which the water may be ad¬ 
mitted and released at will, and floating 
docks, for use where the other type is not 
available. Like other powers, the United 
States has found it necessary to extend its 
docking facilities, and the great structure 
pictured herewith is the newest one of all. 
This floating dock is located at Algiers, 
across the Mississippi Piver from Few Or¬ 
leans, although such craft may be taken 
from port to port at will. In the illustra- 





FLOATING DOCK SHOWING BATTLESHIP ILLINOIS IN PLACE. 
This dock was built by the Government for use at New Orleans. 





















94 


The Industrial Age 



LAUNCHING A GREAT FLOATING DOCK. 

This dock was constructed at Wallsend-on-Tyne, for use in Bermuda. 

4 


tion, the new battleship Illinois is seen in 
the clock high out of the water. 

In spite of the great size of the floating 
dock, the method of its use is simple enough. 
The general shape of the peculiar structure, 
if it were cut right through to show a sec¬ 
tion, is that of a great letter U, hut on the 
outside it is rectangular, the curve of the 
U occurring only on the inside. The great 
bottom and sides of it are hollow, and under 
ordinary circumstances it floats high on the 
water. When it is desired to take a vessel 
into the dock, the great pontoons, which are 
enclosed in the bottom and the lower part 
of the sides, are pumped full of water, so 
that it sinks to whatever depth is required 
to permit the admission of the ship. With 
the end gates open, the ship is now moved 
cautiously into the dock, and braced in 
place, after which the water is pumped out 
of the pontoons. As the dock rises, of 
course the vessel rises with it, until at last 
it is entirely uncovered and ready for what¬ 
ever repairs are necessary. In order to re¬ 
lease the ship from this position, the same 
process is reversed. In the picture, one 


obtains a striking view of the bottom and 
bow of the Illinois and its projecting “ram.” 
The peculiar trusses extending from the 
side of the dock to shore are hinged at 
each end so that although the dock may 
rise and fall with the tide or the weight of 
vessels, it still maintains its position in 
reference to the shore. Another new float¬ 
ing dock which came into service for the 
American navy is the one at Havana, 
which was built at Birkenhead for the 
Spanish Government in 1887, and cost 
nearly $600,000. 

The other illustration shows the launch 
of a new floating dock constructed in Eng¬ 
land for use in Bermuda. This dock is 
545 feet long, the side walls are fifty-three 
feet high, and the total width of the struct¬ 
ure is 130 feet, with 100 feet between the 
walls. This dock is capable of lifting out 
of the water a ship 17,500 tons in weight, 
and drawing thirty-two feet of water. This 
dock cost $1,150,000, of which $175,000 
measured the cost of towing it across the 
Atlantic Ocean to Bermuda. 











The Industrial Age 


95 


THE FIRST CABLE ACROSS THE PACIFIC OCEAN 


Now that the political and commercial 
sway of the United States extends far into 
the Orient, it is necessary to connect the 
nation with its remote dependencies by 
steamship lines and submarine cables under 
our own control, so that communication 
may be uninterrupted at all times. Steam¬ 
ship lines, in fact, are already established 
between the Pacific coast of the United 
States and our island possessions of Ha¬ 
waii, Samoa, Guam and the Philippines. 
In order to accomplish the other purpose, 
Uncle Sam is about to spend 9,000,000 
good American dollars for copper wire, 
gutta percha, jute yarn, tar, and steel wire. 
When this money has been spent and a fleet 
of ships and a thousand electricians and 
engineers have finished their work, the 
Philippines and the United States will be 
within half a minute’s talking distance of 
each other. 

The cable which will establish this com¬ 
munication will be the first to span the Pa¬ 
cific, and almost triple the length of the 
longest submarine wire ever laid. Prom 
San Francisco to Manila, with stops at 
Guam and Honolulu, the distance is nearly 
8,000 miles. 

The making of this great stretch of cable 
is a colossal task. About 22,740 tons of 
material will be required—1,980 tons of 
copper wire, 12,000 tons of steel wire, 
2,300 tons of jute yarn, 4,300 tons of com¬ 
pound and tar, and 1,260 tons of gutta 
percha. This means a total weight greater 
than that of forty-eight locomotives of 
standard size. 

Most people know in a vague, general 
way that the submarine wire is about an 


inch thick, and that it resembles, more than 
anything else, the underground cable which 
in some cities operates the cable cars. Few 
people, however, have any idea of the inner 
construction or of the ingenious processes 
by which the delicate copper wires that 
carry the electric current are so protected 
that they lie for years and years on the oozy 
bed of the ocean, and do their work with 
practical immunity from breaks, accidents 
or interruptions of any kind. 

The cable is composed of three parts: the 
copper strand; the hemp, tar and rubber 
casing which protects them from the water, 
and the heavy steel binding that acts as a 
shield against rocks, wreckage, the keels 
of ships, and the sharp teeth of ocean mon¬ 
sters. 

The first step in the making of a sub¬ 
marine cable is the preparation of the cop¬ 
per wire. After the wire has been weighed 
and tested it is taken to the winding drums. 
Here it is rapidly reeled around large, 
spool-like devices called bobbins. From 
the winding room the wire goes to the 
stranding room. Here the seven wires are 
twisted together and united un the cable 
stranding machines. 

The thin metal threads which are des¬ 
tined to flash under the water messages for 
which, perchance, a world will wait breath¬ 
less, are now ready for their first sheath¬ 
ing. This consists of insulating material, 
jute being usually employed. 

In applying the jute water is used, and 
as the least moisture would render the cable 
useless, a very careful and thorough system 
of drying is employed. The jute-covered 
wires go through vacuum drying-boxes, 



MACHINES FOR BRAIDING WIRES INTO SUBMARINE TELEGRAPHIC CABLES. 









































The Industrial Age 


97 


which evaporate the last vestige of moisture. 
From the drying-boxes the wire passes to 
caldrons filled with insulating material. 
Here the wire is allowed to steep until the 
covering has become so thoroughly impreg¬ 
nated that there is no chance of any of the 
electric current leaking out, after the cable 
has finally been consigned to its watery 
resting place. The first stage of the work 
is now completed. 

Hext comes the making of the gutta 
percha jacket. Despite its great cost, gutta 
percha will be used in the Pacific cable, for 
it has been found to give a better result 
than any other form of casing. From time 
to time cable manufacturers have utilized 
various rubber compounds as substitutes. 
These all have to be vulcanized by heating 
and kneading with sulphur or some sul¬ 
phuric preparation, to deprive the rubber 
of its adhesive qualities. Even at their best 
none of the rubber compounds has been 
found to equal gutta percha. 

In preparing gutta percha the mass of 
the crude material is first heated and 
kneaded by a special process, till it becomes 
plastic. The softened, pliable heap is then 
taken to the press, where it is to be united 
with the copper cable wire. By the use of 
suitable nozzles the gutta percha is deftly 
pressed around the strands in the form of 
a seamless jacket. Here again the greatest 
care is taken to have the covering air-tight 
and moisture-proof; for the least drop of 
water finding its way into the wire would 
produce disastrous results. 

How the cable, consisting, at the present 
stage of its construction, of the copper wire 
strands and jute and gutta percha cover- 
ings, passes over rollers, partly through the 
open air and partly through a long tank 
containing water. The purpose of the lat¬ 


ter is to harden the gutta percha. The 
cable is then subjected to a final rigid test, 
and if the insulation is perfect it passes to 
the armaturing department. The second 
stage is finished. 

The third and final process is adminis¬ 
tered by the armaturing machine. To this 
powerful contrivance is allotted the task of 
putting on the shield of steel wire. The 
big machine works with an almost human 
intelligence and handles the heavy ropes of 
steel wire as deftly and as easily as a sew¬ 
ing machine manipulates threads of cotton. 
Over the metal casing is spun a protecting 
fibre, which is then impregnated with in¬ 
sulating material. It is the purpose of this 
insulated fibre to protect the armature from 
the destroying effects of the earth and 
water. After being drawn through a bath 
of lime water, which destroys the adhesive¬ 
ness of the impregnated fibre, the cable is 
wound upon large wooden rolls and is 
ready to be taken on shipboard. In so far 
as human genius can make it so, the cable 
is protected against any injury from the 
elements or the denizens of the deep. 

Much of the work preliminary to the lay¬ 
ing of the cable has already been done. The 
United States ship Hero has taken prob¬ 
ably a thousand soundings to determine the 
depths and character of the bottom from 
our western coast to the Philippines. 

Four vessels, each having cable tanks 
forty feet in diameter and holding about 
1,000 miles of cable, will do the work of 
handing over the wire to old Heptune^s em¬ 
brace. 

When the cable is finished, a greater step 
toward the pacification of the Filipinos 
than the despatching of regiments of sol¬ 
diers will have been taken. Through 
ready communication the natives can more 


98 


The Industrial Age 


readily be made to understand the charac¬ 
ter and purposes of the American people. 
The convenience the cable will be to the 
business man and the impetus it will give 
to the transpacific commerce are almost 
past computation. 

At the present time, if a San Francisco 
merchant wants to communicate with Auck¬ 
land, New Zealand (the most expensive 
place in the world to reach by wire), the 
message transmitted must travel across the 
United States from San Francisco to New 
York, then to London over one of the At¬ 


lantic cables, and then be forwarded suc¬ 
cessively over the lines of the Eastern Tel¬ 
egraph Company and the Eastern Exten¬ 
sion Telegraph Company to Suez, Aden, 
Bombay, Singapore, Adelaide and Sydney 
to Auckland. In short, to send a message 
between two points only 8,000 miles apart 
it would be necessary to pass over 26,270 
miles, or more than the circumference of 
the earth. 

But when Uncle Sam gets his cable this 
will all be changed. . 


$ & s <£ j* 

UNIQUE NOVELTY IN HOTEL CONSTRUCTION 


It is aii odd hotel that stands at West 
Baden, Indiana, for the reception of great 
numbers of tourists who visit that popular 
resort every year. It is a multi-sided struc¬ 
ture, enclosing a great courtyard which is 
surmounted by an enormous glass dome 200 
feet in diameter. The building is oval in 
its general shape, the dimensions being 631 
by 343 feet, a size which of itself makes 
the structure noteworthy. The rooms of 
the hotel are not as eccentric in form as the 
shape of the building suggests. They are 
rectangular, after the ordinary fashion, the 


wedge-shaped spaces that result from the 
circular form of the building being utilized 
for closets and bath rooms. The- photo¬ 
graph from which the accompanying illus¬ 
tration was made was taken when 500 men 
were at work on the building. Its prede¬ 
cessor in the great resort was burned, and 
this hotel was built on a much grander 
scale in order to accommodate the increas¬ 
ing patronage. It shelters several hundred 
guests of the numbers who seek the min¬ 
eral springs of the famous Indiana resort. 



L.cFC. 


unique Novelty in hotel construction. 















100 


The Industrial Age 



MAKING A STEEL CASTING. 

The molten metal is discharged through an orifice in the great kettle, swung over the molds, and 

flows in a fiery stream to the place prepared for it. 







The Industrial Age 


101 


IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRIES 


Steel is the material from which this 
industrial age builds its marvelous machin¬ 
ery, its great buildings, its railways and 
its steamships. Steel, it is, upon which our 
multi-millionaires have built their fortunes, 
fortunes which excel all wealth in the his¬ 
tory of the world. The steel trust, it is, 
the formation of which has done more than 
any other single influence to draw the at¬ 
tention of the public at large to the enor¬ 
mous consolidations of capital for the dom¬ 
inance of the industrial world, not alone 
in America, but all over the globe. So it 


becomes of prime interest and importance 
to observe the progress of the industry and 
its products from the mine to the consumer. 

There is a wide distance between the 
primitive miner and molder of prehistoric 
times, with his rough furnace, his rude ap¬ 
pliances, and the customers of his neighbor¬ 
hood, and the remarkable organization of 
mines, transportation facilities and manu¬ 
facturing plants which now unite to form 
the great iron and steel interests. The 
United States Steel Corporation, as the 
trust is officially entitled, with its capital 



Copyright, 1900, by Detroit Photographic Co. 

OKE DOCKS AT ASHTABULA. OHIO. 











102 


The Industrial Age 


rails, structural steel, bridges, armor-plates, 
tin, sheet steel and tubes. It is readily 
seen that the ramifications of such an indus¬ 
try become world-wide. 

The processes of iron mining, where ore 
is produced on a large scale, differ mate¬ 
rially from those of coal mining or the min¬ 
ing of other metallic ores such as gold, cop¬ 
per, lead or zinc. The most noteworthy 



BIRD’S-EYE VIEW OF A GREAT PENNSYLVANIA STEEL MILL. 


of $1,100,000,000, is by far the greatest 
organization in the world. And yet it does 
not include by any means all the branches 
of the industry in America and the foreign 
fields, in which other great organizations 
exist. Organized by J. Pierpont Morgan 
as prime mover, and including such stock¬ 
holders as Andrew Carnegie, John D. Rock¬ 
efeller, Marshall Field, and other national 


characters, the very volume of its capital 
and the diversity of its interests has made 
it world-famous. Its president, Charles M. 
Schwab, has been rejmted to receive 
$1,000,000 a year salary, although it may 
be doubted whether this information is ac¬ 
curate. The functions of this corporation 
include the mining of iron, the transporta¬ 
tion of it to its own mills of manv dif- 

c- 

ferent kinds and in many locations, and 
the manufacturing of it into almost every 
product of iron and steel that is demanded 
on a large scale, particularly railway 


iron region of the United States is that 
around Lake Superior, in which the three 
states of Michigan, Minnesota and Wis¬ 
consin yield more than two-thirds of all the 
16,000,000 tons of iron ore produced an¬ 
nually in this country. Michigan alone 
contributes nearly 6,000,000 tons of the 
product, and Minnesota follows with nearly 
4,500,000 tons. Alabama is the third state 
in production, yielding more than 2,000,- 
000 tons annually, and then follow in suc¬ 
cession Virginia, Pennsylvania, Wisconsin 
and Tennessee, ranging from 860,000 tons 














The Industrial Agc 


103 


down to 535,000 tons. The dozen other 
states where iron is found commercially do 
not yield a total product, among them all, 
of more than 1,000,000 tons. Comparing 
this product in the United States with that 
of the world, which amounts to something 
more than 63,000,000 tons a year, we find 
that our country produces more than one- 
fourtli the total, and more than its nearest 
competitor, which is Great Britain, with 
about 13,000,000 tons. Germany follows 
closely upon Great Britain, but no other 
country except Spain even passes the 5,000,- 
000-ton mark. 

The remarkable iron ranges of the Lake 
Superior region are peculiarly available 
because of their proximity to the great 
lakes, by which the product may be shipped 
directly and cheaply by large steamers to 
the manufacturing regions of Ohio and 
Pennsylvania, where abundant coal is 
found and where great mills have been 
built. Three distinct iron ranges in Michi¬ 
gan are recognized, all in the upper penin¬ 
sula, and trending nearly east and west. 
These are the Marquette, Menominee and 
Gogebic ranges. The first shipments of ore 
from these deposits were made in 1856. 
Bessemer, Ironwood, Hurley, Bepublic, 
Champion, Ishpeming, Megan nee, and 
other towns in this part of the state and in 
the edge of Wisconsin have become famous 
the country over for the remarkable min¬ 
eral wealth they have yielded. Escanaba, 
Manistique, Marquette and Ashland are 
the shipping ports on the great lakes, from 
which this product is sent. 

Two iron ranges in Minnesota, the Ver¬ 
milion and the Mesaba, lying north of Du¬ 
luth, furnish the iron from this state. The 
most important mining points are Ely, 
Tower, Virginia, Hibbing and Biwabik. 


Their shipments are made from Duluth and 
Two Harbors. 

Most of the iron ranges of the Lake Su¬ 
perior region can be worked by stripping 
off the surface deposits and useless vegeta¬ 
ble mould, and worthless mineral sub¬ 
stances, and then digging the available ore 
from the open pits. This becomes quarry¬ 
ing rather than mining, as the word is gen¬ 
erally understood, but though it may lack 
some of the more picturesque features of 
mining operations deep in the earth, it is 
much more convenient commercially, and 
makes the cost of the product far less than 
it would be by way of shafts and tunnels. 

The brown ore is carried down to the 
lakes from the mines in an almost endless 
succession of trains, and dumped on the ore 
docks or loaded directly upon vessels wait¬ 
ing for it. Scores of great cargo carriers 
ply from these ports on the upper lakes 
down to Lake Erie, carrying their store of 
Lake Superior iron ore for the Pennsyl¬ 
vania and Ohio furnaces. This single in¬ 
dustry employs a very large proportion of 
the fleets on the great lakes. At the other 
end of their route they deposit the cargo 
once more upon the docks of the manufac¬ 
turing town, or into the railway cars that 
are to carry it inland to smelters and blast 
furnaces. The processes of loading and un¬ 
loading these cargoes between ship and 
train have become so perfected by the use 
of mechanical appliances, that thousands 
of tons may be handled within a very few 
hours. 

The iron and steel industries of Pennsyl¬ 
vania so far lead all others, that a view of 
them will serve to characterize the whole 
country. Annually the Keystone State 
produces 60 per cent of all the steel of the 
United States, 50 per cent of the pig iron 



• \- > •-' 

ft 1 • 


BLAST FURNACES OF A GREAT STEEL MILL. 




























105 


The Industrial Age 


and over 40 per cent of the tin plate. The 
output of pig iron annually approaches 
5,000,000 tons, with a value of more than 
$50,000,000. The steel output is nearly 
4,500,000 tons, and the total value is about 
$125,000,000. Blast furnaces, rolling mills 
and steel mills of every variety help to bring 
wealth to the state. The crude iron ore as 
it comes from the mines is taken through 
all the necessary processes, until it becomes 
the finished product, for use in complicated 
machinery, for bridge building, or for rail¬ 
way construction. 

Tne ore as it comes from the mine is 
mixed with earth, rock, sand and other min¬ 
eral substances which must be removed, and 
the first form it takes is that of pig iron, 
ready for the foundry. There is a melting 
room in which is a great cupola, cylindrical 


in shape, standing erect like a huge vertical 
boiler and lined with fire brick. A coke 
fire is started in the bottom of the cupola, 
and on top of the fire is dumped a mass of 
iron ore, alternating with lime and coke. 
There is a blast pipe below, through which 
a strong draught is driven, and a stack 
above from which the smoke and gases es¬ 
cape. The metallic iron melts out of the 
ore by the action of the heat, stimulated by 
the blast, and the lime takes up such im¬ 
purities as cannot be removed by the heat 
itself. The metallic iron, melting, runs to 
the bottom of the cupola, where it accumu¬ 
lates in a liquid mass. The floor of the 
great room is made of sand, in which long 
troughs are marked, connecting with a main 
channel. When the iron is all melted in 
the cupola, a spout below is suddenly 



STEEL “INGOTS” AND “BILLETS” READY FOR MANUFACTURERS’ USE. 





























A 137-TON STEEL INGOT FOR A MODERN GUN. 

This is the form taken by the steel when the first casting is made in constructing heavy artillery for 
battleships or coast defense. From this ingot the great weapon is turned and bored. 
















107 




The Industrial A*ge 


opened, and the molten mass flows out in a 
fiery stream. In these troughs of sand it 
cools gradually and is broken off into proper 
lengths for convenient handling. This is 
pig iron. 


sticking up from its chains. This passes it 
into the grip of a succession of great roll¬ 
ers, through which it is squeezed like a wet 
cloth through a laundry wringer, contin¬ 
ually increasing in length and diminishing 


MAKING CAR WHEELS—MOLDS READY FOR POURING. 


The most complete manufacturing 
plants, however, convert their iron into 
steel directly, without permitting the pigs 
to cool, thus saving a second heating. Little 
c^irs lined with fire brick receive the melted 
iron, and carry it to the top of another cu¬ 
pola, which is the steel converting crucible. 
This is an even hotter blast, with steady 
currents of air and sometimes oil used to 
get the desired heat. Carbon, manganese, 
and other chemicals that produce the differ¬ 
ent varieties of steel, are added here. 
When the process is complete to produce 
whatever qualities are desired, the con¬ 
tents of the cupola are received into molds 
on the floor until cool enough to handle. 
The lump of metal is now a steel ingot. 

If it is intended for railway rails, the 
molds are picked up by cranes and tongs, 
and the ingot is delivered to a continuously 
traveling platform or bed, with projections 


otherwise. At last it takes familiar shape, 
and in a few hours from the time it left 
the cupola, becomes the finished railway 

rail. 


OPENING THE MOLDS. 






















FLOTILLA OF COAL BARGES ON THE OHIO RIVER BELOW PITTSBURG. 

































The Industrial Age 


109 


COAL MINING AND COKE MAKING 


Deep down in the earth, thousands upon 
thousands of men are working day and 
night, mining the coal which is an essential 
factor in the whole industrial activity of 
the world. With all the new forms of power 
that have been devised by ingenious in¬ 
ventors of late years, it has not yet proved 
possible to eliminate or even to reduce the 
uses of coal. Electric power, except in those 
isolated instances where it is generated bv 

O o 

a water-fall, requires, somewhere, that 
great furnaces and boilers shall be em¬ 
ployed in the first instance. Electric light 
may partially supersede gas, and so reduce 
some of the coal con¬ 
sumption in this di¬ 
rection, hut the coal 
must be burned to 
produce the power 
which drives the dy¬ 
namos. The burning 
of wood for fuel has 
been greatly reduced, 
owing to the defor¬ 
estation of large 
areas, and a resulting 
greater demand has 
been made upon the 
coal-bearing regions. 

The settlement of our 
i m mense prairie 
states, where cold 
rules through a long 
winter, has likewise 
shared in the stim¬ 
ulus to coal mining. 

And industrially, the 
enormous growth of 
manufacturing enter¬ 


prises and the extension of railways has 
been a factor of prime importance in the 
coal trade of recent years. 

Cautious scientists more than once have 
expressed alarm over the threatened exhaus¬ 
tion of the world’s coal supply. And yet it 
appears true that the economical utilization 
of coal by improvements of power applica¬ 
tions, will more than counterbalance the in¬ 
creased consumption of the essential fuel, 
and that after all nature will preserve a bal¬ 
ance in some way. Great areas are known 
to exist where coal is plentiful, hardly yet 
touched by the miner’s hand. Siberia and 

the Chinese Empire 
are noteworthy ex¬ 
amples of this. Pe¬ 
troleum fields, yield¬ 
ing apparently limit¬ 
less quantities of fuel 
oil, have been discov¬ 
ered in many parts 
of the world, and ex¬ 
cept on the shores of 
the Caspian Sea have 
been made use of 
hardly at all. Texas, 
the Mexican penin¬ 
sula of Lower Cali¬ 
fornia, Central Si¬ 
beria, the East In¬ 
dies, and the mid- 
Australian desert, 
come into this cate¬ 
gory. Such natural 
forces, eternal and 
world wide, as the 
winds, the tides of 
the ocean and the 



COAL MINER WITH SAFETY LAMP. 











“DRIFT” AND “TUNNEL” IN A COAL MINE. 

(Showing the tram cars loaded with coal ready to be taken out of the mine by way of the railway tracks.) 



Ill 


The Industrial Age 


heat of the sun, are attracting the atten¬ 
tion of great scientists as offering rich 
supplies of power for man’s mechanical 
use as soon as science finds the way. Under 
such conditions as these, thus briefly out¬ 
lined, it seems a needless anxiety to con¬ 
cern ourselves to-day with the possible ex¬ 
haustion of the world’s fuel supply in the 
course of a dozen centuries. 

The first use of coal for industrial pur- 


into the earth as some in the old world. 
The deepest coal mine known is near Tour- 
nay, Belgium, extending 3,542 feet into the 
earth. The deepest coal shaft in England 
is in the Dunkirk mine of Lancashire, 
which measures 2,824 feet. 

Pennsylvania so far leads all other states 
of the union in its production of coal that 
a description of the industry there will 
serve to characterize it throughout the coun- 



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DOWN IN THE TUNNEL OP A COAL MINE. 


poses in England was in the year 1234, if 
the records are truthful. After nearly 700 
years, England still leads in the production 
and use of coal, being the only country ex¬ 
ceeding the United States in the extent of 
the industry. The annual output of coal 
in Great Britain is more than 200,000,000 
tons, while that of the United States is ap¬ 
proximately 195,000,000 tons every year. 
Our American mines, being of more recent 
development, have not penetrated so deep 


try. Its total product is always more than 
half that of the entire American yield 
from all the mines, and exceeds annuallv 
105,000,000 tons. So commanding is this 
industry in the Keystone State that the pop¬ 
ular mind always associates the state and 
the product, and Pittsburg has gained the 
name of the Smoky City, thanks to the great 
manufactories and mines operating in its 
vicinity. 

Coal was discovered in the Schuvlkill dis- 








112 


The Industrial Age 



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MOTIVE POWER IN A MINE—PAST AND PRESENT. 

(The compressed air engine, by its additional strength and safety, is gradually displacing the mule in 

coal mines.) 


trict in 1790, and thirty years later the first 
regular shipment was made to Philadel¬ 
phia. Two kinds of coal are mined, anthra¬ 
cite and bituminous, or, more popularly 
speaking, hard coal and soft coal. The area 
from which the former is produced meas¬ 
ures less than 500 square miles, and that of 
the soft coal nearly 9,000 square miles. But 
the former excels the latter slightly in ton¬ 
nage produced, and by its greater value per 
ton exceeds the soft coal more than two to 
one in total value. 

Let us now glance at the processes by 
which coal is mined in the heart of the 
earth, brought to the surface, and distrib¬ 
uted to the market. Down deep in the 
earth stands a grimy miner. On his cap is 
mounted a small lamp, surrounded by a 
screen, which throws a faint gleam of light 
around him and permits him to see the 


walls of black against which his efforts are 
directed. The lamp was the invention of 
Sir Humphrey Davy, and protecting the 
flames as it does from direct contact with 
inflammable gases which are frequently 
found in mines, goes far to avert the dan¬ 
ger of explosion. This Davy safety lamp 
has been a factor of prime importance in 
making possible mining operations in many 
places otherwise toodangerous to work. With 
pick and shovel the miner labors, breaking 
down the coal, and gradually enlarging the 
subterranean chamber in which he is work¬ 
ing. At intervals blasts of giant powder 
and dynamite are used to loosen and shat¬ 
ter great masses of coal. When this is to be 
done, the miners retire to a distance and 
wait until the dust and gases scattered by 
the explosion have dissipated. Then they 
return to the face of the cutting which they 























The Industrial Age 


113 


have been working, and continue their toil. 

Most mines are compelled 'to use both 
vertical shafts and horizontal tunnels or 
“drifts,” in the course t>f their operation. 
If the first opening is in the side of a hill, 
a tunnel may extend far into the earth be¬ 
fore the descent bv a shaft begins. If, on 
the other hand, the mine to be opened is not 
located so as to be reached by a tunnel, a 
vertical shaft is sunk at once to the neces¬ 
sary depth. From the shaft the tunnels or 
drifts radiate in whatever direction the coal 
measures lie, and at different levels, so that 


work may be carried on in many places at 
the same time. Tracks are laid in all these 
tunnels or drifts, and on these, little tram 
cars run back and forth, to carry the coal to 
the surface. When they reach the shaft, 
they must be hoisted by powerful machin¬ 
ery on the outside. 

In European mines, women and children 
are often employed to push these cars back 
and forth, but in the United States, horses 
and mules are used. Even these in some 
mines have been superseded by locomotives, 
operated by compressed air. Such locomo- 



This is the building through which coal passes on its way from mine to railway car. By screens 
and chutes it is cleaned and sorted into various sizes for market. 
















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115 


The Industrial A.ge 


lives, to haul trains hundreds of feet under 
ground, must be very different from those 
we are accustomed to see on our steam rail¬ 
roads. One of the greatest dangers the coal 
miner has to guard against is the explosion 
of fire-damp, which can be set off by a sin¬ 
gle tiny spark. It would not be possible, 
therefore, to use an engine operated by 
steam, with a firebox. The driving ma¬ 
chinery of these novel locomotives is not 
unlike that of engines of the more familiar 
type. The air supply is gained from great 
tanks carried over the driving wheels, in 
place of the ordinary locomotive boilers. 
The storage pressure capacity of these tanks 
is (100 pounds per square inch, from which 
200 pounds’ working pressure is main¬ 
tained upon the engine cylinder. The sup¬ 
ply of air can be replenished readily in the 


tanks, from nozzles connected with high- 
pressure pneumatic tubes placed at the 
points convenient for the purpose. Such a 
locomotive can draw long trains of cars, of 
which the mule can handle but one, and at 
much faster speed. It is thus that mechan¬ 
ical inventions are steadily improving the 
industrial processes in almost every line of 
business. 

When the coal reaches the surface, either 
by tunnel or by shaft, it passes rapidly 
through a series of processes necessary to 
clean it, sort it into the various sizes or 
grades for the market, and bring it to the 
railway cars by which it is to be shipped 
to the place of sale. A great coal “breaker,” 
as the peculiar structure is called where 
these processes are carried on, is a place of 
dust and noise, of rambling sheds, inclined 



COAL FROM MINE TO MARKET. 


(This illustration shows in striking manner a general view ol a mine, including the entrance to the 
tunnel, the breaker, and the loaded cars ready for shipment, with the miners’ 

bouses in the background.) 
















116 


The Industrial Age 


planes, screens and chutes, a monster of 
architecture, hut an important factor in the 
coal trade. The loaded cars right from the 
mines reach the breaker, high in the air, 
and are tilted so that they dump their cargo 
into chutes provided for the purpose. As 
the coal rattles down through the winding 
way provided for it, it passes over a succes¬ 
sion of screens with meshes of various sizes. 
By this process it is sifted and sorted with 
mechanical precision until, finally reaching 
the bottom, each grade falls into the bins or 


railway cars provided for it, ready for the 
market. 

It is not enough to merely sort the coal 
into sizes. It must be cleaned as well, for 
few mines are free from slate and other im¬ 
purities which would reduce the value of 
the coal if left untouched. As the coal 
passes through the breaker and over 
the screens, it is watched by keen-eyed, 
deft-fingered boys, who pick out and throw 
aside whatever pieces of slate or stone 
they discover. A “breaker-boy,” as these 



COKE OVENS. 

(Far in the background men are seen with the apparatus which draws the coke out of the ovens. The 
product is then carried through the long trough by an endless belt and thence by 
another belt, shown in the foreground, to the shipping sheds.) 













117 



The Industrial Age 


Coal-pickers are called, is taking the first 
step in the life of a miner, and in every 
mining town there are numbers of such lit- 
vs busily engaged and helping to 
earn the living for the household. The 
miners in many of our mining districts are 
foreigners, forming communities of their 
own and coming in 
touch hut little with 
American manners of 
life and thought. Poor 
as they are, and begin¬ 
ning work at an early 
age, they have little 
opportunity to obtain 
more than the rudi¬ 
ments of an education. 

It is this element that 
forms one of the most 
difficult problems to 
deal with in our indus¬ 
trial and labor ques¬ 
tions. The transporta¬ 
tion of coal from mine 
to market is one of 
the most important and 
lucrative parts of the 
business of many great 
railways. In Pennsvl- 
v a n i a, particularly, 
there are lines which 
are classified as “the 
coal roads” because this 
traffic forms such a dominant part of their 
entire business. There is a constant proces¬ 
sion of coal trains between the mines and 
the large cities and manufacturing towns 
near them. Pittsburg and Allegheny are 
conspicuous examples of cities virtually 
built up by the fortunate combination of 
coal and iron areas convenient to them. 
Here, too, the Ohio River becomes an im¬ 


portant aid in the traffic. Barges loaded 
with coal are lashed together, to form im¬ 
mense flotillas which are towed down 
stream on the Ohio, to such other markets 
as can be reached to advantage by that 
route. Ohio, West Virginia, Kentucky, 
Indiana, and indeed the whole of the Ohio 


and Mississippi Valleys, share in this dis¬ 
tribution of the Pennsylvania product. 

A very large part of the Pennsylvania 
coal product is converted into coke for use 
in the steel mills and manufactories where 
it is needed. The coke furnaces thus be¬ 
come a feature of the coal industry, and. 
they have grown to immense proportions 
because of the demand of the steel trade. 


DEVICE FOR REMOVING COKE FROM OVENS. 

(The rake-shaped fixture draws the charred coke out of the oven and into the 
trough, whence it is delivered as described in the accompanying view.) 






118 


The Industrial Age 


The mechanical appliances used in the man¬ 
ufacture of coke have been improved so that 
virtually all the work from the mine to the 
railway car with the finished product, can 
be carried on by machinery. The coke is 
drawn from furnaces where the coal has 
undergone the roasting or charring process, 
by ingenious mechanism which works like 
a great iron hand on the end of a long steel 
arm. This is carried on a heavy car, which 


anthracite or hard coal. Illinois is second 
in the production of bituminous, or soft 
coal, with more than 20,000,000 tons annu¬ 
ally, and West Virginia is third. A large 
coal field exists in Georgia, where it is con¬ 
venient to an iron-producing region. This 
condition, as in Pennsylvania, induces the 
development of a large coke district. Ohio,' 
Indiana, Virginia, Iowa, Missouri and Col¬ 
orado are other states in which the coal in- 



LOADING COKE INTO CARS. 


At the right are the ovens, with a trough in front through which the coke is carried by an endless 
belt. This discharges upon another belt on the incline in the background, and thus 

it is carried directly into the cars. 


runs back and forth on a railway track in 
front of the row of furnaces. An engine 
mounted on the same car, furnishes the 
power for this giant hand, which rakes the 
coke from the furnace into a long trough. 
An endless belt in this trough forms a car¬ 
rier, connecting with another one of the 
same kind, by which the product is loaded 
directly into the cars for shipment. 

Pennsylvania, besides producing more 
than half of the total coal yield of the 
United States, furnishes virtually all of the 


dustry has reached large proportions, and 
in many other states of the union successful 
mines are in operation, important in their 
contribution to the local demand. 

An important by-product of coal which is 
utilized in a multitude of ways, is coal tar, 
now so common that it has largely displaced 
pine tar. It is produced in the manufac¬ 
ture of gas, and from it we get the material 
used in every city pavement, as well as cre¬ 
osote, dyes, and various familiar medical 
remedies, such as acetanilid, etc. 
















The Industrial Age 


119 


ZINC AND OTHER PRODUCTS OF THE MINES 


Among the minerals entering commonly 
into domestic and industrial uses is zinc, 
which is produced in certain districts of 
the United States in large quantities. The 
State of Missouri is the location of the 
most important zinc mines of the country, 
which center about the city of Joplin in the 
southwestern part of the state. The de¬ 
velopment of zinc and lead mines within 
the last few years brought about the in¬ 
crease of the population of the place from 
10,000 to 26,000, between 1890 and 1900. 
The zinc output here annually approaches 
150,000 tons, with a value of considerably 
more than $3,000,000. Lead mines in the 
same vicinity yield about half that number 
of tons with about the same value. 


The rapid increase in the demand for 
electrical appliances of all sorts has in¬ 
creased in like measure the value and the 
need of zinc which is used so much in elec¬ 
trical mechanics. This has resulted to the 
profit of the zinc miners, in like degree as 
the copper interests have profited from 
the same cause. The enormous copper 
mines of northern Michigan, Montana v and 
Arizona have multiplied in the value of 
their output within recent years, thanks to 
the demands of electricity in its various 
uses. The annual production of copper in 
Montana approaches $30,000,000, and the 
other producing states named are not far 
behind. The total annual value of our 
mineral products equals $650,000,000. 



A ZINC MINING SCENE. 













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Copyright, 1901, by Detroit Photographic Co. 

TYPICAL NEW YORK “SKY-SCRAPERS.” 

The two pxeat edifices here pictured are the tallest office buildings in the world and of all structures 
are surpassed only by the Washington Monument, the Eiffel Tower and 
one or two Cathedral spires. 


















The Industrial Age 


121 


THE CITY “SKY-SCRAPER” 


If our ancestors who died half a century 
ago could return to the scene of their labors 
today they would find so many changes in 
the forms of industrial activity and house¬ 
hold life that they would almost think them¬ 
selves in another world; and if our 
forefathers of two centuries ago could be 
given a glimpse of the inventions, the dis¬ 
coveries and the cities of today they would 
think themselves victims of a delusion. It 
is related that a trader on one of the western 
Indian reservations some years ago gained 
a reputation for untruthfulness among his 
copper-colored neighbors by telling them of 
city buildings, which he had to call wig¬ 
wams for their understanding, which he 
said extended four and six and eight stories 
into the air. After some years he was re¬ 
quired to bring the chief of the tribe to 
Washington for some purpose, and when 
they returned from the journey the red 
man verified his white brother’s stories, and 
went farther, because in the meantime 
buildings had reached the height of ten and 
twelve stories or more. For years he stoutly 
maintained the truth of his statement, 
against all the doubts of the tribe, until 
finally, as his memory began to fail, he 
admitted that he must have been mistaken, 
that his eyes had deceived him, that he had 
been confused by the journey and the 
crowds, and that after all it was unreason¬ 
able to suppose that men could live in wig¬ 
wams piled to such a height. 

The wonder of such an aboriginal trav¬ 
eler could not be greater than that of one 
of our own mediaeval ancestors who might 
return. Nowadays the streets of our great 
cities are marked by commercial and office 


buildings many times as tall as the tallest 
factory chimney a few years ago. The “sky¬ 
scraper” has its distinct place in modern 
city building, and its name is happily 
descriptive of its characteristics. The 
phrase-makers have been busy with this 
modern giant. The inhabitants of the tall¬ 
est buildings are popularly known as the 
cliff-dwellers. One apt critic has likened 
the narrow streets thus overhung to the 
canyons of western rivers, worn by erosion 
through the ages, to a level far below the 
natural surface of the country. In this 
comparison the busy traffic upon the streets 
below becomes the eroding stream, and the 
walls of brick and stone the rough sides of 
the canyon. 

Leaving these apt comparisons for the 
more practical, we find that apparently 
there is yet no limit to the height of the 
city sky-scrapers. Chicago was the pioneer 
in their construction, and today some of 
Chicago’s streets are almost lined with 
splendid structures of this type. But New 
York has outstripped Chicago, while every 
large city from the Atlantic to the Pacific 
has its quota of these architectural innova¬ 
tions, and they are no longer a novelty. 

It is hardly more than fifteen years since 
the first sky-scrapers, the Mont auk, the 
Tacoma, and the Owings buildings, were 
erected in Chicago, and now their twelve- 
story limit seems low indeed in comparison 
with the multitude that have succeeded 
them. When they were begun no one 
prophesied that others more than twice 
their height would follow within ten years. 
And yet they were a result of conditions 
that have been forming for many years. 



THE MASONIC TEMPLE, CHICAGO. 






























The Industrial Age 


123 


Building methods had become improved 
and simpler, and land values had risen with 
great rapidity. Space in the business cen¬ 
ters of the great cities became more and 
more desirable, and the passenger elevator, 
which enabled offices in high buildings to be 
reached with ease, had been perfected. So 
architects and engineers began to study the 
situation, and they developed what has 
since become known as the “Chicago con¬ 
struction.” This means a method of build¬ 
ing by which the walls of masonry are only 
a veneer for beauty and protection, but the 
strength of the structure itself is in the steel 


framework, braced and bolted together until 
it stands like a skeleton, clad only on the 
surface with the brick or stone facing for 
its flesh. Such a framework, properly built, 
can no more be shaken down by an earth¬ 
quake than can a birdcage. And the ma¬ 
sonry itself, supported independently by 
the steel beams of each floor, is not required 
to maintain its own weight from the bottom. 
This is a great economy of light and space, 
to mention only one detail. Under former 
methods the walls had to be thicker at the 
bottom, the taller the building was to be. 
And for a very high structure such walls 



Copyright, 1900, by Detroit Photographic Co. 

“NEWSPAPER ROW,” NEW YORK CITY. 


. , .... * tViot nf the New York World. The one in the center, with the 

The domed^ b £ I1 £“S T £ b *|} e bunding Between them, the little old-fashioned structure is the 
P ’ office of the Sun. At the right of the picture is ihe Times building. 

































124 


The Industrial Age 


encroached materially on the ground area, 
while the thick walls cut off a great deal 
of the light from the windows. As it is 
now, the walls at the first floor of a modern 
sky-scraper are hardly thicker than they 
are for an ordinary residence of masonry 
construction. 

But the problems of such a building are 
not all above the surface. The enormous 
weight of the structure must be supported 
from below, and increased strength for the 
foundation was a requisite. The soil must 
be studied and the best methods devised 
to prevent the building from settling irreg¬ 
ularly, so that altogether this branch of 
building has become almost a department 
of civil engineering. In Hew York, where 
bedrock underlies the surface at a depth 
not too great for building purposes, the 
foundation begins with a forest of piles, 
sometimes hundreds of them, thirtv or 
forty feet long, driven down into the ground 
with hundred-ton hammers. These are 
placed so that they will be directly under 
the great vertical columns upon which the 
completed building will rest. Over the tops 
of these piles a layer of concrete is formed, 
with steel rails embedded in it. When this 
is hardened the mass of steel and rock thus 
created is virtually impregnable. Next 
above this subfoundation come huge blocks 
of granite and the brick piers of the build¬ 
ing, upon which rest huge steel beams, dis¬ 
tributing the weight equally to every part 
of the foundation. From this surface the 
superstructure of the building itself rises. 

In Chicago conditions are different. The 
entire city is virtually floating on a layer 
of clay which underlies the surface soil and 
sand, and below this clay layer the sub¬ 
stance is soft and yielding, so that it does 
not suffice to puncture the clay with piling. 


As a substitute, therefore, a more expedi¬ 
tious and economical method is in use, 
which serves equally well. Wherever one 
of the principal upright pillar§ is to be set 
up the builders lay a pad of steel and ce¬ 
ment of such extent that the pads for all 
pillars cover all the site. These pads are 
slightly pyramidal in shape, and are made 
by laying alternate courses of steel beams, 
crosswise, one upon the other. Each layer 
of crossbeams of steel is filled in and solidi¬ 
fied with cement, and then the next two 
courses are added and similarly treated. At 
last each pad is eighteen inches or more 
thick, and perhaps eighteen feet square, but 
the size is governed by the desire to dis¬ 
tribute the weight of the building at about 
an average of a ton to the square foot. The 
famous Rookery building, set up on these 
steel and cement pads, did not sink quite 
an inch, though the architect’s calculation 
was that by squeezing the water out of the 
clay underneath it would settle seven 
inches. 

From the surface upward there is no dif¬ 
ference in the construction of the sky¬ 
scraper in Chicago and other cities. The 
enormous steel girders that make up the 
frame are all braced and riveted together in 
every available place. Brick, stone or terra 
cotta is used for the surfacing of the walls. 
The floors and the inner walls are made 
entirely of hollow, fireproof brick, and the 
plaster is laid upon laths of thin steel, so 
that a fire may consume everything in one 
room and yet not spread to another. 

One of these great buildings is a very 
city in miniature, with elevators divided 
into express and local service, with restaur¬ 
ants, barber shops, telephone exchanges and 
telegraph offices, special fire department 
and postoffice, detectives, its own electric 



Mm 11 = ill 


PHILADELPHIA SKY-SCRAPERS AT BROAD AND CHESTNUT STREETS, 
















































126 


The Industrial Age 


light and power plant, and a population 
from 2,000 to 5,000. In such a building 
the varied industries directed and repre¬ 
sented conduct a volume of business greater 
than that’ of many a town of 20,000 inhab¬ 
itants. 

The tallest buildings yet erected are in 
New York, where two or three reach a 
height of twenty-nine stories, and measure 
approximately one-tenth of a mile from the 
tip of the flag pole to the bottom of the 
foundation. The weight of such a building 
is about 20,000 tons, and this may be 
doubled or tripled when its tenants, their 
furniture and their stocks of goods are in¬ 
cluded. In the accompanying picture from 
New York two of these giants are shown 
towering above other buildings which are 
themselves large structures. 


In Chicago, which was the pioneer in 
sky-scraper construction, no entire building 
is more than twenty-one stories, though the 
tower of one great commercial edifice on 
the Lake Front exceeds this height. The 
Masonic Temple, for many years the king 
of all the giants, although now surpassed 
in altitude, is some 330 feet in height. The 
upper story has been turned into a great 



PARGAIN DAY" ON A SHOPPING STREET, 

















‘•BLUE MONDAY” IN THE CITY'-WASHDAY IN A CROWDED BLOCK. 










































128 


The Industrial Age 


summer theater, 300 feet above the ground, 
and still above this is the observation prom¬ 
enade on the roof itself. 

The picture of New York in a “blizzard” 

is a suggestive indication of what happens 

in a great city when a winter storm sweeps 

down between the sky-scrapers. Under 

such circumstances all the municipal forces 

are enlisted to clear awav the drifts as soon 

«/ 

as the storm ceases, in order to reopen the 
way for the interrupted traffic. Such ter¬ 
rible storms are not of annual occurrence, 
but when they do come the suffering is 
great. It is difficult for those who have not 
experienced it to realize how quickly the 


food supplies of a great city become ex¬ 
hausted when traffic ceases and shipments 
from the country are no longer possible. 
The amount of fresh meat, vegetables, eggs 
and dairy jiroducts necessary to supply a 
metropolis of 2,000,000 or 3,000,000 peo¬ 
ple is enormous, and when once the source 
is cut off, suffering soon follows discomfort. 

No one knows what the limit of sky¬ 
scrapers may be in the future. Some cit¬ 
ies have enacted laws regulating their 
height, only to repeal them as unnecessary 
restrictions after a short period of halt in 
important building operations. It has been 
argued that they are subject to great dan- 



A TYPICAL CROWD ON STATE STREET, CHICAGO. 



















129 


The Industrial Age 


ger from the weakening of their steel sup¬ 
ports by the process of rust, and that 
though fireproof themselves, they may be 
threatened with great danger from fires 
in adjoining buildings. The most ex¬ 
pert fire-fighters and the insurance com¬ 
panies agree, however, that they are as 
safe as any structures and that fires can be 
extinguished in them as readily as else¬ 
where. The presumption is, therefore, that 
unless the congestion of business in the 
heart of a great city is relieved by changing 
conditions, not now apparent, we have not 
yet seen the height limit of these twentieth 
century giants. 

£ & 

GREAT OEEICES FOR GREAT 
BUSINESSES 

One of the most picturesque features of 
the industrial and commercial institutions 
which have been forming, by consolidation 
and otherwise, within the last few years, 
is the astonishing perfection and magnitude 
of their business administration and office 
organization. The day is past when the 
individual owner or chief officer of a large 
business could himself observe its details 
and maintain direct control over its admin¬ 
istration. Now it has become a matter of 
office machinery, of high organization, of 
department managers, of selected trust¬ 
worthy men, to whom various subdivisions 
of the work may be entrusted, and who will 
themselves guard faithfully the interests of 
the great impersonal corporations which 
they serve. 

The greatest weakness found in these 
immense corporations is in their possible 
failure to enlist the personal loyalty of their 
employees. If they fail in this, the highest 
executive ability cannot maintain their per¬ 


manent prosperity against the movement 
toward individual business independence. 

Andrew Carnegie, the great ironmaster 
whose benefactions to the cause of learning 
have made him conspicuous in directions 
outside of his industrial undertakings, de¬ 
clared in an estimate of himself that he 
had prospered largely because he had the 
discernment to surround himself with loyal 
employees who knew more than he did. 
Whether Mr. Carnegie intended this lightly 
or not, the merit of the expression can not 
be denied. The ability, the strength and 
the- time of one man, however brilliant, 
could not be expanded to encompass the 
manifold obligations of the enormous com¬ 
mercial and financial and industrial under¬ 
takings of to-day. 

An accompanying illustration shows the 
interior of the largest office in the world, 
the business office of one of the great pack¬ 
ing-houses at the Chicago Stock Yards, 
whose operations are described elsewhere 
in this volume. This illustration, made 
from a photograph, indicates more clearly 
than words can do, the size of such a busi¬ 
ness concern. No argument is needed to 
suggest that only by the most perfect organ¬ 
ization and subdivision of duties could such 
a business be carried on without great waste' 
of time, labor and money. Here a thou¬ 
sand clerks, bookkeepers and other em¬ 
ployees work in a single immense room, 
carrying on the business of the plant which 
operates nearby and deals with the whole 
world. So it is with great railway con¬ 
solidations, great banks, wholesale houses 
and other forms of modern commerce and 
industry. Those which organize most per¬ 
fectly to forbid waste and to utilize all 
their resources and energies are the ones . 
which achieve conspicuous success. 



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The Industrial Age 


131 


PHASES OF STREET LIFE IN A GREAT CITY 


Street and household life in a great city 
has an unfailing interest to the observer, 
whether he be a student of social conditions 
or merely a seeker for entertaining novelty. 
Street crowds in a metropolis on the most 
ordinary shopping days are so great as to 
suggest a holiday or a parade to the stran¬ 
ger from a smaller town. And yet the flow 
of the stream of humanity is unceasing, and 
the procession of wheeled vehicles is never 
interrupted, except at the street crossings, 
where pedestrians and drivers are alternate¬ 
ly given the right of way at the behest of 
the vigilant policeman. To thread one’s 
way through such a crowd in the heart of 
the city becomes almost a sixth sense, and 
while the unaccustomed stranger may be 

bewildered bv the roar and the confusion of 
«/ 

traffic over the noisy pavements, and the 
multitudes which jostle him at every step, 
so that his progress is halting and sIoav, 
the resident passes from street to street or 
office to store, almost without noticing these 
things which are so familiar to him, and, 
reaching his destination without delay, does 
not realize the crush through which he has 
passed. Upon the shopping streets of the 
great city the big stores display their wares 
in glittering array in decorated windows, or 
heap them enticingly upon racks at the edge 
of the sidewalk itself. Not the least pleas¬ 
ure of a stroll down a shopping street is 
found in the study of these window and 
sidewalk exhibits. Beautiful fabrics, milli¬ 
nery, books, china, jewelry, furs, pictures, 
furniture and the other offerings of the 
merchants are arranged to the best advan¬ 
tage to attract the unwary, and such a street 
in a metropolis today is hardly second to a 


great international exposition, so carefully 
selected are the goods and from such widely 
diverse markets of the world do they come. 

Once out of the business district of the 
city, and passing through the more crowded 
residence portions, another evidence of the 
multitudes who dwell in such a center of 
population may be seen. ‘‘Blue Monday” 
is just as regular in its arrival in the city 
of a million as it is in the small village, 
and the freshly washed garments of the 
household need sun and air for drying in 
like manner. Without beautiful lawns and 
ample grounds around them as have the 
more favored quarters in the less crowded 
communities, the people of the tenements 
must utilize what facilities they have. The 
essential and practical clothesline is made 
the subject of household ingenuity. The 
narrow back yards between the tenements 
are criss-crossed with an apparent tangle 
of lines, some high in the air and stretched 
to telegraph poles, or from house to house 
between fourth-story windows. The glimpse 
of such an area thus decorated, on a city 
washday when the sky is clear and the 
bright sun has encouraged the outdoor dry¬ 
ing of the fresh linen, is peculiarly novel, 
and suggests forcibly the crowded fashion 
in which people in the city must live. 

The immigrants who come to America 
generally choose to settle in communities in 
the cities, forming streets and even whole 
districts of their own nationalities. In New 
York and Chicago Russian, Jewish, Polish, 
Italian, Chinese and other special quarters 
have been established, where they preserve 
their European customs and afford interest¬ 
ing street sights for strangers. 



NEW YORK IN A BLIZZARD. 

(A scene on Broadway, with city traffic blocked during the continuance of the storm.) 



















Copyright, 1900, by Detroit Photographic Co. 

STREET SCENE IN THE JEWISH QUARTER OF NEW YORK CITY ON A BUSY MARKET DAY. 






































134 


The Industrial Age 


THE CHICAGO STOCK YARDS 


THE WORLD’S MEAT-MARKET 


The world’s meat-market is at Chicago. 
Great as are the stock yards of Kansas City, 
Omaha, and other western cities where the 
cattle industries center, Chicago stands far 
at the head of the list in magnitude of the 
business transacted. The Union Stock 
Yards are five-and-one-lialf miles from the 
heart of the city, conveniently located to 
the railway lines which bring the cattle 
trains from the western ranges. The yards 
are a virtual city in themselves, comprising 
nearlv 500 acres, of which 320 acres are 
covered with plank flooring. There are 25 
miles of streets and alleys between the pens, 
38 miles of water troughs, 50 miles of feed¬ 


ing troughs, and 105 miles of water, sewer 
and drainage pipes. The plant cost $4,000,- 
000, and twenty trunk-line railways roll 
their cars upon the network of tracks by 
which the yard is served. Six artesian wells 
furnish the water supply and in the sum¬ 
mer the tanks and reservoirs hold water 
for emergencies to the amount of 8,000,000 
gallons. 

This is the greatest cattle, hog, sheep and 
horse market in the world. The annual re¬ 
ceipts of animals are approximately as fol¬ 
lows: 2,500,000 cattle; 150,000 calves; 
9,250,000 hogs; 3,750,000 sheep, and 125,- 
000 horses. To bring this stock to market 



PACKING HOUSE FEEDING PENS, CHICAGO STOCK YARDS. 

















135 


The Industrial Age 


requires nearly 300,000 cars, which would 
make a train almost long enough to reach 
clear across the continent from New York 
to San Francisco. The pens when filled 
will hold 15,000 sheep, 20,000 cattle, and 
120,000 hogs. There are 13,000 of the 
pens altogether, of which 8,500 are roofed 
for hogs and sheep. The pens for hogs are 
two-storied or “double-decked.” 


afternoon there is another rush when the 
cars of the eastern lines are laden with the 
outbound shipments of dressed and canned 
meats for the eastern markets and for ex¬ 
port. The Stock Yards Company owns 
the railroad tracks and charges toll for 
them. When a load of stock is placed on 
a side track, the cattle or hogs are driven 
into the pens assigned them, to await the 


AMONG THE CATTLE PENS, CHICAGO STOCK YARDS. 
Showing one of the great packing houses in the background. 



During the early morning hours, the 
scene at the Stock Yards is a busy one. Be¬ 
tween 4:30 and 9 o’clock, nearly 35,000 
persons enter the gates for their employ¬ 
ment in the yards proper, the packing¬ 
houses, and the connected industries. The 
forenoon, which is the time of unloading 
the cattle, sheep and hogs from the western 
railways, is a busy period, and during the 


call of the commission men to whom they 
are consigned. The sales go on all day 
long, and are marked by methods that have 
been gradually simplified to a most extra¬ 
ordinary degree. From the chutes the ani¬ 
mals are driven to pens that custom has 
given to each particular firm. Here they 
are inspected and sold. Government in¬ 
spectors throw out poor stock, while the 
















136 


The Industrial Age 


public “shrinker” docks some animals that 
are not in the best condition from forty to 
eighty pounds. Condemned animals have 
a tag fastened in their ears. In an in¬ 
credibly short time the buyers have rejected 
what animals they do not want, have in¬ 
spected others, have seen the herds weighed 
like magic upon patent live-stock scales, 
and have had a scale or weight ticket issued 


by the Stock Yards Company, to be present¬ 
ed for payment as if it were a formal bill. 
By an arrangement with the bank, these 
tickets are in a simple manner made to 
se^ve as checks. 

The Stock Yards Company has organized 
and controls all sorts of industries within 
its property, including water works, fire 
department, hotel and restaurants, bank, 


and everything else necessary for the con¬ 
venience of shippers and buyers. All kinds 
of feed are delivered to the pens by the 
company, and the watering, feeding and 
herding are conducted under the direction 
of the company at fixed rates of payment. 
Two hundred commission firms, with rep¬ 
resentatives and offices in the yards, are on 
hand to receive shipments on consignment 

and protect the interest 
of the stock raiser at 
stipulated commission 
fees. A thorough in¬ 
spection under govern¬ 
ment supervision pro¬ 
tects the public against 
danger from diseased 
stock. In view of the 
magnitude of our Amer¬ 
ican stock interests, and 
our national struggle to 
preserve the standing of 
American pork in the 
markets o f Europe, 
these great Stock Yards 
become interesting to 
the whole world. 

Hardly any product 
of American conditions 
more thoroughly typi¬ 
fies our national enter¬ 
prise and ingenuity. 
From the ranges of 
Texas, Yew Mexico, Montana and Wyo- 
ming, from the broad fields of Dakota, 
Kansas and Nebraska, from the Mis¬ 
sissippi Valley immediately tributary to 
the great metropolis, come the hundreds of 
thousands of fat cattle, sheep and hogs for 
distribution to the markets of the world. 
Hardly any rival of consequence in beef 
production exists in the world, outside of 



GOVERNMENT INSPECTORS AT WORK IN THE STOCK YARDS. 






The Industrial Age 


137 



CATTLE KILLING IN A GREAT PACKING HOUSE. 


North America, except the Argentine Re¬ 
public, where a large cattle industry has 
been built up in the last twenty-five years, 
Australia and New Zealand are strong in 
the European markets with their dressed 
mutton. But the animal products of our 
own great west never lack purchasers and 
to the perfect system developed at such 
yards as these of Chicago and the others in 
neighboring cities, only second to them, 
must be credited a large share in the rapid 
growth of the industry. 

& 

GREAT PACKING-HOUSES OP 
CHICAGO 

There is a familiar jest in circulation in 
the great packing-houses which have been 


developed as adjuncts to the Stock Yards 
of Chicago, that everything is saved of the 
slaughtered animals except the squeal of the 
pigs. So complete is the utilization of 
every shred of what in a less perfect or¬ 
ganization might be called waste, that the 
ancient jest becomes almost literally true. 
It is to this fact that in large degree is at¬ 
tributed the rapid upbuilding of the im¬ 
mense establishments, and the steady 
growth of great fortunes for their owners. 
The value of the by-products saved from 
the refuse in a single large packing-house 
in the course of the year, itself measures 
almost a fortune, and establishes the differ¬ 
ence between profit and loss. 

Let us follow the processes of a typical 



















138 



The Induslriat A.ge 


packing-house from the beginning to the 
end. Buyers employed for the purpose, 
purchase such cattle as are wanted for the 
day, which are driven from the buving- 
pens over long runways, to pens near the 
slaughter houses. From these pens an in¬ 
clined, enclosed gangway leads into the 
slaughter house itself, where the animals 
are to be turned into butchers’ meat. Some 


pens within the house, which are only aS 
large as small stalls, with room for one 
animal in each. Men run along narrow 
platforms just above these pens, and with 
small sledge hammers strike the cattle upon 
the head, just between the horns. Then 
the doors of the pen are thrown open, 
chains are fastened about the hind legs of 
the unconscious beasts, and they are swung 


By permission of Swift & Company. 

THE BEEF REFRIGERATING ROOM OF A GREAT PACKING HOUSE. 


of the packing-houses have fat and com¬ 
fortable steers trained to lead the other cat¬ 
tle to the foot of the gangway, there to turn 
and leave them, while the victims go on to 
meet their fate. At least one of these bovine 
traitors to his kind met his just deserts not 
long ago, and getting into the killing-pen 
by mistake, was slaughtered before he was 
recognized. 

The inclined gangways lead into small 


up so that they hang upon a trolley, run¬ 
ning on a single overhead rail. Silently 
and methodically the slaughterers walk 
along, each performing one detail of the 
process. The throats of the cattle are cut, 
and the heads removed. The animal is 
drained of blood, and then in quick stages 
the hides, hoofs, shanks and entrails are re¬ 
moved, the carcass is split down the back 
bone, and traveling along on the endless 






















130 


The Industrial Age 


trolley, it is washed and stored in great 
refrigerating rooms for later disposition. 

Some of the beef comes out later wrapped 
in cloth, to be shipped away in specially 
prepared refrigerating cars all over the 
United States, or in vessels to Europe. 
Some of it, of Course, goes through various 
processes of canning and the preparation of 
delicacies. Every single thing that apper¬ 
tains to a slaughtered beef is sold and put 
to use. The horns become the horn of com¬ 
merce; the straight lengths of leg bone go 
to the cutlery-makers for knife handles; the 
entrails become sausage-casings; their con¬ 
tents make fertilizing material; the livers, 
hearts, tongues and tails, and the stomachs 
that become tripe, all are sold over the 
butchers’ counters of the nation; the 
knuckle-lfones are ground up into meal for 
various uses; the blood is dried and sold as 


a powder for commercial purposes; the 
bladders are dried and sold to druggists, to¬ 
bacconists, and others; the fat goes into 
oleomargarine, and from the hoofs and feet 
and other parts come glue and oil and fer¬ 
tilizing ingredients. 

Over the slaughter house is a series of 
rooms heaped full of bones and horns. The 
bones are boiled to get the fat of the mar¬ 
row as well as to clean them. Then they 
are dried and shaken about until they are 
as smooth and clean as cotton-spools. The 
knuckle-joints are cut off them, and one 
room is filled with the ground-up flour of 
those parts. The white and pretty bones 
that remain are shipped to Connecticut, 
England, and Germany, to be worked into 
knife-handles, fan-handles, tooth-brush 
handles, backs for nail brushes, sides for 
pen-knives, and into button-hook handles, 



COOKING THE MEAT FOR CANNING PURPOSES. 























140 


The Industrial Age 



LABELLING THE PRODUCT. SCENE IN THE CANNERY. 


shirt-studs, cuff-buttons, 
and so on, ad infinitum. 

What is to become of 
the horns is still more 
astonishing. By heating 
them and then tapping 
them skilfully, the op¬ 
eratives loosen the soft 
cellular filling which 
solidifies and strength¬ 
ens each horn. The 
substance around this, 
between it and the in¬ 
ner surface of the horn, 
goes for glue; the rest 
is ground up into bone- 
meal. The horns are 
then sent to makers of 
horn goods, who, by cut¬ 
ting each horn skilfully 
and then pressing it between heavy rollers, 
manage to spread each into a flat ribbon. In 
this shape it can be used in a thousandways. 
The artificers w T ho do this work cut each 
horn spirally, so that it becomes a tight curl 



BOXING MEATS FOR EXPORT. 

The nailing machine shown in the cut drives six 
nails at once. 


capable of being straightened out. By im¬ 
mense pressure the curve is taken out of it. 
Good horns sell at. $125 a ton. It is by 
such thorough economy and ingenuity—by 
losing nothing and wasting nothing—that 
the great firms in this business have mo¬ 
nopolized their field. A small butcher can 
not kill his meat and market it in competi¬ 
tion with the stock yards packers, because 
he must waste what they save and sell. 

The refrigerating and cooling-rooms are 
kept at a temperature of thirty-six degrees, 
yet, when the meat fresh from the slaughter 
is railroaded into such a room, the animal 
heat in it warms the room for a considerable 
time, and fills it with steam as with a fog;. 
Once it is cooled, the sides of beef become 
firm and hard and almost appetizing. 
Everywhere, except at the actual scene of 
slaughter, these houses and the work of 
them are clean and above criticism. 

The hog-killing is done in a much more 
























The Industrial Age 


141 



peculiar manner than 
the slaughtering of the 
cattle. In the catching- 
pen are many hogs. Let 
us follow one. The 
catcher snaps a chain 
around one leg, and 
hooks the loose end of 
the chain to the trolley. 

The hog swings out of 
the pen to where a 
butcher stands on a 
grating. The butcher, 
with a deft thrust, cuts 
the animal to the heart, and death is prac¬ 
tically instantaneous. The dead body 
swings along to be loosened over a vat of 
scalding water, into which it is plunged. 
Other bodies are there, and the water is 
loosening their bristles. Suddenly a great 
rake scoops out a hog, and it falls upon a 
runway* where a chain that is hooked to its 


MAKING BUTTERINE. 

nose pulls it through a steam-scraper. The 
knives of this machine are set at every 
angle, and miss no part of the hide on the 
body. 

Once out of the reach of the scraper a 
number of men pass the body along, and 
remove every bristle and speck that was 
missed. Then the body, still traveling 



REFRIGERATOR CAR AS PREPARED FOR SHIPMENT. 


Through the glass wall of this car constructed for exhibit the exact arrangement 

of the meats may be seen. 



















142 


The Industrial Age 



HACUi 



h-ATirl! T 



<-.*■ , -m. V * 



•Aw; Wm " 




PREPARING HAMS AND BACON FOR MARKET. 



along, is washed with a hose and its head is 
all but cut off. Next it is disemboweled. 
Then the lard is removed, the head is cut 
off, the tongue is taken out, and the body is 
split and passed along to the cooling-rooms. 
Again everything is saved. The' blood is 


turned into albumen for photographers’ 
uses, is sold to sugar-refiners, and is turned 
into fertilizing powder. The bristles go to 
brush-makers, shoe-makers, and upholster¬ 
ers. The fat is valuable in many forms, 
the intestines become sausage-casings, the 

livers, lungs, and hearts 
are minced up into sau¬ 
sage meat, and parts of 
the meat of the heads 
made up into head¬ 
cheese. The feet are 
canned or pickled, or 
worked up in the lard 
tanks. With sheep the 
method is similar to the 
others that have been 
described, except that 
they are suspended two 
by two on hooks that 
run along a continuous 

O 

trolley line. As each. 


PICKING CHICKENS FOR THE CITY MARKET. 




























143 



The Industrial Age 


pair passes the succession of men in wait¬ 
ing for them, a new step in the process 
is completed. The killers stick the knives 
into their throats at the rate of twenty a 
minute, and the animals continue to pass 
through the hands of the specialists at that 


verily astonishing. One company in a sin¬ 
gle year has purchased live-stock to the 
total of 1,437,844 cattle, 2,658,951 sheep 
and 3,928,659 hogs. Sales the same year 
amounted to $150,000,000 and the ship¬ 
ments required 107,684 railway cars. From 


Permission of Swift & Company. 

DRESSING MUTTON IN A PACKING HOUSE. 


rate of speed, until the carcass appears at 
the end of the trolley, spread apart with 
wooden braces, and ready for the refrigerat¬ 
ing room. 

The figures of a single year’s business of 
one of these greatest packing-houses are 


this number of live-stock, the packing-house 
produced in addition to the meat, 196,244,- 
588 pounds of lard; 6,472,857 pounds of 
wool; 3,888,983 pounds of neatsfoot oil; 
5,487,540 pounds of glue; 8,116,338 
pounds of butterine; 26,009,453 pounds of 









144 


The Industrial Age 



PACKING SAUER KRAUT. 


tallow and grease; 61,635,047 pounds of 
oil; 90,079,748 pounds of hides, and 86,- 
226,586 pounds of fertilizer. To carry on 
these operations this company has at the 
Chicago Stock Yards a plant covering forty 
acres of land, all but two acres of which 
are under roof, and the buildings, have a 


floor space of sixty-seven acres. In the 
refrigerating rooms 125 miles of pipe have 
a capacity of cooling 1,400 tons of meat 
daily. The storage and cooling-rooms have 
a capacity of 5,000 cattle, 7,500 sheep and 
12,000 hogs. The payroll of the 7,000 em¬ 
ployees connected with this business 
amounts to more than $10,000 a day, or 
nearly $4,000,000 a year. 

The markets for the products of these 
American packing-houses, of which those of 
Chicago are but the largest of many such 
to he found in other western cities, are 
found the world over. It would he hard 
for any European power to go to war suc¬ 
cessfully without patronizing the American 
packing-houses for their meats and sup¬ 
plies. Chicago canned and preserved meats, 
and Chicago fresh meats, are found on the 



.■■ a 


...» 



tflt/ ■ 1 . 


Jf v 


i - - - r.L ..s 

— -/lM 



Permission of Swift & Company. 


DRESSED HOGS IN THE COOLING-ROOM. 



































145 


The Industrial Age 


tables of epicures wherever one travels, and 
the names of the largest houses are known 
as familiarly in European markets as they 
are in America. No industry of our coun¬ 
try extends its business through more di¬ 
verse channels or to more remote regions 
than does this great enterprise. 

& Jt <3* 

HOW A GHEAT CITY IS FED 

The processes by which a great city is 
fed are simple enough in their details, but 
of enormous magnitude in their entirety. 
Before the meats, the vegetables, the manu¬ 
factured supplies, the poultry and dairy 
products, the fish, and all the other articles 
which help to make up the bill of fare of the 
modern household are gathered together in 
a single retail market for neighborhood 


supply, a very large part of the industrial 
activity of the world lias to be levied upon 
to assist. The meats have come from the 
cattle ranges of the southwestern and north¬ 
western states of our own country. Ac¬ 
cording to season, fruits and vegetables may 
have come from Southern California, the 
Gulf of Mexico, the West Indies or our 
own immediate neighborhood. Whole 
train loads of milk come into the cities 
every morning from the dairy regions 
round about. Imported food supplies, such 
as spices, tea, coffee, chocolate and the mul¬ 
titude of other delicacies, are brought from 
all over the world. Fishermen are drop¬ 
ping their nets in the Mediterranean, or off 
the Grand Banks of Newfoundland, or in 
Lake Superior, or in the North Pacific to 
supply us with sardines or mackerel or 



MAKING SAUSAGES. 







146 


The Industrial Age 


-white fish or salmon. Ships are crossing 
every sea, and railway trains are speeding 
all over the continent, collecting and dis¬ 
tributing the food for the cities’ needs. And 
so it is that in the last analysis the greatest 
part of the industrial energy of the world 
is employed directly or indirectly in provid¬ 
ing food for mankind. Of course it is in 
the cities, where population is congested 
and food production virtually absent, that 
the commercial side of this industry be¬ 
comes most conspicuous and interesting to 
the stranger. Everything must he done on 
a large scale. If the city be an ocean port, 


its docks are lined with vessels from all 
over the world, bringing the foreign prod¬ 
ucts demanded for local consumption 
and for distribution throughout the 
country. If it he a lake port in the 
shipping season, the cargoes of fruit 
and vegetables from the adjacent regions, 
where such things are produced for market, 
are unloaded in an endless stream of en¬ 
ticing viands ready for the day’s needs. 
The railways contribute their own quota 
to the current demand and the long 
trains of freight cars rolling in by 
every converging line, continually replenish 



1 A 

ifcifi 


i/fHi 




% 


SOUTH WATER STREET, CHICAGO. 











The Industrial Age 


147 



the exhausted markets, day after dav. 

Perhaps the most striking feature of the 
whole process of feeding a great city may 
be seen in one of the market streets of a 
metropolis, where wholesale dealers distri¬ 
bute the supplies which they receive from 
country shippers, to the 
retail grocers and meat 
and vegetable market 
men throughout the 
city. A noteworthy ex¬ 
ample of this sort is 
South Water Street in 
Chicago, known to al¬ 
most every traveler and 
famous far and wide. 

This street lies parallel 
with the Chicago River 
itself and immediately 
adjacent to it, so that 
the vessels bringing veg¬ 
etables and fruits from 
across the lake are able 
to discharge cargoes to 
the best advantage. On 
both sides of the street, 
for nearly half a mile, 
wholesale houses and 
commission houses deal¬ 
ing in fruits, poultry, 
game, eggs, butter and 
cheese, and all kindred 
market wares, elbow 
each other. The street 
itself is jammed with 
delivery wagons, one 
row backed up against the sidewalk on 
either side and two processions keep¬ 
ing to the right and passing each other 
all day, from before sunrise to dusk at 
night. The sidewalks themselves are ex¬ 
ceedingly crowded with the great crates and 


boxes which have overflowed from within 
the stores. 

Here are dealers who purchase vegetable 
and fruit crops from all over the United 
States. Some of them have scores of buy¬ 
ers, who visit farmers throughout the coun¬ 


PREPARING TURTLES FOR SOUP. 

try, contracting for their fruit and vege¬ 
tables. Other dealers specialize upon 
tropical products, and the banana trade, 
which is largely in the hands of Italians, 
has risen to enormous portions. Saturday 
is the busiest of all times on “the street,” 







148 


The Industrial Age 


as it is familiarly termed, because it is then 
that the whole city is buying its Sunday 
dinner, with all the care which such an im¬ 
portant undertaking requires. The large 
hotels and boarding houses sometimes send 
directly to this wholesale market for their 
supplies, with the conviction that it will 
profit them to do so. The average house¬ 
holder, however, depends upon his neigh¬ 
borhood market, instead of these wholesale 
houses. It is fortunate that it is so, for 
with South Water Street already as crowd¬ 
ed as it is, there would not be standing 
room if the number of patrons were to be 
doubled. 

& < 3 * 

TAPIOCA AND CASSAVA FROM 
THE MANIOC 

The manioc is a shrub that grows six or 
eight feet high, having a tuberous root 
weighing about thirty pounds. Associated 
with this mass of starch is a poisonous, 
milky juice of hydrocyanic acid. Being- 


very volatile, this acid escapes in drying or 
baking. The root is scraped into a pulp 
and the juice pressed out. The pulp is 
baked and then called cassava bread. The 
juice is left standing for several days, when 
a fine starch is precipitated, which is known 
in commerce as tapioca. When the deadly 
hydrocyanic acid is boiled out of the juice, 
there remains the sauce known as casareep. 
When fermented with molasses the casareep 
forms an intoxicating beverage known as 
ouycou. 

The starch of manioc is exported from 
Brazil under the name Brazilian arrow 
root. The manioc is propagated by cuttings 
from the stem, it grows rapidly and its an¬ 
nual production per acre is six times that 
of wheat. In the West Indies and South 
and Central America, the cassava bread is 
a favorite food. Tapioca is a delicacy ap¬ 
preciated for our own tables. The culti¬ 
vation of the plant is a considerable indus¬ 
try in Florida, where it proves highly prof¬ 
itable as a forage for cattle. 



FIELD OF CASSAVA IN FLORIDA, 








THE SMITHFIELD MEAT MARKET, LONDON. THREE-AND-A-HALF ACRES UNDER ONE ROOF. 



































. LUMBERMEN BOATING DOWN A MOUNTAINSIDE. 

In British Columbia flumes are used to float logs from mountain tops to saw-mills. The men nail 
boards together and come down the same way, traveling sometimes a mile a minute. 




The Industrial Age 


151 


LUMBERING IN AMERICAN FORESTS 


The forests of the world have been the 
source of shelter and prosperity for count¬ 
less millions, hut never have they entered 
more fully into the industrial life of the 
people than they do to-day. In America 
alone the lumbering industry, with its 
branches, is recognized as one of the most 
important factors in our national prosper¬ 
ity. The forests began to serve us long be¬ 
fore we were born, for to the trees before 
the coal age we owe the enormous deposits 
of fuel which we are even now digging from 
the mines, for use in great manufacturing 
enterprises, in our railway locomotives, and 
in our households. 

But timber in its natural form is a source 
of wealth to any wooded country. It is an 
evidence of the increasing intelligence of 
mankind in this industrial age, that all the 
world over, influences are at work to pro¬ 
mote the preservation of the forests and to 
put an end to wasteful extravagance in their 
destruction. Estimates have it that the for¬ 
ests of the world cover 1,201,000,000 acres 
of land. Russia leads the list with 4S5,- 
000,000 acres, the United States comes sec¬ 
ond with 176,000,000 acres; Canada third, 
174,000,000 acres; Brazil fourth, with 
135,000,000 acres, and then in succession 
Scandinavia, Austria, Germany, France 
and Italy, down to the countries of less 
consequence in forestry. Since 1848 the 
French, who have been most industrious in 
this direction, have converted 9,000,000 
acres of waste land into forest. Paris alone 
burns the timber of 50,000 acres annually, 
requiring a million acres of forest to keep 
up the supply. 

Forty billion feet of lumber is yearly 


used by the United States for the lumber 
and paper trade. This is equivalent to the 
product of about 4,000,000 acres of good 
virgin forest, an area equal to Rhode Island 
and Connecticut combined. This does not 
include the wood used for fuel, which is 
about four and a half times more. Four 
million feet is used for matches, the prod¬ 
uct of 400 acres of good virgin forest. 
About 620,000,000 cross ties are now laid 
on American railroads, and 90,000,000 new 
ties are required annually for renewals. 
There are now standing nearlv 7,500,- 
000 telegraph poles and 750,000 new poles 
are required each year for renewals. These 
figures do not include telephone poles and 
the poles required on new railway lines. 
The timber used for ties and poles each year 
is equivalent to the product of 100,000 
acres of good virgin forest. The amount 



LOGGING CAMP IN MICHIGAN. 














RAFTING SAW LOGS THROUGH A DRAWBRIDGE—UPPER MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 













153 


The Industrial Age 


of wood used in a single year for making 
shoe pegs is equal to the product of fully 
3,500 acres of good growth hard wood land. 
Lasts and boot trees require at least 500,- 
000 cords more. Most newspaper and pack¬ 
ing paper is made from wood. The total 
annual consumption of wood for paper pulp 
is equivalent to more than 800,000,000 
hoard feet of timber, 
equal to the growth of 
80,000 acres of prime 
woods. It is manifest 
that with such enormous 
inroads upon the forest 
areas of the United 
States, the time might 
come when the country 
would he virtually de¬ 
nuded of trees, if no 
measures were taken to 
prevent such a disaster. 

The effect of that would 
be much more far-reach¬ 
ing than the mere ter¬ 
mination of the fuel- 
wood supplies, and the 
supplies of wood for all 
the other purposes here¬ 
tofore mentioned, for the denuding of a 
country means its certain reversion to a 
desert condition. It is the forests that shel¬ 
ter and preserve the rainfall, yielding the 
streams that flow down into the prairies of 
our agricultural states. If the Eocky 
Mountains, for instance, were to suffer the 
loss of their forests, the snows which cover 
them in the winter would melt rapidly dur¬ 
ing the first days of spring time, and w’ould 
flow away in disastrous floods, destroying 
the farms below. Later in the season, when 
water was needed, there would be none, and 
farms would suffer perpetual drought. 


Under the forests’ shade, snow drifts, how¬ 
ever, melt gradually throughout summer, 
thus supplying never-failing streams for the 
watering of the thirsty crops in the valleys 
below. 

Eecognizing these facts, Americans with 
foresight and prudence have induced the 


the United States, where no timber may be 
cut except under the most rigid and exact¬ 
ing restrictions. There are forty-one of 
these forest reserves in the United States, 
created by presidential proclamations 'ac¬ 
cording to an act of Congress, and em¬ 
bracing a total estimated area of 4G,410,- 
209 acres. The greatest of these is in Ore¬ 
gon, in which state a single reserve includes 
4,588,800 acres. California, Washington, 
Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, 
Utah, South Dakota, Hew Mexico, Okla¬ 
homa, Arizona and Alaska are the other 
states and territories in which forest re- 






154 


The Industrial Age 


serves have been established by national 
law. With this protection, in spite of the 
depredations that are sometimes committed 
bv forest fires and vandal woodsmen, we 
may expect that some of these great forests 
will be preserved to posterity. 

The forests of the eastern section contain 
large areas of both deciduous and evergreen 
trees, including maple, oak, chestnut, birch, 
hickory, walnut, beech, linden, elm and lo¬ 
cust. Characteristic trees of the south are 
oak, long-leaf pine, magnolia and palmetto. 
The cone-bearing trees include valuable cy¬ 
press, spruce, hemlock, cedar and larch. 


The forest areas of the Rocky Mountain 
ranges bear conifers, aspen and oak. The 
magnificent forests of Washington, Oregon 
and California are unrivaled. The trees, 
chiefly conifers or evergreens, include 
Douglas fir, yellow pine, sugar pine, and 
valuable redwood. The standing timber in 
the United States is estimated at 2,300,- 
000,000,000 feet and the annual cut is 
40,000,000,000 feet. Of this conifers con¬ 
stitute three-quarters and the oak and other 
hard woods the remainder. 

In the early history of the country the 
chief lumbering interests were in Maine, 



LOG JAM IN THU Luiviu^itiixu kcuiUN OF MICHIGAN. 









The Industrial Age 


155 


and the industry there remains very impor¬ 
tant, although far exceeded in later years 
by some of the western states. Michigan 
leads all other states in the lumber indus¬ 
try, with an annual production of nearly 
5,000,000,000 feet of lumber and many 
other incidental products from the timber 
that is cut. The lower peninsula in Michi¬ 


gan contains the most extensive pine for¬ 
ests in the country, although the area now 
is larffelv reduced. Wisconsin and Minne- 
sota are likewise leading states in the pro¬ 
duction of lumber and in the other forest 
industries. Georgia, Louisiana and other 
southern states produce large quantities of 
hard pine, and such other forest products 
as turpentine, pitch and tar. The lumber 
industries of the Pacific coast states are 


very great, with Oregon and Washington in 
the lead. 

The work of the lumbermen in the north¬ 
ern forests begins in the winter, when haul¬ 
ing on great sleds becomes the easiest way 
to bring the logs out of the forest. The life 
in the logging camps of Michigan at this 
season is one of hard work and little idle¬ 


ness, but the men become strong in it, and 
return to the same employment year after 
year. The logs are hauled over the snow to 
the banks of the rivers, to await the thaw 
in the spring. When the ice breaks and 
the melting snows cause the streams to rise, 
the logs are picked up by the current and 
carried down stream rapidly toward their 
destination. This is usually a milling town 
at the mouth of the stream, where the logs 



SAWING A BIG LOG IN AN OREGON MILL. 






















COTTON READY FOR EXPORT ON WHARVES AT SAVANNAH. GEORGIA. 






The Industrial Age 


157 


are turned into lumber. It is at this time 
that the “log jams” or blockades occur, 
which call for such bravery on the part of 
the strong men who are urging them down 
stream, to break the jam and start the flow 
once more. On the larger rivers, the logs 
are sometimes lashed into huge rafts, and 
are towed by steamers to the milling towns. 
This is characteristic 
of the upper Missis¬ 
sippi and some of the 
larger rivers which flow 
into it. 

It is these lumbermen 
who have given to us 
the material from which 
millions of homes have 
been built, our furniture produced, our 
houses heated and a multitude of other im¬ 
portant commercial and domestic necessi¬ 
ties provided. 

<£ S 

TEXTILE EABRICS IN AMERICA 

As civilization advances, mankind takes 
more thought how to be fed and sheltered 
and wherewith to be clothed. No longer do 
rude garments of rough skins serve the pur¬ 
pose. Instead, if skins are utilized, they 


must be the finest furs of the rarest north¬ 
ern animals, cut according to the fashion 
of the current season and finished with skill 
and beauty. Wool from the sheep, the 
camel and the alpaca is sheared, woven and 
marketed all over the world. Fiber plants 
are cultivated and utilized most deftly for 
the making of such fabrics as appeal to the 


taste. Cotton is not the only vegetable fiber 
in use for thread, cloth and garments. In 
different countries, hemp, flax, jute, ramie, 
cocoanut-bark, pineapple fiber and other 
products are used locally for the production 
of cloth. The world over, however, cotton, 
wool and silk are the materials from which 
the garments of mankind are made. Linen 
is much reduced in favor, of late years, as 
cotton has multiplied. Silk, indeed, is the 
only fabric materially gaining on cotton 

and wool, and its advance is a natural one, 

justified by its beauty 

and explained by the in¬ 
crease of large trade 
with Japan, China and 
India, whence so much 
of the silk comes. 

The United States is 
the leader in the world’s 
cotton trade. This val¬ 
uable product was first 
raised in the United 
States in Virginia in 
1621, and was first ex- 



COTTON WEAVING, FROM THE SPOOL TO THE CLOTH. 



IN A COTTON MILL—TEARING RAW COTTON FROM THE BALE. 
































MAKING HOSIERY—INTERIOR OF A GREAT STOCKING MANUFACTORY. 

























The Industrial Age 


159 



WEAVER AT THE LOOM. 

ported from this country in 1747. Within 
the next fifty years the progress of the in¬ 
dustry was steady, but the difficulty in sep¬ 
arating the seed from the fiber was the cause 
of slow growth until, 
in 1703, Eli Whitney 
invented the cotton- 
gin. Since that time, 
the increase has been 
enormous and unin¬ 
terrupted, except dur¬ 
ing the Civil 
when industry in the 
3 o u t h virtually 
ceased. By this time 
the acreage annually 
planted to cotton in the United States ap¬ 
proximates 25,000,000, and the annual pro¬ 
duction is above 10,000,000 hales, the an¬ 
nual value of the crop being about $325,- 
000,000. 

Egypt and India are the countries with 
the greatest cotton production after our 
own, hut they fall far behind this coun¬ 
try. All of our southern states produce cot¬ 
ton, with Texas standing at the head of the 
list, Georgia and Mississippi as close rivals 
next, and South Carolina, Alabama, Ar¬ 
kansas, Louisiana and North Carolina fol¬ 
lowing in that order. The greatest cotton 


shipping ports and markets are Galveston, 
New Orleans, Mobile, Savannah, Charles¬ 
ton and Richmond. 

The manufacture of cotton in the United 
States has been growing rapidly in recent 
years. In 1890 the number of establish¬ 
ments for the preparation and manufacture 
of cotton and cotton goods was 2,641, and 
the capital employed was $366,000,000. 
For the manufacture of cotton goods alone, 
apart from mixed goods, there were 905 
mills, with an aggregate capital of $355,- 
000,000, employing 222,000 hands. The 
annual cost of material used was $155,000,- 
000, and the value of the products $268,- 
000,000. Ten vears later the showing was 

greatly increased, 
chiefly by the estab¬ 
lishment of numerous 
important mills in 
the southern states 
themselves. The ten¬ 
dency indicates that 
the time has come to 
take advantage of the 
cheap labor of the 

X. 

south, and the prox¬ 
imity of the cotton 
fields, to operate more economically and 
evade surplus freight on raw material. 



WEAVING VELVET IN A SILK MILL, 



SILK WINDERS AT WORK. 





















160 


The Industrial Age 


The New England states still stand at 
the head in the manufacture of textile fab¬ 
rics. The first cotton mill in the United 
States was established at Beverly, Massa¬ 
chusetts, in 1787, and one of the first 
woolen mills at Newbury, only seven 
years later. Rhode Island is only second 
to Massachusetts in its cotton mills and 
likewise stands high in woolen and silk 
manufacture. Pennsylvania leads in the 
middle states in cotton and silk. New Jer- 
sev stands at the head of the list in the 

c/ 

United States in silk manufacturing, with 
257 factories, and a capital invested ex¬ 
ceeding $20,000,000. There are 26,000 
persons employed and an annual value of 
output of $43,000,000. Among the south¬ 
ern states, North Carolina, South Carolina, 


Georgia, Alabama and Mississippi have im¬ 
portant cotton mills. 

The wool clip of the United States ap¬ 
proximates 270,000,000 pounds annually, 
from 36,000,000 sheep. It is in New 
England and the eastern states that our 
American woolen goods are chiefly manu¬ 
factured. The value of the woolen manu¬ 
factures of Massachusetts alone is about 
$75,000,000 a year. Nearly all the hemp 
from which our rope and other hemp prod¬ 
ucts are made, comes from the Philippines, 
which have a virtual monopoly of the 
world’s product. The development of tex¬ 
tile industries is constant and there is an 
evident improvement apparent in the qual¬ 
ity and the artistic beauty of the materials 
produced. 



OPERATIVES IN A GREAT GARMENT FACTORY. 
All these sewing machines are driven by electricity. 








The Industrial Age 


161 


PAPER, ITS HISTORY AND HOW IT IS MADE 


In the earliest times it was realized that 
the information of the world must be per¬ 
petuated, if true progress were to be ob¬ 
tained, otherwise each generation would 
have to learn for itself as its forefathers 
had done, without having the advantage 
of the experience already gained. So at 
first primitive man used the only tablets at 
his command and engraved strange hiero¬ 
glyphics upon stone, to tell what was de¬ 
sired to he preserved. In the height of 
Egyptian civilization obelisks, pyramids 
and slabs of stone took the place of the 
ruder tablets. Later clay and terracotta 
were used for the making of tablets, and 
great libraries were even formed, portions 
of which are still preserved, to give us the 
history of the Chaldeans, the Babylonians 
and the Assyrians. As time passed other 


materials were introduced, plates of metal, 
skins and bones of animals, ivory, wood 
and wax being used. 

It was Egypt that gave us the real fore¬ 
runner of paper, and, indeed, the name it¬ 
self, by a material made from the graceful 
water plant of the Nile, the familiar Egyp¬ 
tian bulrush or papyrus. Out of the pith 
of its stems were made sheets of a material 
not much indeed like the paper of to-day, 
but the pioneer of paper manufacture. 
Rolls of this material were made into books, 
and a large amount of the history and liter¬ 
ature of the time was thus preserved for the 
use of students of to-day. The Chinese, 
about the same time, were independently 
learning to make paper from rice and silk. 
The first rival of papyrus was parchment 
prepared from the skins of sheep and goats. 



SORTING RAGS FOR FINE BOOK PAPER IN A PAPER MILL. 

























The Industrial Age 


It grew in favor, owing to the partial ex¬ 
haustion of the papyrus beds on the Nile, 
and because the Egyptians wanted to hold a 
monopoly and raised prices of their prod¬ 
uct beyond all reason. The next step for¬ 
ward was the invention of paper as we have 
it to-day. 

a Like a great many other inventions of 
m present value, the first European knowledge 
s of paper-making came from the Chinese, 
ft They had been making paper for more than 
.S 1,000 years when, in 1189, the art was in¬ 
's troduced into France, the first country of 
h ^ Europe where it was made. The Arabs had 

< o learned the art from the Chinese, and from 

% £ them it passed to western Europe through 

£ §? the Crusaders who visited the Moslem coun- 
K & 

2 ~ tries. The Dutch were the next Europeans 
q | to make paper, and the English followed, 
S about the time of the discovery of America. 
^ a Long before this, however, the Saracens 
° 3 had introduced paper-making into Spain, 

< ^ whence it had reached Italy. 

Ph t # 

w s The first paper mill in America was es- 

g | tablished at Germantown, Pennsylvania, in 

£ ^ 1690, by a paper-maker from Holland, one 

g of the owners of the mill being the printer 

k <u who some years later gave to Benjamin 

3 Franklin his first employment in Philadel- 

3 pliia. During the early history of paper 

| making, rags were the only material used. 

| The scarcity of rags was so great that the 

g mills had to continually appeal for them 

S, by advertisements and solicitation, and the 
02 

paper mills in the thirteen colonies grew in 
number so rapidly that the scarcity of ma¬ 
terial caused much inconvenience. 

Before the most recent modern processes 
of paper-making had been invented, the 
production was much more expensive and 
slower. Everything was done by hand, and 
it took three men a day to finish 4,000 







The Industrial Age 


168 


small sheets of paper, while from the be¬ 
ginning to the end the process required 
about three months. This is a striking con¬ 
trast to the conditions of the present, when 
by machinery paper can be made from the 
tree as it stands in the forest within twenty- 
four hours. But little hand-made paper is 
used in America, except for special pur¬ 
poses. But all Bank of England notes are 
printed on linen paper, made by hand, with 
but two notes to a sheet. 

The better and more expensive grades of 
paper are still made from rags, gathered 
and shipped in great quantities from all 
parts of the country and indeed from all 
over the world. China is one of the most 


important of the rag markets. They come 
to the factories in all conditions of filth, 
and the processes of sorting and cleaning 
are of the utmost importance to the perfec¬ 
tion of the product. The mills making the 
highest grade bond paper, and that used for 
our paper money, use nothing, however, ex¬ 
cept new rags fresh from the mills or from 
garment factories where the trimmings are 
saved for the purpose. 

When sorting and cleaning are done, the 
rags are chopped into small pieces, boiled 
for a day under steam pressure, and finally 
treated with chemicals for an additional 
cleaning and bleaching of the resulting 
pulp. By this succession of processes the 



'4/® .^H****** 

|"? ^ar*^^-***^ . 


% 1 



- t v 



M 


~ **■ • 

-V ' ■■■' 


i ti 



!*»<*> gif t* 1 


mi™ 

{Z 

. t V. 

BBr ^ 




»«ss-.-£3 


■ *.” 'd: f ■—' h ^aaIMc 



INTERIOR VIEW OF A GREAT PAPER MILL 






















164 


The Industrial Age 



dirty rags from the streets come forth a 
mass as white as milk. The pulp is drained 
and dried to a proper consistency, and fin¬ 
ally passed through a great machine which 
converts it into the paper itself. By the 
flow of pure water the liquid pulp is spread 
out evenly over a wire cloth into a sort of 
web of damp paper, which is delivered on 


material. The surfaces are given a gloss 
or polish, or a rough or antique finish, ac¬ 
cording to the purpose for which it is in¬ 
tended. 

Although the more expensive papers are 
made from rags, the great bulk of what is 
used in books, magazines and newspapers 
comes from wood pulp, the newest devel- 


AT WORK IN A BOOK BINDERY, FOLDING MACHINES IN THE FOREGROUND. 


an endless belt of moist felt. Successive 
squeezings and scrapings dry the paper, 
smooth it and give it strength. From this 
point the additional processes are merely 
those for finishing different grades of the 


opment in modern paper manufacture. The 
different fibers used in paper-making, 
whether of wood or rags, do not differ 
greatly after their mechanical and chemical 
treatment is finished. When the logs are 















165 


The Industrial Age 


cut in the forests, the bark is stripped from 
them and they are sent to the factory. Here 
they are sawed and split into small blocks, 
after which they are ground to a powder 
which becomes a pulp when diluted with 
water. This pulp, chemically treated to 
bleach it and to remove all resinous and 
foreign matters, then passes through pro¬ 
cesses similar to those by which paper is 
made from rags. 

All of the paper from which our green¬ 
backs and bank notes are made comes from 
one mill. It is made from the finest new, 


clean linen rags, and there is a special at¬ 
tachment on the machine by which the silk 
threads always seen in our paper money 
are introduced. It is forbidden to make 
such paper for private use, under the same 
penalties that apply to counterfeiting. 

Paper fills an important place in many 
mechanical arts, and there are various 
novelty papers made which have important 
uses. Paper made with a quantity of as¬ 
bestos fiber is used for fire-proofing pur¬ 
poses ; tar paper is used for covering roofs 
and lining walls; photographs are made up- 



TRIMMING AND MAILING MAGAZINES IN A BINDERY, 











the delivery rooms above. 




















167 ■ 


The Industrial Age 


on jiaper rendered sensitive by a chemical 
process; carbon paper, transparent paper, 
stencil paper, gunpowder paper, safety 
paper for bank checks, and other familiar 
forms are but developments of the ordinary 
paper products. Sand and emery papers 
are prepared by coating a sheet of paper 
with glue, and then sprinkling sand or 
emery dust upon the surface. Car wheels, 
lumber, buckets and tubs, and many arti¬ 
cles of common use are made from paper 
pulp. 

The United States leads in paper-mak¬ 
ing, producing about one-tliird of all that 
is used on the globe. The city of Ilolyoke, 
Massachusetts, is th© greatest paper cen¬ 
ter in the world for expensive papers of 
linen. The cheaper grades of paper, from 
wood pulp, are made in great quantities in, 
the mills of Maine, Canada and Wisconsin, 
convenient to the forests which provide the 
material. 

& & £ 

HOW A GREAT NEWSPAPER IS 
MADE 

Like the industries and the affairs of the 
world which it records, the modern news¬ 
paper has grown to a magnitude and an 
influence never dreamed by the pioneers of 
the press. Perhaps not changed greatly in 
the smallest towns, where the newspaper 
proprietor may embody in himself all the 
editorial and mechanical labors of his of¬ 
fice, in the city it is a very different institu¬ 
tion. 

In order that the morning paper may be 
read by its thousands of subscribers at their 
breakfast tables, sometimes hundreds of 
miles from the place of publication, hun¬ 
dreds of employees must work in one de¬ 


partment or another to produce and circu¬ 
late the printed pages. In fact, the work 
of producing the paper begins long before 
the time of its publication, and enlists the 
energy of men who may be far away. The 
material equipment of presses, machinery 
and type comes from great factories where 
the highest mechanical ingenuity is em¬ 
ployed to perfect the processes. The paper 
mills must turn out miles of broad, white 
ribbon, which, when printed and folded, be¬ 
comes the morning paper. Back of the 
manufacturers and the paper mills come the 
miners, who toil deep in the earth to pro¬ 
duce the metals, and the lumbermen of our 
northern forests, who cut and raft the logs 
from which the paper is made. Corre¬ 
spondents the world over keep a multitude 
of telegraph operators busy, transmitting 
the important facts of the day to the office 
from which the paper is to issue. Railways 
run special trains to insure prompt distri¬ 
bution of the finished journal, and by the 
time the newsboys, the clerks in the busi¬ 
ness office, and the editorial staff itself are 
added to the list of participants, the num¬ 
ber who from the beginning to the end have 
shared in making the paper, which the 
reader buys for a cent, is an astonishing 
one. 

In order to carry on all these manifold 
operations harmoniously, and without delay 
at a critical time, a great newspaper must 
be organized with the utmost care. The 
business, the mechanical and the editorial 
departments have their distinct functions, 
all of prime importance. It is the business 
department that does the work of securing 
subscriptions and advertisements, circulat¬ 
ing the paper to subscribers, collecting bills 
and paying expenses. It is a self-evident 
fact that a carelessly managed business de- 



LINOTYPE COMPOSING ROOM IN A DAILY NEWSPAPER OFFICE. 

One of these machines will set as much type as half a dozen hand compositors. They are used in almost all large printing establishments. 

























The Industrial Age 


169 


partment could soon destroy the most ably 
edited publication. 

The mechanical department receives 
from the editorial staff of writers and art¬ 
ists, the articles they have written and the 
pictures they have drawn, and, from the 
business department, the advertisements 
which have been received for publication. 
Out of this material the finished product is 
made, by the various processes of type-set¬ 
ting, ' zinc-etching, stereotyping and print¬ 
ing. 

The editorial department is the one first 
thought of by the reader, for from this 
department come the various articles of 
news, criticism, opinion and fact that go to 
make up the printed sheets. 

The editorial staff of a newspaper is di¬ 
rected by the managing editor, who is him¬ 
self, like the business manager and mechan¬ 
ical superintendent, responsible directly 
to the publisher. Under the managing 
editor are the numerous out-of-town cor¬ 
respondents, who send matter by mail 
and telegraph; the city editor and his 
reporters, who gather the local news and 
write it; the special writers who fur¬ 
nish dramatic criticisms, sporting news, lit¬ 
erary or musical notes and the like; and 
the copy readers, who give final revision to 
all this matter after it has been written, in 
order to be sure that the style and policies 
of the paper are conformed with, that errors 
are guarded against, and that nothing libel¬ 
ous is included. The artists, too, report to 
the managing editor or city editor, because 
their work, while pictorial, must conform to 
the general style of the paper. 

Once the manuscript has been prepared 
and finally revised, it goes to the composing 
room, into the hands of the mechanical de¬ 
partment. Except in the smaller offices, the 


old method of setting type by hand has been 
done away with, by the invention of a me¬ 
chanical device called the Linotype ma¬ 
chine. By this machine one type-setter 
can accomplish as much as five or six hand 
compositors, with a higher average of ac¬ 
curacy. The Linotype, invented and per¬ 
fected by Ottomar Mergenthaler, is a cum¬ 
bersome and complicated apparatus, but it 
achieves its purpose with what seems almost 
human deftness and skill. The operator 
sits before the keyboard, not unlike that of 
a typewriter. The upper part of the ma¬ 
chine is a magazine of molds or matrices, 
each in its own box, and carrying at one 
end the form of a printed letter. In an¬ 
other place there is a quantity of molten 
typemetal, kept heated by a gas flame. As 
the operator taps the keys indicating the 
letters he desires to use, each matrix slips 
from its box in proper order and falls into 
place in a little tray made for the purpose. 
When these have assembled, to the length of 
a full line of type, an arm controlled by a 
lever lifts them to a set of clamps, where an 
impression is taken from them in the proper 
quantity of the hot metal. This is the line- 
of-type, cast in one piece, which gives the 
machine its name. The matrices are car¬ 
ried up to the magazine again by another 
arm, and by an ingenious device each is dis¬ 
tributed to its proper place once more. 

When the article has been put in type in 
this fashion from the manuscript, an im¬ 
pression is made from the type, called a 
proof, and this is sent to proof-readers, who 
examine it for errors which must be cor¬ 
rected. When the type has accumulated 
sufficiently to be classified, or made up into 
the page of the paper, this is done, and the 
entire page sent to the stereotyping room. 
The printing of great papers is not done di- 



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The Industrial Age 


171 


rectly from tlie type cast. The size of the 
editions requires that several presses should 
be at work simultaneously, in order to issue 
the paper in time. Duplicate plates are 
therefore made from the type pages, by the 
process of stereotyping, as many as are nec¬ 
essary for the number of presses used. 
These stereotype plates are not flat, but 
curved into a half circle, so that they may 
be clamped on to the cylinder of the press 
used for printing. 

The pictures drawn by the artists are re¬ 
produced by a photographic process, which 
transfers the picture to a sheet of zinc, that 
is then treated with nitric acid to bring out 
the artist’s lines. After such an engraving 


is finished, it may be placed in the page of 
type and stereotyped like the type itself. 

The perfecting printing press of the new¬ 
est design and largest size is one of the most 
interesting pieces of mechanism to be found 
anywhere. The curved metal plates, or 
“turtles,” from which the printing is done, 
are locked in place; the rolls of paper like 
great bolts of ribbon, perhaps six feet wide 
and five miles long, are hung in place on 
the press; the ends of the strips of paper 
are woven through the labyrinths of rollers, 
cylinders and wheels of the machine, an 
electric button signals the starting, and the 
clamor begins. Then from the further end 
of the press begin to fall the folded newspa- 



MACHINE FOR MAKING WHITE PAPER FOR NEWSPAPERS. 





































172 


The Industrial Age 


pers, printed, pasted, even addressed if 
they are intended for the mail, at a rate of 
24,000, 48,000 or even 96,000 an hour. 
Truly a battery of half a dozen such 
presses, multiplying the printed pages for a 
myriad of readers, should be a more effec¬ 
tive force in the world than a battery of 
artillery thundering against an enemy. 

S 

HOW BOOKS AND MAGAZINES 
ARE ILLUSTRATED 

The great increase in book and magazine 
illustration, made possible by the improve¬ 
ment of mechanical devices, has brought 
about the establishment of important busi¬ 
ness concerns, devoted entirely to the mak¬ 
ing of pictures. Various processes are em¬ 
ployed in publishing houses for the illus¬ 
tration of the books, magazines and news¬ 
papers which they produce, but the most 
effective and artistic of these for general 


purposes is that employed in the volume 
herewith presented. It is a photo-engrav¬ 
ing process, producing what is known as 
half-tones. 

It was found that by photographing the 
picture or object desired for reproduction, 
through a fine screen of muslin or wire 
gauze, or lines scratched on a glass plate 
and then filled up with ink, the little 
squares in the screen would separate the 
rays of light according to the strength of 
the lights or shadows of the picture. Where 
the shadows are most intense the rays run 
together, so that the effect on the plate is of 
the black shadows running all together, but 
where they are lighter, the rays form little 
dots upon the plate, while in the high lights 
or white places it is still more dotted. 

If you will take the magnifying glass and 
examine any half-tone engraving, you will 
see that the whole picture is made up of 
little cross bars. This effect of the screen 



OFFICE OF A GREAT ILLUSTRATING AND ENGRAVING COMPANY. 








The Industrial Age 


173 


is called “stippling.” The screen is placed 
just in front of the plate to be photographed 
upon, in the camera, and as the rays of light 
come in through the lenses they are diffused 
according to the intensity of the lights or 
shadows in the object being photographed. 
The screen is ruled in little bars, with lines 
from eighty to 150 to the inch. They are 
so small that they hardly appear as lines 
when the cut is viewed at a little distance, 
and by the process described they produce a 
picture upon a copper or brass plate almost 
a counterpart of the photograph. 

The coarser line engravings used in news¬ 
papers are made with great rapidity by a 
process known as zinc etching. The artist 
draws in India ink the picture to be pro¬ 
duced, making his sketch much larger than 
it is to appear in the paper. The process of 
engraving' reduces the size and at the same 
time improves the work of the artist. This 
drawing is next photographed and devel¬ 
oped by ordinary processes, and from the 
negative a print is made on a sheet of sensi¬ 
tized zinc, just as one would print an ordi¬ 
nary photograph on sensitized paper. The 
zinc plate is treated by a developing process 
that shows up the lines of the picture, and 
after this it is given a bath in nitric acid 
that eats away the exposed surface of the 
zinc plate and leaves the photographic lines 
standing out. Repeated eatings by acid, 
and retouching by skilful engravers, with 
sharp tools, bring the plate to final perfec¬ 
tion, after which it is mounted on a metal 
base and is ready to be used in printing. 

Colored pictures are made by a process 
similar to that of the half-tones, with some 
additions. Three plates are made of the 
same subject, which are used respectively 
with three different inks, red, yellow and 
blue. Such colors combined in proper pro¬ 


portions, by printing one on top of another, 
will give any shade or color desired. One 
plate is arranged for printing the blue, an¬ 
other for the red and another for the yellow. 
Each picture must go through the press 
three times for these colors to be put on, 
one at a time, and of course the work must 
be very accurate so that the successive im¬ 
pressions will be in the right place. When 
the work is finished, however, if this is done 
properly, there is a remarkable colored pic¬ 
ture produced, with artistic effects, and yet 
at great speed and moderate expense. 

Rot merely mechanical processes, but 
genuine artistic ability as well, must be 
employed to obtain such results. The one 
to whom this work is given, carefully 
studies the subject to be printed, as to its 
color, and the proper combination of inks 
to produce the desired colors is decided. 
The first plate of the three is then arranged 
for printing in blue. All that portion 
which is to appear in heavy blue has a 
heavv surface left on the engraving: the 
lighter shades are stippled more, eaten out 
by the acid or carved out by hand, accord¬ 
ing to the degree of intensity needed. That 
portion which needs blue in combination 
with one or both of the other colors is 
shaded in proportion. This plate, after 
being thus made ready, is marked near the 
edges with lines which aid in printing the 
next color, exactly on top of the first at the 
proper place. 

Rext the plate from which the yellow is 
to be printed is prepared in the same way, 
and the red plate completes these prelim¬ 
inaries. Proofs of each plate are taken 
separately and together to see if the right 
color scale has been worked out. If the 
final proof is correct, the register marks 
should exactly coincide, and the colors 





LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS IN THE PROCESS OF CONSTRUCTION. 
























175 


The Industrial Age 


should blend so that they appear to be 
printed by a single impression. The com¬ 
pleted work is a perfect colortype, resem¬ 
bling a half-tone photographic engraving 
in the natural colors. 

The chromos of a few years ago are en¬ 
tirely superseded by the process thus de¬ 
scribed, which in addition to being much 
more satisfactory and artistic in its results, 
is more rapid and far cheaper. The new 
process has made it possible for beautiful 
jrictures, colored as in nature, to be pos¬ 
sessed by multitudes of lovers of beauty 
and art, at small cost, and house decoration 
is greatly aided thereby. 

LOCOMOTIVES AND THEIR CON¬ 
STRUCTION 

The modern locomotive, that draws 
trains of palace cars across the continent 
at a bewildering speed, has not many points 
in common with the “Rocket” and those 
other pioneer engines of the pioneer rail¬ 
ways early in the century. Locomotives 
are getting larger and faster by a process 
of steady improvement in the mechanism 
and material. A score of great factories 
are busy turning out such engines for 
American railways, day and night, and 
with the great increase in railway mileage 
j and traffic, it is almost impossible for the 
construction of train equipment to keep up 
with the demands of the roads. The loco¬ 
motive trust, organized in 1901, with a 
capital of $50,000,000, includes all but two 
of the important American manufactories. 
These two, however, are among the larg¬ 
est, and one of them is perhaps the largest 
of all such works in the world. 

American locomotives are used the world 
over. In Australia, New Zealand, India, 
South America, South Africa, Manchuria, 


Russia and Siberia, the American traveler 
finds himself drawn over the rails by an 
American engine. The American factories, 



AN OIL-BURNING LOCOMOTIVE. 


















176 


The Industrial Age 


with characteristic adaptability, turn out 
locomotives of every type from the mon¬ 
ster mountain-climbing giant of 120 tons 
for the Rockies or the Sierra Eevadas, to 
the smallest engine for a mine or a sugar 
plantation. Making locomotives according 
to regular designs and patterns, so that the 
various parts of it are as interchangeable 
as the parts of a watch, these great facto¬ 
ries can supply a demand with surprising 
rapidity. The greater locomotive works 
can turn out complete engines all the year 
round, at the rate of from two to five a 
day. If the order he for one of a regular 
type and size, they can deliver it out of the 
stock room as promptly as a grocer can de¬ 
liver a barrel of sugar. Tor a test of 
speed, locomotives have been built out of 
the parts into the completed machine, ready 
for the track, in twelve hours. 

It is this facility that has enabled the 
American builders to get into the world 
markets with such great rapidity, in com¬ 
petition with the English, Trench, Belgian 
and German builders who have hitherto 
monopolized the trade. Even such Austra¬ 
lian, Russian and South African railway 
managers as believed the European locomo¬ 
tives to be superior could not overcome the 
temptation to buy the American machine, 
promised for shipment and delivered in 
three months or less, when the European 
competitor demanded one or two years. 
Even the English railways themselves have 
begun to buy American locomotives, apol¬ 
ogetically explaining that it was prompt¬ 
ness of delivery which compelled their 
choice. 

Generally speaking, English locomotives, 
and consequently English trains, have the 
better of us in speed. There are various 
reasons for this. One is that the English 


roads early adopted the principle that there 
must be no surface crossings, either of other 
railways or of wagon roads, so that they 
avoid many delays and halts which Amer¬ 
ican trains must make. Then, too, the Eng¬ 
lish lines are invariably double-tracked, a 
policy which rules only on the richer Amer¬ 
ican roads, in the most thickly populated 
districts. Then there are no such long runs 
in the British Isles as we have in America. 
The through trains between London and 
Glasgow or Edinburgh, a distance of not 
much more than 400 miles, and between 
London and Liverpool, less than 200 miles, 
are the ones making the longest runs. They 
have no such thing as our transcontinental 
lines to maintain. 

The London Transport of May 10, 1901, 
printed figures showing the relative speed 
of English and American express trains. 
Tor distance up to 100 miles, the English 
trains average 41 miles an hour and the 
American trains, 42 miles. It is fair to 
say, though, that the average for this coun¬ 
try is brought up by the great speed of 
the trains between Philadelphia and At¬ 
lantic City, otherwise it would fall slightly 
below that of England. Tor a distance of 
100 to 250 miles, the average in both cases 
is about 40 miles an hour. Tor long dis¬ 
tances English express trains average 43.3 
and American 35 miles an hour. All coun¬ 
tries have their speed records of exceptional 
runs and we do not fall below others in this. 
Speed up to seventy and eighty miles an 
hour is no longer uncommon, while for short 
distances on straight track some trains have 
actually achieved the marvelous speed of 
112 miles an hour. It is to the American 
locomotive builder that the credit must be 
given for the machines that race over the 
track at such an amazing speed. 



BLACKSMITH SHOP IN BALDWIN’S LOCOMOTIVE FACTORY. 
















MAKING LOCOMOTIVE SPRINGS, 
































The Industrial Age 


179 


power: its development and transmission 


It is a primary truth in natural philos¬ 
ophy that no machine can give off more 
power than is given to it—that something 
cannot be generated out of nothing. Log¬ 
ical experimenters have long ago given up 
the futile effort to discover or invent some 
process for perpetual motion. Instead, 
mechanical ingenuity lias devoted its in- 
quiry to the search for improvements in the 
application of power and in the mechanism 
of it. The most perfect engine that can 
he imagined would waste some of the power 


naturally developed, by the loss in friction. 
The ideal toward which inventors strive is 
the reduction of friction, so that as much 
as possible of the power actually produced 
shall be used for the purpose intended, with 
as little waste as possible in the mechanism 
of the engine itself. 

It is the enormous waste of power in 
transmission that is rapidly causing the 
cable-railways of city streets to be super¬ 
seded by electric car lines. Electricitv is 
one of the most economical of all powers to 



f 3g/«W His 




rtf 
i i • j 




i 



• 


■M 


INTERIOR OF A CABLE-RAILWAY POWER-HOUSE. 

Showing the cables passing oyer the wheels which move and stretch them, 



















MACHINE SHOP OF BALDWIN’S LOCOMOTIVE WORKS. 













The Industrial Age 


181 



transmit, because it is conducted through 
copper wires for long distances, with com¬ 
paratively slight loss of the current. The 
cable system, novel and picturesque as it 
seemed when the idea was first put into 
use, requires engines and boilers sufficient 


possible. This cable extends in a great 
circuit from the power-house, throughout 
the length of the line, over a large pulley, 
and back by another parallel track of the 
line, to the power-house again, where it 
passes over the great wheels connected with 


FIRING BY HAND—FURNACE ROOM OF THE CHICAGO PUBLIC LIBRARY. 


to generate an immensely greater power 
than the actual demands of the cars in serv¬ 
ice; because so much of the power is used 
in drawing the cables themselves. 

The cable railway of our city streets is 
operated as follows: In a narrow trench 
between the rails is a steel cable about an 
inch in diameter, resting on broad wheels 
over which it may be drawn as easily as 


the engines which give it its forward mo¬ 
tion. In order to cause the cable to move 
onward continuously at a regular rate of 
speed, an intricate device for keeping it 
stretched must be used, which increases the 
friction. It is evident that the weight of 
such a cable several miles long, and the 
friction which it generates in passing over 
the succession of wheels and pulleys, must 


























AUTOMATIC EQUIPMENT FOR FURNACES IN A GREAT POWER-HOUSE. 

Coal from the chutes above is supplied to the furnaces automatically, and the revolving grate bars keep 

the fire in good condition. 

























183 


The Industrial Age 


require a great engine power to move it 
even were there no cars to be operated. 

Between the rails of the street car track, 
over the trench in which the cable lies, is a 
slot, likewise continuous. Through the bot¬ 
tom of the street car a clutching or gripping 
device extends, operated by levers above. 
When it is desired to start the car, the grip- 
man moves the levers, thus grasping the 
cable below, and when it is desired to stop 
the car he releases the cable by the reverse 
motion of the levers. The cable itself is 
all the time moving. It is the identical prin¬ 
ciple by which a boy with a sled operates, 
in winter, when he grasps the trailing rope 
behind a farmer’s wagon and is dragged 
along the ground at will. The frequent 
jerks and shifting strains upon the cables 
as cars start and stop, wear out the steel 
wires rapidly, and help to make the system 
an expensive one to operate. And yet in 


many cities cable railways have proven of 
great value for years prior to the introduc¬ 
tion of electric lines. 

The immense power required for large 
manufacturing plants can hardly be real¬ 
ized by those who have not come in contact 
with such conditions. Great battleships 
and passenger liners in some instances have 
boilers and engines sufficient to develoj) 
30,000 or 35,000 horse-power, or as much 
as the entire power required for all the 
machinery at the Chicago World’s Fair of 
1893. Great factories in some instances, 
too, require plants of almost as much mag¬ 
nitude. The battery of boilers such as one 
may see in a modern manufactory on a 
large scale is an impressive sight. 

To some extent firemen have been elim¬ 
inated in such institutions, by the invention 
of automatic appliances for supplying coal 
for the furnaces, keeping the fires in good 



MAKING BINDER TWINE FROM MANILA HEMP. 




















184 


The Industrial Age 



HARVEST TIME ON A NORTH DAKOTA WHEAT FARM. 


condition, and removing tlie ashes and cin¬ 
ders. Coal is dumped into bins above the 
furnaces, directly from railway tracks. 
Chutes carry the coal when needed from 
the bins to the firebox, where it is distrib¬ 
uted by other automatic processes, and 
finally, automatic grate-bars, revolving 
upon axles at either end of the furnaces 
like an endless chain, keep the fires shaken 
down and the refuse removed as regularly 
and as perfectly as could be done by skilled 
firemen. Of course such a mechanical 
equipment requires the supervision of 
skilled engineers, but it is a great economy 
in labor for all that. 

S & 

UP-TO-DATE METHODS IN 
FARMING 

The methods of farming, that greatest 
of all American industries, have changed 
almost as much in late years as the methods 
in any of the mechanical and commercial 
industries. In the days when railways did 
not exist, and scientific farm implements 
had not been invented, the farmer was, in¬ 
deed, hut a farmer, living an isolated life, 


raising his own food, and consuming his 
own products in large degree, in virtual in¬ 
dependence of his fellowmen. 

But now the farmer must be an intelli¬ 
gent business man as well if he is to make 
the highest success of his industry. It does 
not avail to buy expensive farming machin¬ 
ery, only to let it fall to destruction because 
it is given no care or protection from the 
elements. It is an extravagance to waste 
valuable pasture on inferior stock, which 
will bring but a low price in market, when 
good stock may be raised with greater ease 
and greater profit. 

Agricultural colleges, established all over 
the United States, have educated thousands 
of young farmers in scientific methods of 
agriculture, with profit to themselves and 
their enterprise. Agricultural newspapers, 
circulating everywhere, form a medium of 
exchange of opinions and information, thus 
spreading the educational spirit. The Agri¬ 
cultural Department of the United States 
Government has become an immense factor 
in building up the agricultural interests of 
the country by scientific experimentation 
and intelligent, practical work. It is this 











185 



THRESHING MACHINES IN THE FIELD. 


The Industrial Age 


■ 




: r. 


Agricultural Department that has been an 
active influence in preserving the forests 
and water supplies of the land, in reclaim¬ 
ing the arid and desert land in the west by 
irrigation systems, and in finding crops 
adapted for the soil. 

Farming and stock raising are not left 
to the individual husbandman who culti¬ 
vates his own ground. Like the industries 
of handicraft, that have grown into great 
manufacturing enterprises, the promise of 
wealth in agriculture has attracted men of 
large ideas and large wealth. On the plains 
of the southwest and northwest, immense 
herds of cattle and sheep are grazing, owned 
by great corporations or energetic million¬ 
aires. In the Mississippi Valley great 


farms have grown in the possession of capi¬ 
talists, who conduct them as methodicallv 
as they would any other productive indus¬ 
try. In North Dakota, for instance, wheat 
farms of 20,000 acres are not uncommon. 
A farm of this size requires executive abili¬ 
ty, economy of administration and attention 
to details in order to assure profit, just as 
truly as would a cotton mill or a coal mine. 
Batteries of reapers sweep across the wheat 
fields at harvest time. Platoons of harvest 
hands work in the fields. And yet even 
such an enterprise demands skill and in¬ 
telligence and attention no more trulv than 

O o 

does any one of our fertile farms, if the 
highest results are to be obtained from it 
for the owner. 



THE LARGEST POULTRY PLANT IN THE WORLD, IN THE STATE OF OHIO. 
Annual production 100,000 chickens, 73,000 dozen eggs. 
























WINDOW GLASS MAKERS AT THE MELTING FURNALZb. 






















The Industrial Age 


187 


GLASS AND ITS USES 


Without glass in its various forms, the 
modern household would be quite at a loss. 
Glass enters into so many of the essential 
conveniences of life, of the commonest sort, 
that we no longer think of it as a luxury, 
but as a prime necessity. Windows, dishes, 
bottles, lamp chimneys, mirrors and orna¬ 
ments are among the first uses that come to 
mind, all entirely ordinary to us. And yet 
there are lands and tribes where glass is un¬ 
known, except as it is brought to them by 
traders from the outer world. The wild 
races of the Pacific Islands and Central 
Africa, like the Eskimos of the far north 
and the American Indians, knew nothing of 
glass until the white men taught them its 
uses. They were not slow, however, to see 
the value of such material, and trinkets of 
glass or small mirrors have been among the 
most effective articles of trade in the deal¬ 
ing of explorers with these people. 

Glass was first made in England by Ben¬ 
edict, a monk, in 074, but at that time it 
was recognized only as a novelty, and not of 
any special value. The first use of it in 
England for bottles was in 1557, and in 
the same year the first window glass was 
made there. More than one hundred years 
later, in 1673, the first plate glass was made 
in Lambeth, England. • 

Now there is no house so mean that it 
does not have glass in use in many forms. 
The decorative value of the material is 
great, and there is no more interesting dis¬ 
play of the finer fabrics of the world than 
can be seen in the illuminated windows of 
a great city shopping street, extending for 
miles, and forming a crystal wall behind 
which the choicest fabrics are displayed. 


The incandescent electric light, too, re¬ 
quires the transparent bulb of glass to en¬ 
close it, so that we owe our brilliant light 
to the same common substance. 

Glass factories have grown to immense 
proportions, particularly in the eastern 
states, where coal and natural gas are read¬ 
ily at hand tor the immense quantity of 
fuel and the necessary mineral substances 
required in the manufacture. Pennsyl¬ 
vania and Indiana are among the states 
which lead in glass production. In the 
former state there are thirty glass facto¬ 
ries, with an invested capital of more than 
$15,000,000 and an annual value of prod¬ 
ucts of more than $9,000,000. Indiana has 
about twice as many factories, with a corre¬ 
sponding output. The employees in the 
glass factories of this state number 10,000 
and their annual wages amount to nearly 
$5,000,000. 

In the countries where glass is not known, 
the same substitutes are still used that were 
employed hundreds of years ago. Sheets of 
mica, bits of skins and other such make¬ 
shifts are made to answer the purpose, or 
else the windows are left wide open. In 
the Arctic regions, indeed, thin sheets of 
ice are fitted into the walls of the snow 
houses, and the light penetrates through 
them. For bottles, wooden or earthen ves¬ 
sels are used. But in the civilized countries 
to-day, glass is so cheap and so common, 
thanks to the improved methods applied to 
its manufacture, that no one is denied its 
use. It is in this cheapening of the neces¬ 
sities that are of universal use that modern 
industry makes one of its most conspicuous 
successes. 



GLASS-BOTTLE BLOWERS AT WORK. 






















The Industrial Age 


189 


THE WORK OF THE POTTER 


From the earliest times of primitive 
civilization, men have made utensils for 
domestic use out of clay, first molded into 
proper shape and then hardened by heat. 
The most primitive races to-day make rude 
dishes roughly fashioned and poorly baked, 
and through all the 
progress of civilization 
the utility of this kind 
of wares has been recog¬ 
nized. Now some of the 
most artistic minds are 
busily engaged in cre¬ 
ating new designs, more 
beautiful and more ser¬ 
viceable. The work of 
the potter and the por¬ 
celain maker has be¬ 
come more than a mere 
mechanical craft, and is 
recognized as an art in 
the best sense of the 
word. In the finer 
grades of china, pot¬ 
tery, porcelain and the 
kindred wares, Euro¬ 
pean makers have excelled Americans until 
recent years, when the products of the Rook- 
wood workers at Cincinnati have been rec¬ 
ognized as worthy to rank with any in the 
world. French china, largely produced at 
Limoges from the great Haviland factory, 
is perhaps the best known modern ware in 
the American household. Wedgewood, ma¬ 
jolica, royal Worcester, Dresden and other 
varieties are likewise well known in this 
country. The plainer products of coarser 
ware, either in white or decorated china, 
are produced in large quantities by great 


potteries in New Jersey, Pennsylvania, 
Ohio, and some other states. 

Oriental wares brought from China and 
Japan, are becoming better known all the 
time as our trade with the Far East in¬ 
creases. Indeed it was the country of 


China itself that gave to the most common 
ware its general title. Japanese and Chi¬ 
nese dishes are peculiarly attractive in their 
artistic decorations and their graceful form. 
One of these wares, known as Satsuma, is 
held in high esteem by connoisseurs, and 
collectors visit Japan for the purpose of 
searching for treasures of this sort. 

Roughly speaking, all earthen ware 
passes through the same processes. The 
clay itself is properly mixed to the needed 
consistency, and then molded by hand or 
machine to the desired form. It is then 
















190 The Industrial Age 



ARTIST DECORATING POTTERY. 


decorated and glazed, after which in great 
ovens or kilns it is subjected to a high de¬ 
gree of heat, and this burning hardens the 
clay and makes permanent the decorations 
and the glaze. It is the variety of clay, the 
artistic ability devoted to the forming and 
decorating of the object, and the quality of 
the glaze or final finish, which regulate the 
beauty and the value of the product. As 
interest in household art has increased 
within the last decade, there has been a 
marked increase in the public appreciation 
of choice plastic wares, and this is resulting 
in a gradual improvement in what are now 
offered for use in the household, for decora¬ 
tive or practical use. 


HOW PIANOS HAVE MULTIPLIED 

There is no more conspicuous evidence of 
the manner in which all people profit by 
improved industrial and commercial meth¬ 
ods, than is shown in the business of piano 
manufacturing. It is hut a few years since 
a piano was a genuine luxury, to be found 

• 

in the households of none but the rich, or 
those who made professional use of their 
musical talents. To pay $1,000 for a piano 
meant nothing exceptionally fine in the in¬ 
strument under the old regime. The piano 
manufacturer might be himself musician, 
designer, workman, business manager and 
salesman of his factory. 

To-day all this has changed. The iny 



























The Industrial Age 


191 



proved methods of wood-working and metal- 
* working devised by skilful inventors, have 
made possible the construction of the ordi¬ 
nary piano at a cost to the manufacturer of 
hardly one-tenth what it was a generation 
ago. The methods of distribution have im¬ 
proved no less than those of manufacture. 
The result is that now almost every well-to- 


ago can be duplicated now or excelled for a 
fifth of that amount. 

Piano manufactories are great industrial 
institutions, employing hundreds of la¬ 
borers and turning out thousands of instru¬ 
ments a year. There is hardly a village 
that does not have its piano store and music 
teachers, and the widespread use made of 


MAKING GRAND PIANOS, SHOWING INTERIOR CONSTRUCTION. 


do household has its piano, perhaps not as 
perfect an instrument in every instance, 
with as true an identity as were the finest 
of those older ones which were all the prod¬ 
uct of skilled hand labor, and yet, it is 
believed, showing a higher average degree 
of excellence than ever before. It is true 
that there are still $1,000 pianos, but they 
ure far superior to any of the former day, 
while the ones that cost such a sum years 


this most popular instrument, in the most 
enchanting of arts, is a manifest evidence 
of the advance of culture and prosperity in 
the industrial age. 

Pianos, too, have changed in form as well 
as in price. Two generations ago the grand 
piano, with its great triangular bulk, was 
first choice. The square piano, imitating 
the form of the spinet or the harpsichord 
and the older forms of the keyed, stringed 











192 


The Industrial j\ge 


instruments, was next in favor, and was tlie 
resource of those who could not find money 
or room for the larger instrument. As the 
square juano improved it became more pop¬ 
ular, and until twenty years ago was one 
commonly seen in most households. To-day 
the square piano has almost vanished. The 
upright has taken its place as a better in¬ 
strument, far more convenient in form, and 
economical of space in the room. The 
grand piano with its greater size, strength 
and volume of tone, must retain its place 
for professional use, hut it is safe to say 
that 900 out of every 1,000 pianos made in 
the great factories of the United States, are 
of the form known as the upright. 

American pianos, like other American 
products, are finding their way far afield. 
Those makes which are best known in this 


country as reliable and popular instru¬ 
ments, are recognized likewise in England 
and upon the continent of Europe. Some 
American manufacturers, indeed, in order 
to enter the European market to best ad¬ 
vantage, have established selling agencies 
and even factories across the Atlantic, 
where their goods are produced and sold, to 
be another item in the American advance 
in the industrial and artistic world. Such 
enterprising manufacturers seek for the 
best materials and the best markets the 
world over. Good pianos must be con¬ 
structed out of good materials. It is not 
merely the beautiful veneered and polished 
case, but the strength of the frame and 
volume of the tone, that tell the story, and 
in these details American piano manufae. 
turers admit no superior. 



Miituiiim 


FINISHING CASES OF UPRIGHT PIANOS. 











A “WHALEBACK” IN THE GREAT CANAL LOCK AT SAULT STE. MARIE, MICH. 

Thoco npmliar rraft are cargo carriers for immense shipments of ore, grain and coal on the Great Lakes, where they are peculiar sights. Among marines 
" they are popularly known as “the pigs,” on account of their shape. 


























194 


The Industrial Age 


THE WORLD’S BIG CANALS 


For hundreds of years canals have been 

built to facilitate trade within the interior 

of countries, and to connect river systems. 

Some of these artificial waterways have 

been of great length and great commercial 

importance, although of late years, with 

the rapid development of railways, the 

construction of such canals has virtuallv 

«/ 

ceased. The same spirit of energy, how¬ 
ever, that once exerted itself in this man¬ 
ner, has now turned to greater works, and 
ship-canals, connecting the oceans of the 
world, have become the object of such ef¬ 
forts. 


The Isthmus of Suez, connecting Africa 
with Asia, and separating the Red Sea 
from the Mediterranean, in the Eastern 
Hemisphere; and the Isthmus of Panama, 
connecting the two continents of America, 
and separating the Atlantic and the 
Pacific Oceans, in the Western Hemi¬ 
sphere, have long been contemplated by 
mariners and merchants as barriers that 
ought to be pierced for the sake of the 
world’s commerce. This object at last was 
accomplished some thirty years ago, as far 
as Suez was concerned, and our own 
American transisthmian canal, by some 



DAM AT LOCKPORT. ON THE CHICAGO DRAINAGE CANAL. 


























The Industrial Age 


195 



one of the rival routes, is certain to be cut 
and completed for traffic before many 
years have passed. 

Egyptian kings and Roman conquerors 
in turn attempted the excavation of the 
Suez Canal, but not until the great French 
engineer De Lesseps assumed the task, 
about the middle of the nineteenth century, 
was any effective result attained. The 
canal was thirteen years in construction. 
It is twenty-six feet deep and about ninety- 
six miles long, although part of this dis¬ 
tance was mere excavation through a lake. 
Steamers pass through in twenty-four 
hours, and the tolls average more than 
$4,000 per vessel. The British govern¬ 
ment owns the controlling interest in the 
canal, and British ships are its most 
numerous patrons. It is estimated that the 
saving of distance in the voyage from Eng¬ 
land to India is one-lialf, and to the Far 
East one-third of what the total would be 
if it were still necessary to 
go around Africa. The sav¬ 
ing to commerce is many 
millions of dollars a year. 

The American canal, con¬ 
necting the Caribbean Sea 
and the Pacific Ocean, will 
be hardly second in import¬ 
ance to the Suez Canal. The 
total length from sea to sea 
by the Nicaragua route is 
183.G6 miles. By this route 
the natural waterways of the 
San Juan River and Lake 
Nicaragua would be util¬ 
ized, and the length of the 
artificial channel would be 
but 26.7 miles. The Pan¬ 
ama route is 49.09 miles 
long, and of this a great 


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part was accomplished by the French 
Company organized for the purpose, 
which failed before completing the work. 

















196 


The Industrial Age 


Surveys for the canals have been ex¬ 
haustive, and every detail necessary to 
guide the engineer in the construction is 
well known. The route of the Panama 
Canal extends from Colon on the Atlantic 
side, to Panama on the Pacific, passing 
over twenty-five miles of river, eight miles 
of mountains and the remaining distance 
of bottom land. The estimated cost of 


completing this canal is $145,000,000. 
This added to the $40,000,000 demanded 
by the French Company for the part of the 
work which they have completed makes a 
total cost by this route of $185,000,000, or 
about $5,000,000 less than by the Nica¬ 
ragua route. 

These interoceanic canals are not the 
only ones of great importance. The Ger¬ 
mans, for instance, constructed the Kiel 
Canal from the North Sea to the Baltic, 
by which vessels of the largest size pass 
directly back and forth without needing to 
make the great detour around the 
peninsula of Denmark. A similar result 


is obtained for ships in Lake Superior, in 
our own country, by a canal cutting 
through the great Keweenaw Point on the 
south shore, thus avoiding a long detour. 
Within the interior of many countries the 
canal systems play an important part in 
commerce. The Erie Canal, for instance, 
connecting Lake Erie with the Hudson 
Kiver, is an important waterway across 

the state of New 
York. The Wel¬ 
land Canal, built 
by Canada be¬ 
tween Lake Erie 
and Lake On¬ 
tario, enables 
vessels to pass 
around Niagara 
Falls and thence 
to the St. Law¬ 
rence Kiver, 
where another 
succession of 
canal locks 
around the rap¬ 
ids of that river 
give access all 
the way to the Atlantic Ocean. The United 
States Government, with its greatest of all 
canal locks in the St. Mary’s Kiver connect¬ 
ing Lake Superior and Lake Huron, at 
Sault Ste. Marie, surmounts the difference 
in level between those lakes, and navigation 
is therefore virtually uninterrupted be¬ 
tween Duluth or Chicago and our Atlantic 
ports. 

Many of the European countries have 
carried canal building to important pro¬ 
portions. All of the larger river systems 
of Russia are connected, and the canals 
of Holland, Belgium and France are fam¬ 
ous. The Russians have been active in 



GREAT DAM ACROSS THE NILE—UPPER EGYPT. 











The Industrial Age 


197 


Asia, too, and by the river systems which 
they have connected with artificial water¬ 
ways, it is possible to pass with boats all 
the way from the Ural Mountains to Lake 
Baikal in the heart of the continent. 

Latest of all great canals is the one bnilt 
by the city of Chicago, for drainage and 
sanitary purposes, connecting the head 
waters of the Chicago River with those of 
the Mississippi. The former stream has 
been a receptacle for sewage and a menace 
to the city’s health, because of its con¬ 
tamination of the municipal water supply 
in Lake Michigan. The opening of the 
canal turned the flow of the river in the 
other direction, and Lake Michigan now 
has an outlet to the Gulf of Mexico, dilut¬ 
ing and purifying what was once a noxious 
stream. This canal, some thirty miles long, 
required seven years for construction and 
cost about $35,000,000. It is deep enough 
for ocean vessels and some day it is be- 
lieved will be a channel for a great traffic. 

Long before white men came, the Chicago 
River was an important route for the wan¬ 
dering Indian tribes of Illinois. A very 
few miles and a very low ridge separated 
the headwaters of the south branch of that 
stream from the Desplaines River, which is 
a tributary of the Mississippi by way of the 
Illinois River, so they could drag their 
canoes over this short portage and continue 
their journey in either direction with the 
utmost ease. The first white explorers util¬ 
ized the same route in passing between the 
basin of the Great Lakes and the Missis¬ 
sippi Valley. It is evident, therefore, that 
Chicago grew where it is, not by chance, 
but because of natural conditions which 
were potent in commerce and industry. 

Many years ago a small canal was cut 
connecting these same waters, which had its 


considerable commercial importance for a 
time. Then as the city grew, it became 
necessary to make some provision for the 
wholesome water supply required, and for 
the disposition of the immense quantity of 
sewage turned into the river. It is doubt¬ 
ful if any municipality ever carried to suc¬ 
cessful completion a greater undertaking 
than this Chicago drainage canal, or one 
more important in its far-reaching effects 



COMPRESSED-AIR DRILL, CHICAGO DRAINAGE 
CANAL. 


on the city’s health and commerce. The 
blue waters of Lake Michigan were left un¬ 
tainted by the impurities which had been 
poured into them, and an inexhaustible sup¬ 
ply of this essential factor in the wholesome 
domestic life of a great metropolis was 
made uninterruptedly available. 

The increased reverse current of the river 
scoured the banks, purified the river itself, 






198 


The Industrial Age 


and improved tlie channel for shipping. It 
was promptly realized that the center-pier 
bridges must be eliminated, in order to 
leave shipping unobstructed, and plans were 
devised for bridges, some of the “lift” and 
some of the “bascule” type, leaving a broad, 
clear channel from bank to bank. The river 
was widened, the docks improved, the sharp 


bends cut down, and every preparation 
made to accommodate an important inter¬ 
change of commerce. 

There is one conspicuous instance in 
which great publicity has been given to a 
visionary scheme quite certain never to be 
realized. This is a canal to connect the Bal¬ 
tic and Black Seas, across the Russian Em¬ 
pire, by way of the Duna and the Dnieper 


Rivers. It was explained by the chimerical 
suggestors of this undertaking, that by this 
route it would be possible for the Russian 
government to consolidate its navy, either 
in the Baltic or the Black Seas, without 
the necessity of circumnavigating Europe 
through the English Channel, Gibraltar 
and the Mediterranean. This appeared to 


them to be a sufficient reason, until it was 
patiently explained by the Russian authori¬ 
ties, who knew better, that twenty fleets 
such as the entire Russian navy could be 
built for the cost of such a canal. The dis¬ 
tance to be canalized by this route was ap¬ 
proximately 1,000 miles, and the rivers 
were so shallow that it would be necessary to 
excavate the channel for almost the entire 



BUILDING A POWER-TRANSMISSION TUNNEL PROM A GREAT CANAL. 




199 


The Industrial Age 


distance. It is not wise, therefore, to ac- engineering undertaking as actually on the 
cept every speculative suggestion of a great road to being accomplished. 



HALSTED STREET LIFT BRIDGE OVER THE CHICAGO RIVER. 

The whole platform of the bridge roadway is lifted high in air like a great elevator when vessels are to 

pass. The bridge is operated by electricity. 




























INTERIOR OP A GREAT CITY BANK. 

























The Industrial Age 


201 


FINANCIAL METHODS OF TODAY 


In addition to the production of raw ma¬ 
terial and the manufacture of it into goods 
for the market, and the distribution of these 
goods by railways and great mercantile con¬ 
cerns, the industrial world is compelled to 
recognize a multitude of middlemen, whose 
functions are of the highest importance in 
the present business organization. These 
are the financial concerns and agencies of 
various sorts that deal in credit, providing 
money when it is needed, at a profit to 
themselves, and in general sharing in the 
processes of sale and collection. Roughly 
speaking, banks, chambers of commerce, 
boards of trade and stock exchanges in¬ 


clude the men who control these details of 
industrial activity. They are strongest in 
the financial centers and great markets of 
the world, where business concentrates, and 
they are a factor always to be reckoned 
with. 

Banks, generally speaking, are purely 
financial in their dealings, affording places 
for the deposit of money, and lending to 
their customers at interest. Chambers of 
commerce and boards of trade operate 
chiefly in commodities, such as grain, 
wheat, cotton, coffee and the like. Stock 
exchanges deal in financial securities, such 
as stocks and bonds of railways, mining 





BANK OF ENGLAND AND ROYAL EXCHANGE, LONDON. 


This is the financial center of the world. The Bank is the building on the left and the Exchange Is the 
pillared structure on the right. The Mansion House, residence of the Lord Mayor, is 
opposite the Bank, not shown in the illustration. 














202 


The Industrial Age 


companies and other corporations. Owing 
to the intimacy of trade and communica¬ 
tion between the various markets of the 
world, the importance of these controlling 
organizations continually grows, and the 
condition of the market in any financial 
center responds rapidly to influence 
throughout the world. 


banks are gaining in this country at a start¬ 
ling rate of speed. At least one hank in 
New York City has a capital of $25,000,- 
000 and a surplus of $15,000,000, while 
two others in that city and one in Chicago 
exceed $15,000,000 in capital and surplus. 
With deposits in their vaults ranging from 
$50,000,000 to $125,000,000, and connec- 



“WALL STREET,” THE FAMOUS NEW YORK STOCK EXCHANGE. 

This was the last photograph taken of the old Stock Exchange where so many financial “panics” have 
occurred, before it was torn down to make way for a splendid new building. 


Banks are growing in size and influence 
with great rapidity, the tendency being to¬ 
ward the consolidation of such institutions 
in cities, with immense capital and far- 
reaching connections. The Bank of Eng¬ 
land, the Bank of France, the banking 
houses of the Rothschild family, and others 
in Europe, far surpass anything we have in 
America. Along with the growth of trusts 
and industrial organizations, however, 


tions with smaller city and country banks 
all over the United States, it is apparent 
that the financiers who control such great 
institutions exert wide influence upon the 
business affairs of the nation. The signifi¬ 
cant thing in this enormous capitalization 
of city banks, which was not even dreamed 
of five years ago, is that it is a reflection 
of the gigantic strides of America toward 
the commercial supremacy of the world. 











203 


The Industrial Age 


New York looks forward to the proud 
eminence of being the financial center of 
the world. This greatest of American 
banks has been an important factor in many 
of the recent colossal combinations or 
“Morganizations,” engineered by J. Pier- 
pont Morgan and other financial giants. 

Hie method of trading that has grown up 
in boards of trade and stock exchanges is 
full of technicalities that puzzle the visitor. 
In an excited state of the market, the con¬ 
fusion is bewildering. Traders are shout¬ 
ing their sales and purchases into each 
other’s ears, or frantically waving their 
hands high in the air, with one or more 
fingers extended to signal what they mean, 
according to a code that is well understood. 
Of course the actual transfers of stocks or 
provisions are very great, and still this 
phase of the business is far exceeded by 
mythical dealings in “futures.” When a 
sale is made for a future delivery at a giv¬ 
en price, this does not at all imply neces¬ 
sarily that the goods are to be delivered. 
Instead, when that date comes around, if 



BANK VAULT DOOR OPEN. 

the actual market price of the commodity is 
higher than the contract price, the one who 





AjiA? Wf- * 


hbr-'- - 

y4 1 







“THROGMORTON STREET,’’ THE LONDON STOCK EXCHANGE. 

This photograph was taken during the British war in South Africa, on a day of great public excitement. 



















204 


The Industrial Age 



THE CHICAGO BOARD OF TRADE. 

The octagonal rostrums, with steps leading to them, have depressions in the center, at the floor level, 
and these are the “pits” which figure in all accounts of trading. 


lias sold simply pays to the buyer the differ¬ 
ence between these two figures. If the con¬ 
tract price is lower than the current market 
price, the buyer pays the difference to the 
seller, and the deal is thus closed. 

It is this condition that justifies the fa¬ 
miliar charge that such deals are hut bets 
as to what the price will be at a certain time 
in the future, the loser to pay his loss. 
“Puts” and “calls” are privileges to deliver 
or to claim a certain commodity at a cer¬ 
tain price in the future. The one buying 
the privilege to deliver to another, or to de¬ 
mand from him under such circumstances, 
is in effect betting that the price will fluctu¬ 
ate in the interval in such a way as to give 
him a profit. 


Traders are divided into two general 
groups known as “bulls” and “bears.” Any 
man holding a commodity and wishing to 
sell it, or holding a future privilege to call 
for it at a fixed price, naturally desires to 
see the price of this commodity rise, and 
devotes his energy to hoisting the price in 
any way possible. He is therefore known 
as a bull. The bear, on the other hand, is 
the one who wishes to buy a commodity, or 
who has an outstanding contract to deliver 
at a fixed price at a future time, that 
which he has not now in hand, and his in¬ 
terest therefore is to depreciate the price. 
It is this condition that makes the eternal 
quarrel between the two elements on the 
market, although, of course, they are con- 







The Industrial Age 


205 


tinually shifting in identity as their trades 
change. 

There is little essential difference be¬ 
tween the so-called “bucket shops” and the 
boards of trade themselves. The former 
make deals of smaller size, and probably a 
smaller percentage of their trading is for 
actual delivery of the commodity dealt in. 

“Margins” are the sums of money de¬ 
posited with a broker to guarantee a given 
trade. If the commodity were bought out¬ 
right, of course, the whole purchase price 
would have to be paid, but when it is mere¬ 
ly bought for speculation, to close the trade 
whenever the price justifies, that is not 
necessary. If, for instance, a buyer in¬ 
structs his broker to purchase 10,000 bush¬ 
els of wheat, he may deposit $200 to guar¬ 
antee the trade. The purchase of the wheat 
is entered on the books, and as long after 
that as wheat rises on the market, the pur¬ 
chaser is making a profit and could sell out 
again, or close the deal at any moment, 
withdrawing his deposit and the increase. 
If, however, instead of rising, the wheat 
falls in price, as soon as it has fallen two 
cents a bushel, the $200 deposit is ex¬ 
hausted, and the margin is “wiped out” or 
lost. In the event that the purchaser wish¬ 
es to protect his deal still further, he may 
continue to deposit margins as long as he 
likes, to see them continually lost if the 
price continues to fall. There are a multi¬ 
tude of other details and technicalities in 
stock exchange and board of trade dealings, 
but these are the essential ones and should 
be sufficient to show that such institutions 
offer little profit to the stranger, who is not 
on hand to direct his own investments. 
Many systems have been invented by which 
to “beat” the markets, but no successful one 
has been devised. 


WHERE OUR MONEY IS MADE 

The United States Government, under 
the constitution, reserves for itself the right 
of issuing all metallic money for the na¬ 
tion, and the great mint at Philadelphia is 
a place of peculiar interest to every curious 
visitor who wishes to see how money is 
made. 

When the bullion is received at the mint 
from the mines and other sources through¬ 
out the country, it is melted in crucibles 
and molded into ingots not unlike pig iron 
or steel right from the foundries. In this 
form copper, silver and gold do not show 
their value, but appear uninteresting in the 
extreme. Repeated processes of refining 
and alloying to the proper degree of fine¬ 
ness gradually bring the precious metals 



BANK VAULT DOOR CLOSED. 

















206 


The Industrial Age 


into more sightly form, although it is long 
before they take on the final polish. 

For silver dollars, for instance, long 
strips of the metal are molded to the proper 
thickness and proper width. They are 
passed through a press which first stamps 
out discs of the metal of the proper size 
and shape for the finished dollar. These 
discs undergo a polishing process, and then 
great hoppers of them are placed over the 
coining machines, from which they trickle 
out a stream of shining dollars. A single 
motion of the machine turns out the coin 
from the discs. Two dies, one for each side 
of the coin, meet with irresistible force and 
stamp the designs upon the metal, while at 
the same time the milled edges are formed 
by the encircling pressure. The coins then 


are given their final polishing, after which 
ingenious automatic scales weigh them, 
separating the ones that are too heavy or 
too light from the perfect ones, to be re¬ 
turned to the melting pot for another coin¬ 
ing process. But few people are so indiffer¬ 
ent to the enticements of money that they 
fail to be impressed at the sight of gold or 
silver dollars, pouring* in a continuous 
stream from the coining machines in the 
mint. 

The old mint at Philadelphia, from 
which hundreds of millions of dollars of 
coin were turned out during the nineteenth 
century, has been supplanted by a splendid 
new building, equipped with the most mod¬ 
ern machinery, and doubly effective for the 
convenience of its arrangements. There 



THE NEW UNITED STATES MINT AT PHILADELPHIA. 































The Industrial Age 


207 


are mints also at Denver, New Orleans, and 
San Francisco, and government assay offices 
at New York, St. Louis, Deadwood, Helena, * 
Boise, Carson, Seattle and Charlotte, N. C. 

The assay office is practically an outside 
agency for a mint. It receives the bullion, 
ascertains and pays its coinage value less 
any bullion charges that may be made for 
the service, and ships it to one of the mints. 
The equipment and organization of a mint 


are expensive, and it is cheaper to concen¬ 
trate coinage operations in a few institu¬ 
tions than to multiply mints. An assay 
office renders practically the same service 
to the mining industry that is rendered by 
the mint. The New York assay office re¬ 
ceives the bullion upon precisely the same 
terms as a mint, but the others make a 
special charge of one-eighth of one per cent 
in addition to mint charges. 

Gold bullion that is of standard fineness, 
and requires no treatment to fit it for coin¬ 


age, is received and coined without charge. 
If it contains base or other metals which 
must be removed, a refinery charge is made, 
and if it is above the standard an alloy 
charge is made. The law provides that these 
charges shall equal, but not exceed, the cost 
of the service. The total number of pieces 
of coins struck by the mints of the United 
States in 1901 was approximately 185,000,- 
000, and the value about $140,000,000. 


This exceeded any record before made by 
any government. 

& & £ 

EIGHT MILLION DOLLARS 

IN ONE CHECK 

The largest financial transactions are not 
settled by a transfer of coin, or even paper 
money, from hand to hand. The very 
weight and bulk of the money required 
makes that impossible. Instead bank checks 
are used for settlement of great obligations, 



HAULING INGOTS OF SILVER BULLION IN THE PHILADELPHIA MINT. 


















208 


The Industrial Age 



and the money called for 
can be transferred at will 
from bank to bank, accord¬ 
ing as the customer desires. 
The check reproduced here¬ 
with is believed to be the 
largest ever drawn in any 
American transaction, if not 
in the world. It calls for 
the sum of $8,229,002.81, 
and was made by the Chi¬ 
cago banking firm of Farson, 
Leach & Company, in their 
Hew York branch office, in 
settlement of a purchase of 
municipal bonds issued by 

Hew York Citv. The check 
«/ 

was passed through the Hew 
York Clearing House, where 
the daily balances are ad¬ 
justed between the banks, 
and it took the usual course 
of business papers. 

If the amount of money 
represented by this check 
were paid in silver dollars, 
it would weigh about 300 
tons, and would require a 
train of fifteen heavily load¬ 
ed freight cars to carry it. 
In gold it would make 
eighteen tons, and one car 
would be sufficient. It is 
hard to conceive such a sum 
of money. Invested in ordi- 
nary dwellings, at an aver¬ 
age cost of $2,000 each, this 
is enough money to build 
4,100 houses, or as many as 
comprise the ordinary Amer¬ 
ican city of 20,000 inhabi¬ 
tants. 


















The Industrial Age 

ORANGE GROVES AND THEIR PRODUCTS 


209 


Thanks to the semi-tropical climate of 
our favored southern states, particularly 
Florida and Southern California, we are 
enabled to have a current supply of luscious 
fruits and vegetables of subtropical charac¬ 
ter which only a few years ago were con¬ 
sidered as genuine delicacies of some rarity, 
instead of being commonly found in the 
markets as they are now. In addition to 
these newly developed regions of our own 
country, commercial enterprise of late years 
has placed Central America, Jamaica and 
certain others of our neighbors in the Carib¬ 


bean Sea under tribute, for still further 
tropical delicacies, and now the volume of 
trade in such foods has become very great. 
Bananas, for instance, come to us in im¬ 
mense shipments, the year round, from 
Honduras by way of Hew Orleans, and 
from Jamaica by way of Philadelphia and 
Boston. Our pineapple supply is chiefly 
from the West India Islands, although 
Florida sends an increasing crop northward 
every year, and the Hawaiian Islands have 
begun to contribute their quota by way of 
the Pacific coast. 



Copyright 1899 by Detroit Photographic Co. 

PICKING ORANGES IN A CALIFORNIA GROVE. 















210 


The Industrial Age 


The orange production of the country is 
multiplied many times since the possibili¬ 
ties of California began to be realized. 
Florida still supplies large quantities of the 
choicest fruit from the Indian River or¬ 
chards, but the area devoted to the industry 
is not increasing greatly. In California, 
however, the increase is very rapid and 
even young readers can surely remember 
within their own knowledge a time when 
the golden fruit was by no means as com¬ 
monly seen in every town and village as it 
is now. Although we usuallv associate the 
orange groves of California with the south¬ 
ern part of the state, as a matter of fact 
they are by no means confined to this vicin- 
itv. Central California indeed, from Sac- 
ramento north, has some of the choicest and 
largest of the orange orchards, and the pro¬ 
duction in that part of the state rivals if it 
does not exceed, the more famous regions 
around Los Angeles and San Diego. 

It is difficult to imagine any horti¬ 
cultural scene more beautiful than an 
orange grove in full bearing. Citrus trees 
have a foliage of a peculiarly brilliant green 
and the golden fruit itself, glittering among 
the leaves, brightens the picture with a 
vivid color which justifies the admiration 
and interest always excited. Oranges are 
shipped east from California every day in 
the year, the smallest number of carloads 
in any one day being perhaps half a dozen, 
in the months of September and October. 
The annual harvesting of the crop begins 
about the middle of November, and is at 
its highest from January to March. In 
those months the average shipment is over 
250 carloads a day, and the industry affords 
employment to a small army of pickers and 
packers. It is one of the corner-stones of 
the prosperity of the state. The product 


averages about half a carload to the acre 
of bearing trees throughout the state, and 
as the trees grow older this average in¬ 
creases. The groves vary in size from ten 
acres to forty, the latter area being all that 
one man can take care of with the help of 
one farm hand. Less than ten acres can 
not be depended upon for a sufficient in¬ 
come, though there are instances of five-acre 
tracts that have, through careful cultiva¬ 
tion, vielded large returns. The land costs 
all the way from $100 to $300 an acre, bare 
of trees. An orange orchard in good bear¬ 
ing is worth approximately $1,000 an acre, 
and the chances are that it will have cost 
its owner a large part of that sum, in in¬ 
vestment, interest and period of waiting. 
But the returns from the industry justify 
that high valuation. The majority of the 
well-managed orange orchards produce a 
profit annually of from $125 to $175 an 
acre. 

The citrus fruits were introduced into 
California more than a century ago, by the 
Spanish mission fathers who brought them 
from Mexico and Spain. If they could 
return to-day to the scene of their labor, 
they would see a wonderful change in the 
industry. Cultivation for export was not 
attempted until early in the seventies, and 
even as late as 1SS6 the total export product 
was only 150,000 boxes, or 500 carloads. 
In the years from 1885 to 1895 a vast 
amount of planting took place and the trees 
are now all coming into fruitfulness. The 
crop of 1900 was 18,000 carloads, or 6,000,- 
000 boxes, of which about 85 per cent was 
oranges and 15 per cent lemons. The 
oranges are largely marketed through 
mutual associations, formed to share the 
expense of maintaining agencies in the 
eastern markets, and to obtain the most 


The Industrial .Age 


211 



favorable prices for them. These associa¬ 
tions are organized in the different orange- 
producing districts, and they have ware¬ 
houses where the crop is received, sorted 
and packed for shipment. The wagon¬ 
loads of fruit are poured into hoppers from 
which inclined tin troughs extend in various 
directions. The oranges are sorted by size, 
automatically, as they are shaken over the 
hoppers and fall through holes into the 
troughs, much as coal is screened for ship¬ 


ment. The small oranges roll gently down 
the incline to one box, those of the next size 
to another, and so on till the sorting is 
completed and each box is filled with fruit 
of uniform size, carefully wrapped by the 
deft-fingered girls who find profitable em¬ 
ployment in this work. Thence the boxes 
are delivered to the railways for shipment, 
and ultimately they find themselves in the 
town and city markets throughout the 
country, ready for any purchaser. 


Copyright 1899 by Detroit Photographic Co. 

SORTING AND PACKING ORANGES FOR SHIPMENT. 














ALLIGATORS ON THE INDIAN RIVER, FLORIDA. 























The Industrial A.£e 


213 


OLIVE ORCHARDS AND THE OLIVE INDUSTRY 


There is no country which rivals the 
United States in its resources and climate. 
Now that we have incorporated in our ter¬ 
ritory, or affiliated by close personal rela¬ 
tions, so many islands of the Pacific Ocean, 
we mav truthfully sav that the sun never 
sets on our possessions and that within our 
own domain we can provide for every want 
of mankind. In the West Indian Islands 
which we have acquired, in Samoa, in the 
Hawaiian Islands, and in the Philippines, 
can be produced every tropical product that 
has a commercial value. Hereafter, we 


may grow our own spices and tropical 
fruits, our coffee and our hemp, and a mil¬ 
lion other peculiarly tropical productions 
which are not produced commercially in 
the United States proper. 

But here in our own country, between the 
Atlantic and the Pacific, from British 
America on the north, to Mexico on the 
south, we have such a variety of resources 
from the soil and the mountains, from the 
forests and the plains, as to make us almost 
absolutely independent of the world mar¬ 
kets, if by chance we should be isolated 





ITALIAN PEASANTS MAKING OLIVE OIL. 


After the olives are crushed, they are placed in circular bags and squeezed in the press, into a large 
vessel. Next the oil has to be placed in stone jars. During this process, which is begun 
by making the sign of the cross over the oil, no one is allowed to speak. 


















214 


The Industrial Age 


from them. Although no part of the United 
States is actually within the tropics, yet 
in Southern California and Florida the 
balmy climate makes possible the cultiva¬ 
tion of most of the more important tropical 
plants. So it is that by varied climate, 
elevation and conditions, we have been able 
to develop industries and productions out 
of the animal, mineral, and vegetable king¬ 
doms, in peculiarly favorable proportion. 

Southern California has been called by 
the eminent writer, Charles Dudley 
Warner, “our Italy,” and in Southern Cali- 
fornia grow many of the products which 
are recognized as characteristically Italian. 
Strange as it may seem, the largest olive 
orchard in the world is located here. The 
olive groves of the Mediterranean are find¬ 
ing a rival in this favored land, and the in¬ 
dustry is recognized in California as one 
of the most profitable of the undertakings 
now under way. Only in a limited area of 
Central and Southern California, Hew 
Mexico and Arizona, can the olive be pro¬ 
duced in this country. It is quite certain, 
therefore, that there will not be an over¬ 
production. 

It is a proverb in Italy, that he who has 
an olive orchard has a perpetual fountain 
of wealth. It is more than 100 years since 
the first of these orchards w T as planted by 
the Spanish mission fathers of California, 
who did so much to influence the early in¬ 
dustries and life of that state when it was a 
part of Spanish Mexico. The success of 
their olive trees proved the adaptability of 
the climate, and ever since that time the in¬ 
dustry has been steadily increasing. The 
olives grown in California produce from 
twenty-four to thirty-one j)er cent of oil. 
They are richer and more palatable when 
pickled than are the imported green olives 


from Italy, and the demand for ripe olives 
is continuallv on the increase. The older 

tt 

the olive tree becomes, the more valuable it 
is to its owmer, because of its prolific bear¬ 
ing. The wood of these trees is highly 
prized by cabinet makers for it is exceed¬ 
ingly hard and susceptible to high polish. 
It is greenish yellow in color, with black, 
cloudy spots and curving veins. 

The great orchard in question is about 
twenty-five miles north of Los Angeles. 
There are 1,200 acres of olives in the or¬ 
chard, 100 trees to the acre. About $225,- 
000 has been expended in the improve¬ 
ments, and here in the grove is a factory 
with all the machinery necessary for mar¬ 
keting the whole of the product. They may 
be pickled and sold for table use, or the oil 
may be extracted. It is estimated that each 
acre of such an orchard will produce 2,000 
gallons of olives this year. These will make 
250 gallons of oil, which at $2 a gallon will 
bring the owner a revenue of $500 an acre. 
As the trees increase in age, this product 
is increased. 

The average life of an olive tree is more 
than 250 years, but trees much older have 
been known to flourish and produce bounti¬ 
fully. Single trees in Sicily have been 
known to produce 240 gallons of oil a year, 
and to attain great size, the trunks measur¬ 
ing twenty-six feet in circumference and 
having an expanse at the top of fully 150 
feet. Italy is the most important of the 
oil producing countries, yielding 70,000,- 
000 gallons annually. Spain comes next 
with 23,000,000 gallons, and France fol¬ 
lows with 9,000,000 gallons. The importa¬ 
tion of bogus olive oil into the United 
States measures millions of gallons annu¬ 
ally. Peanut oil, cotton seed oil, and other 
adulterations are imposed upon us. 


The Industrial Age 


215 



COFFEE, TEA AND CHOCOLATE 


The tropics and the orient have given to 
mankind three beverages now of world wide 
use. Coffee, tea and chocolate are known in 
every land, and varying in popularity eacli 
lias its loyal adherents. Here in the United 
States coffee very much exceeds the others 
in popularity, with tea second and chocolate 
far in the rear. England is a nation of tea 
drinkers, with little favor given to coffee. 

In fact critics declare that it is hard to get 
a cup of good coffee in Great Britain. The 
English retort with, perhaps, equal truth, 
that it is difficult to obtain a cup of good 
tea in the United States. Holland is the 
country where the best chocolate is found, 
thanks to the Dutch 
colonies of the East In¬ 
dies, where there is a 
large production of the 
bean from which it is 
prepared. France of¬ 
fers coffee as its favorite 
beverage, with chocolate 
and tea following in 
succession. It is in 
France that adultera¬ 
tion of coffee has been 
carried to the highest 
extent, and sometimes 
even in the best res¬ 
taurants it is hard to 
trace the real coffee 
taste in the beverage 
offered. The Russians 
are the greatest of all 
tea drinkers, obtaining 
their supply chiefly by 
caravans into Siberia 
from the Chinese prov- largest coffee-roasting plant in the world. 


inces where the best crop is produced. The 
Russian samovar or tea urn is perpetually 
alight in every household of the empire, and 
tea is served not only at every meal but to 
every caller between meals and at all sorts 
of surprising occasions. Even a business 
call at bank or office is almost certain to 
bring the offer of a glass of scalding tea, to 
be taken while the errand is explained. 

The range of coffee culture extends over 
almost the whole of the tropical belt of the 
globe. The plant seems to bear greater cli¬ 
matic extremes than most members of the 
vegetable kingdom, and thrives in localities 
differing as much as thirty degrees in aver- 






216 


The Industrial A .jje 



age temperature. It is interesting to note 
that in many countries where the Coffcea 
Arabica, the coffee of commerce, has been 
introduced, indigenous varieties of the 
coffee plant have been discovered. In 
Brazil, for instance, at least sixteen species 
are found growing in a wild state. The 
limit of average productiveness is about 
thirty years. After that time the trees may 
continue to live and grow, but they yield 
little or no fruit. In Java coffee trees 


COFFEE YARD NEAR JALAPA, MEXICO. 


at six years may be said to be in full bear¬ 
ing. Taking one year with another, a tree 
in full bearing produces from two to three 
pounds per annum. The average diameter 
of the trunk in full-bearing trees is about 
the size of a man’s wrist. They bear a pro¬ 
fusion of dark green glossy leaves, and the 
fruit or berry forms on the woody stems 
usually at the base of these leaves. 

The berry, when ripe, is red in color, and 
much resembles a large cranberry or medi¬ 
um sized cherry The two 
beans lie within, face to face, 
and surrounding them are five 
successive layers of skin and 
pulp, covering and protecting 
the beans. Picking begins in 
Java in January and lasts for 
three or four months. The 
chief part of the Ceylon crop 
is gathered from April to July. 
A small crop, chiefly young 
coffee, is picked from Septem¬ 
ber to December. In Brazil 


planted nearly a hundred years ago are said 
to be in existence, being now T some forty 
feet high with trunks a foot in diameter, 
but they grow entirely wild and produce no 
berries. On an average trees are replaced 
on the plantations every twenty years, and 
this process of replanting goes on con¬ 
stantly. 

Coffee grows best on the uplands, usually 
on mountain sides, at an elevation of from 
1,500 to 4,500 feet above the level of the 
sea. The trees are raised from seeds in 
nurseries, and transferred to their final 
positions when about a year or eighteen 
months old. The plants are usually set at 
intervals of eight or ten feet. They begin 
to bear at the age of three or four years and 


they commence gathering crops 
in April or May, and work continues until 
September. W omen and children are large¬ 
ly employed in gathering the fruit, carrying 
it from the trees in baskets to the place 
where the preparation of the berry for mar¬ 
ket commences. 

After the berries have been gathered, the 
first operation to which they are treated is 
called “pulping.” This means to remove 
the outer covering of skin and pulp from 
the beans themselves. The berries may be 
treated while in the soft state, or they may 
be permitted to dry, after which the dried 
husk is removed by a machine. When this 
process is chosen, the berries are spread 
upon drying-grounds of stone, mortar or 
cement, where they stay until the heat of 







217 


The Industrial Age 


the sun prepares them for the machine. It 
is a similar machine, differing only in de¬ 
tails, which is used when the berries are to 
be treated in the soft state. Successive 
cleansings, washings and dryings finally 
bring the coffee into a condition for ship¬ 
ment to the markets, thousands of miles 
from the plantations where it is raised. 

Coffee as a commercial staple is naturally 
inseparable from coffee as a popular bever¬ 
age. Amsterdam was for many years the 
center of the coffee trade, owing to the fact 
that nearly all the coffee of commerce came 
from the Dutch East 
Indies. With the rise 
of coffee cultivation in 
Brazil, the West Indies, 

Central America, Mexi- 
ico, Ceylon, India and 
Liberia, the Dutch lost 
their control of the 
trade, and Yew York 
became one of the most 
important coffee ports. 

The L T nited States con¬ 
sumes more than one- 
third of all the coffee 
exported from the pro¬ 
ducing countries. Out 
of a total annual world 
production of 750,000 
tons, the United States 
takes about 280,000 
tons annually, of which nearly three-fourths 
is the product of Brazil. 

In Abyssinia and Ethiopia, where the 
coffee plant is found both wild and in a 
cultivated state, coffee seems to have been 
used as a beverage from time imme¬ 
morial. In those remote regions the Arabs 
are said to have first tasted the fragrant 
draught, and to have brought some of the 


precious beans into their own country to¬ 
ward the beginning of the fifteenth century. 
The Mohammedan pilgrims who flocked an¬ 
nually to Mecca tasted the delicious bever¬ 
age, and carried back coffee beans in their 
saddle-bags to all parts of the globe profess¬ 
ing the faith of Islam. Coffee overran 
Egypt and reached Constantinople, where 
in 1554 the first coffee house in Europe was 
established. Yearly one hundred years later 
the first coffee house in London was estab¬ 
lished, in 1652, by the Greek servant of an 
English merchant who had brought some 


coffee with him from Smyrna. Within a 
few years Marseilles, Paris and London 
had numerous cafes, and coffee drinking 
was becoming common in England and 
France. During the eighteenth century it 
spread all over Europe, although the enor¬ 
mous prices of the berry restricted the prac¬ 
tice to the wealthier classes. 

For more than fifty years after the in- 










218 


The Industrial Age 


troduction of the beverage into Europe, 
Arabia still furnished the entire coffee sup¬ 
ply of the world, a necessarily very limited 
quantity. Then the Dutch, early in the 
eighteenth century, appeared in the market 
with the product of Java, and a few years 
later the culture extended to the West In¬ 
dies and spread with wonderful rapidity. 
Next Brazil entered the field, overtaking all 
rivals, until now more than one-half of the 
coffee consumed in the world issues from 
her fields. Java holds second rank in the 
list of coffee producers, Ceylon follows 
third, and southern India, Central America, 
Sumatra, Porto Pico, Mexico, Liberia and 
Arabia contribute to the world’s supply. 

The western hemisphere does not con¬ 
tribute commercially to the tea product of 
the world, although in our own southern 
states certain experiments have been made 
which suggest that good tea could be culti¬ 


vated, even though it might not be highly 
profitable. Japan, China, the island of 
Formosa, India, and Ceylon are the princi¬ 
pal tea producing countries. The tea plant 
is a species of camellia, bearing a thick and 
glossy leaf which when green has no tea 
flavor, or rather has a flavor very unlike the 
cured leaf known to us as tea. There is 
considerable variety in the mode of culti¬ 
vating, but the prevailing system is to plant 
in rows about six feet apart. Three or four 
plants are planted together in hills which 
are about three feet apart, and usually as 
they grow larger they fill nearly the whole 
original space left between the hills, thus 
making an almost continuous row. The 
plants are raised from the seed, and take 
from three to four years to mature suffi¬ 
ciently to yield the first crop. After that 
they are picked continuously for many 
years. 





. 



f&iji 





' -- MB' fr-Jtit 




k 1 
















3jar 































GATHERING TEA IN CEYLON. 











The Industrial A.ge 


219 


During the winter and early spring, in 
the districts yielding the best variety of tea, 
the plants are covered with mats which 
serve the double purpose of protecting them 
first from cold which might injure the 
plants, and later from the sun which tends 
to make the leaf tough and injures the deli¬ 
cacy of the flavor. The first picking, which 
is considered the best, takes place in Japan 
the last of April or the beginning of May, 
the second about a month later, while the 
third, which is often omitted, particularly 
when prices are low, takes place usually 
during the month of July. Left to them¬ 
selves the plants would probably grow to 
a considerable height, hut they are pruned 
and trimmed down so that they are seldom 
more than three or four feet high. This 
results in a large num¬ 
ber of small branches, 
producing small and 
tender leaves, which are 
the only ones sought 
for, although in rapid 
picking different sized 
leaves would naturally 
he taken, together with 
a considerable quantity 
of stems and other 
trash. Immediately up¬ 
on being picked, the 
leaves are taken to the 
buildings for the cur¬ 
ing processes. The flat 
baskets in which the 
tea is brought from the 
fields are placed over 
the steaming apparatus 
for a few seconds, the 
steam permeating the 
mass and wilting the 
leaves. This gives them 


the dark green color, and enables the leaf to 
be rolled and doubled up, so that there is less 
liability to crumble when fired. They are 
then thrown upon large paper pans beneath 
which a gentle coal fire is maintained. They 
are toasted here for several hours, during 
which they are constantly rolled and stirred 
with the hands, so as to make the leaf as 
compact as possible. The tea is then placed 
in large baskets to await the sorting pro¬ 
cess. 

The dried leaves are spread on a smooth 
tray before the sorters, who with a pair of 
chop-sticks dexterously pick out the stems 
and coarse leaves which are thrown aside as 
refuse. In the finer qualities they also sepa¬ 
rate the large from the small leaves, the 
latter being most highly valued. After the 















220 


The Industrial Age 



DELIVERING SUGAR BEETS AT THE FACTORY. 


tea is thus sorted it is sifted to extract the 
dust and broken leaves, and packed to he 
sent to the market. 

At the shipping ports, where tea is pre¬ 
pared for export, there is a second process 
of toasting or retiring the tea, and an addi¬ 
tional cleansing, after which it is packed in 
chests lined with lead which is soldered and 
closed so as to he air tight. Then after nail¬ 
ing the boxes, covering them with matting 
or rattan, and labeling them, the tea is 
ready for the ships which carry it to the 
American or European markets. 

The methods followed in China are al¬ 
most the same as those of Japan. In some 
sections artificially flavored teas are pro¬ 
duced. Flowers are gathered from the jas¬ 
mine, and scattered over the tea, which ab¬ 
sorbs much of the fragrance and is highly 
favored by epicures. The brick tea, which 
goes overland to Russia by camel trains, is 
an inferior quality, composed of the dust 
and siftings, mixed with other tea of ordin¬ 
ary variety. This is consumed by the Rus¬ 
sian peasants. An enormous quantity of 
the finest grade of tea is taken by the con¬ 
noisseurs of the same country, who are con¬ 


sidered to be the most 
exacting of all the world 
in their choice of tea. 
Chocolate is produced 

in several of the West 
India islands, in Peru, 
Bolivia and Ecuador, 

and the Dutch East In¬ 
dies. It is a product 
of the cacao tree, which 
bears a large pod in 
which the coarse beans 
are formed out of which 
chocolate is made. 
These beans are dried, 
roasted and ground. Cocoa is a modified 
preparation from the same substance. 

Porto Rico is the chief island of the Carib¬ 

bean where chocolate is produced, and here 
is the principal source of the American sup¬ 
ply. Students of health and diet of late 
years have recognized that chocolate is one 
of the most valuable food products, and not 
merely a stimulating beverage of doubtful 
value to the health like tea and coffee. Ex¬ 
plorers and travelers now carry chocolate in 
condensed form as a valuable part of their 
commissaries. Soldiers find it in their 
rations, and invalids prize it as a food. 

& & 

BEET SUGAR AND CANE SUGAR 

When the Nebraska farmer drives into 
the factory yard with his ton of beets, he 
brings with him about 280 pounds of pure 
sugar secreted in the- roots. Nature has 
been busy all summer with her apparatus 
of sunshine and rain, taking the elements 
of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen from the 
earth, air and dew, putting them together, 
and storing up the sweetness in the little 
sacs she has made for the purpose in the 

























221 


The Industrial Age 


beet-root; and the great piles of brick and 
mortar, the groaning engines and the roar¬ 
ing furnaces, the pumps and pans of the 
sugar mill have been devised to extract 
sugar from the root. 

The older method was to grate the sugar 
beet to a pulp, press out the juice contain¬ 
ing the sugar, clarify it a little, and boil 
away the water, leaving the crystals behind. 
But in this way from forty to eighty pounds 
of all the sugar in the ton of beets went to 
waste, for no press, however strong, could 
squeeze out all the juice, and the sugar 
would lie hidden away in the little particles 
of pulp. So the crude method has been 
superseded by a more perfect one, with the 
result that greater factories have grown, 
farmers have planted larger fields of sugar 
beets, and the industry has become a factor 
of importance in national politics. 

When the beets are brought in by the 
farmers, they are dumped into long 
trenches, V-shaped at the bottom, from ten 
to twenty feet wide and 
from six to ten feet 
deep, either covered 
with sheds or simply 
open ditches. At the 
bottom of each of these 
is another ditch, reach¬ 
ing downward, with 
perpendicular sides 
twenty to thirty inches 
deep, and having a 
curved bottom eighteen 
inches wide. This is 
a sort of flume, through 
which water will flow. 

Ail the ditches slope to¬ 
ward the factory, and 
meet in one larger 
ditch near it. Before 


the beets are thrown into the larger and 
upper trench, the smaller one is covered 
with short boards, laid across to prevent the 
beets falling into it. In these trenches or 
“silos” the beets are kept until needed. In 
warm weather they are covered with canvas 
or straw, and in cold weather with soil. 
When they are wanted in the factory, a 
stream of water is let into the upper end 
of the bottom ditch. The loose boards cov¬ 
ering it are raised, and the beets are allowed 
to fall into the swiftly-running stream be¬ 
low 7 , and are floated along to the houses. 
The water serves the double purpose of 
carrying and washing the beets. 

At the end of the ditch the beets are 
caught by buckets arranged upon the rim of 
a large revolving wheel, which lift them out 
of the dirty water and deposit them in the 
washing machine. This is a large, w r ooden, 
auger-shaped affair, lying horizontally in a 
round iron tank through which clear water 
is flowing. The revolving auger pushes the 



SCREW ELEVATOR AT A BEET SUGAR FACTORY. 

















222 - 


The Industrial Age 


beets forward, rolling and tumbling in the 
water, and finally deposits them clean, in 
the elevating apparatus which carries them 
to the very top of the building. Here they 
are deposited into an automatic weighing 
machine which weighs half a ton of them 
at a time, and drops the beets into a slicer, 
a large wheel covered with knives, which 
revolves among the beets and cuts them into 
long, thin, diamond-shaped slices. 

Immediately below the slicer, and upon 
the second floor of the factory, is a group of 
wrought-iron tanks that look like upright 
steam boilers, each large enough to hold 


about 3,000 pounds of the slices. These 
communicate with each other by means of 
large pipes. The first is filled with slices 
and water is then let in from a tank above. 
This is allowed to stand while the second 
tank is filling. Then the valves are opened 
into the next tank, containing fresh slices, 
and fresh water running into the first tank 
under pressure, forces the water which has 
already absorbed some sugar, on into the 
next tank, where it becomes richer. And 
so on from tank to tank it progresses, al¬ 


ways tending to coax the sugar outside of 
the beet into the water. By a repetition of 
this process from tank to tank, the water 
gradually absorbs the sweetness from the 
beets and exhausts them of all the sugar to 
within one-tenth of one per cent. The ex¬ 
hausted slices are dropped from the tanks, 
and run through great rotary auger presses, 
and the partly-dried pulp is then shipped 
away for cattle feeding. 

The apparatus just described is called the 
diffusion battery, and when once started, 
fresh slices are supplied and juice is drawn 
off almost continuously. The juice is of a 

chocolate brown color, 
containing much organ¬ 
ic matter not sugar. It 
is run from measuring 
tanks into tall, cylin¬ 
drical vessels holding 
about 2,000 gallons. 
Here a thick lime so¬ 
lution is added, which 
takes out the coloring 
matter and other organ¬ 
ic matter. Next comes 
a succession of boiling, 
filtering and clarifying 
processes, after which 
the fluid has become a 
moderately thick syrup ready to be boiled 
down to sugar. The boiling process is a deli¬ 
cate one, which must be handled with care 
in order to get the best results. The syrup is 
pumped up into vacuum pans, large cylin¬ 
drical bodies, some ten feet in diameter, 
with oval top and bottom. Great copper 
steam pipes are coiled inside, and a large 
air pump with an eighteen inch cylinder 
keeps up the high vacuum and removes the 
evaporated water so that boiling down goes 
on rapidly, and at a very low temperature. 



DIFFUSION BATTERIES. 












The Industrial Age 


223 


The sugar-boiler watches the mass through 
glass windows set in the sides of the pan, 
and when the small grains begin to appear, 
“feeds” them by adding fresh syrup until 
they are of the required size. When the 
grade is right and the water is evaporated 
sufficiently, the steam 
is shut off, the pump 
stopped, a valve is open¬ 
ed at the bottom of the 
pan, and the whole mass 
is allowed to run into 
the tanks below. 

The syrup now looks 
about like dark molasses 
thickened with granu¬ 
lated sugar, and is so stitf 
that it will just run. 

This mass is drawn off 
into large whirling 
drums called centrifugal 
machines. These have 
their sides perforated 
with small holes, and are 
lined with gauze. The 
sugar rises up along the sides of the drums 
as they whirl, as water will in a revolving 
pail, and the molasses is thrown out of the 
holes in the sides, while the sugar too large 
to get through, remains sticking to the 



gauze. The sugar is washed by directing a 
spray of cold water and air against it as it 
whirls, and a little bluing is added to give 
brilliancy. The machine is then stopped, 
andthe sugar, which is now white and moist, 
is dropped from the bottom of the machine, 


and conveyed to a large horizontal revolving 
cylinder heated by steam and called the 
“granulator.” It is here dried, and the fine 
dust of sugar contained in the granulator 
is drawn out by a suction blower. The 
sugar passes through screens at the end of 
the granulator, which removes the large 
lumps, and thence to the bags for market. 

The molasses thrown off at the centrifu¬ 
gals is mixed with fresh syrup and boiled 
again, or is boiled alone and passed through 
the centrifugals, and the brown sugar re¬ 
sulting is refined by mixing with fresh 
syrup. A careful chemical control is kept 
upon the whole house. The laboratory has 
been called by one of the principal manu¬ 
facturers, the heart of the factory. Here 



CARBONATORS IN A BEET SUGAR MILL. 


THE CENTRIFUGALS. 































224 


The Industrial Age 




SUGAR DRIER. 

everything is tested — beets, juice, syrups 


and boiled sugars. Every pound of sugar 
entering the house is known from analysis 
and everv loss is located and accounted for. 

t/ 

In the laboratory are tested also the coal, 
the limestone, and the coke, the amount of 
ash in the raw sugar, and the value of soils 
and fertilizers. The factories run day and 
night, seven days in a week, stopping only 
to clean up or in case of an accident. And 
the sugar rolls out from 
each factory at the rate 
of thirty, fifty or one 
hundred tons a day. 

If a Michigan chem¬ 
ist realizes his expecta¬ 
tions, saw mills in the 
pine forests of the north 
may become active com¬ 
petitors of the Louisi¬ 
ana sugar plantations. 

He declares that he can 
make granulated sugar 
out of sawdust, and 
that he can do it cheap¬ 


er than Cuba, China, 
Germany or any other 
country can possibly 
produce it. 

The Louisiana sugar 
plantations produce less 
than one-fifth of all the 
sugar consumed in the 
United States, which is 
the chief reason for the 
rapid stimulus of beet- 
sugar production. In 
our Louisiana cane 
fields the harvest begins 
early in October. The 
negro field hands first 
strip the cane of its 
leaves with the dull side of the knife, and 
then the tops are cut off as far down as the 
experienced cane cutter pleases and the ma¬ 
turity of the cane will permit. For while 
the sugar planter wants every inch of cane 
which will yield up sugar, he doesn’t want 
to grind and handle an inch more than is 
necessary. The field hands begin work at 
daybreak, and cut enough cane during the 
day to keep the mill supplied for the suc- 


DEFECATING PANS. 




































The Industrial Age 


225 


ceeding day and night. The cane is first 
weighed while on the wagon, and then 
dumped in the cane-shed, which is an open, 
heavily built wing of the sugar house. From 
the shed to the mill extends a traveling plat¬ 
form or conveyor. Colored women pick up 
the cane and spread it on the moving slats 
which carry it to the mill to be crushed. 
The roller mill is a ponderous piece of ma¬ 
chinery, massive in all its parts, for sugar 
cane has a tough, hard skin, and cannot be 
crushed by tender methods. Sometimes 
nine rollers in succession are used to com¬ 
plete the crushing process. In the interme¬ 
diate stage the crushed cane is called 
bagasse. When it is squeezed almost dry it 
is carried to the boiler room, for fuel, or it 
may bo used for fertilizer. 

When the cane is crushed, the juice runs 
down, a greenish, sticky liquid, through a 
strainer, to a vat from which it is dumped 
to the clarifiers. Lime and heat are used 
in this process, just as in making beet 


sugar. The juice is boiled in a succession 
of open kettles, first to a syrup and then to 
sugar, being frequently skimmed of the inn 
purities which rise to the top in the form 
of a scum, and are usually made into rum. 
When the tests show that the proper den¬ 
sity has been reached, the heavy syrup is 
dipped into cooliilg-vats of wood, where the 
sugar is crystallized. Of late years vacuum 
pans and centrifugal machines have been 
introduced in the largest cane-sugar fac¬ 
tories, like those used in beet-sugar making. 

Enormous quantities of sugar are made 
in Cuba, Porto Rico, and the other West 
India Islands; in the northern countries 
of South America; and in the Dutch East 
Indies. Hawaii, too, has a large sugar in¬ 
dustry. Germany and France are leaders 
in the beet-sugar industry; Russia and 
Austria are active in the same direction, 
and our own American farmers and sugar- 
makers are united in the development of 
the industry in this country. 





CUTTING, STRIPPING AND HAULING SUGAR CANE- 







226 


The Industrial Age 

curse of the Chinese empire, and peace was; 


OPIUM AND ITS PRODUCTION 

Opium has done much to soothe pain in 
its various medicinal uses, and has put into 
a dreamy stupor many a devotee of its in¬ 
sidious fumes. Its effect in international 
affairs, however, has been far from sooth¬ 
ing. English, French and Chinese blood 
has been shed in battle, and the diplomats 
of those three countries have used all their 
skill in settling the questions which have 
been raised over it. In the politics of 
Eastern Asia the opium question has been 


of admitted importance because of its com¬ 
mercial value to the tax collecting powers. 
In French Indo-China it has long been con¬ 
tended that this drug is the chief cause of 
difficulties with the native races^ and that 
the famous pirates on whom the French 
made war were simply honest merchants 
whose affairs were interfered with by the 
opium monopoly. It has always been 
charged against Great Britain that the war 
with China some forty years ago was in¬ 
cited only by the British desire to estab¬ 
lish the opium trade which has become the 


permitted only when the Chinese yielded 
to the admission of the opium against which 
they had struggled so long'. 

Opium, as every one knows, comes from 
the poppy, of which many varieties flourish 
in our own flower gardens. The nature of 
the soil and the climate have great influence 
on the chemical qualities of the various; 
plants, which are found in Persia, China, 
and more especially in India, where for a 
long time the English government has 
monopolized its culture as in 
France the government monopo¬ 
lizes the culture of tobacco. In’* 
all the immense and fertile valley 
of the Ganges, nothing is asked of 
the earth except the poppy. The 
districts of Patna and Benares 
are distinguished by the richness 
and abundance of their harvests. 
At the season’s blossoming the air 
is saturated with a soft, enervat¬ 
ing perfume, and nothing eqmls; 
the monotony of an Indian land¬ 
scape when the dried petals of the 
flower detach themselves and 
cover the soil. The product of 
this culture in the province of 
Bengal alone is estimated at 15,400,000 
pounds which represents a value of $30,- 
000,000. 

Opium is extracted from the matter 
which exudes from the green, unripened 
capsule of the poppy. This matter is 
gathered in little globular particles of 
amber color, by means of a special instru¬ 
ment. It is put into earthen pots, carefully 
covered, and transported to the laboratories 
of the English government, where it is 
massed into balls about the size of a Dutch 
cheese. These masses are covered by the 



FIELD OF WHITE OPIUM POPPIES IN BLOOM. 










The Industrial Age 


227 


petals of the plant, which have been re¬ 
duced to powder in order to prevent their 
adhering to each other. After being dried 
methodically, the masses are packed and 
sent to Calcutta, the market which supplies 
all Asia. 

From this raw opium is made the fin¬ 
ished product which is used by smokers. 
The process is a very delicate one, and only 
the Chinese know how to get the very best 
results. The raw opium is brought from 
Calcutta to the place of manufacture, to 
the opium-boiling establishments. The or¬ 
dinary place of this kind contains four 
large boilers and 160 small furnaces, with 
basins constructed of masonry, in the form 
of a long bench. First the balls of opium 
are cut in half, and from the inside the raw 
opium is taken with the fingers. That 
which remains attached to the envelope of 
petals is afterwards secured by placing it 
in the boiling water. These preparations 
completed, the opium is placed in the basins 
with water, where it is boiled for two hours 
and constantly stirred until it reaches the 
necessary consistency, which nothing but 
long practice can determine. The worker 
seats himself on the ground, his basin be¬ 
tween his knees, and with the aid of a small 
instrument works and kneads the mass be¬ 
fore him, over and over. 

The mass is now spread over the inner 
surface of the basin, which is tilted so that 
the direct heat of the fire is radiated against 
it. Under this influence, the external sur¬ 
face of the opium loses part of its moisture, 
and then becomes softer. The basin is then 
taken from the fire, and the cold air oper¬ 
ating on the surface of the mass hardens it 
suddenly, while the part below the surface 
retains its paste-like consistency. The 
worker seizes the hardened crust and de¬ 


taches it from the rest of the mass. The 
basin is then exposed to the fire again and a 
second crust is detached and sometimes 
even the third one. These crusts are then 
broken and placed in the basins full of 
water. In about twenty-four hours all the 
solid parts of the opium are separated and 
the liquor is filtered and evaporated at the 
fire to a sufficient consistency. After being 
exposed to the air the extract is put into 
copper vessels -where it is left long enough 
to undergo fermentation which removes 
from it the acrid principles and permits it 
to acquire all of its necessary properties. 


The opium now presents itself in the 
form of a cake, brov T n in color like mo¬ 
lasses, and exhaling an aroma difficult to 
describe. The precious drug is put into 
small metallic boxes of various sizes and at 
last is ready for the market at a price rang¬ 
ing from twenty dollars a pound upward, 
according to quality, taxes and import 
duties in the countries where it is consumed. 

Of course its high price and the restric- 



A CAMPHOR TREE. 







228 


The Industrial Age 



tions placed about the production and sale 
of the drug, account for the widespread 
theft and smuggling of it, with which all 
countries have to contend. It has its dis¬ 
tinct value in science, but except for the 
medical and surgical uses to which it is put, 
it would be better if this insidious decoction 
of the innocent poppy were blotted out of 
existence. 

& 

TOBACCO RAISING AND CIGAR 
MAKING 

Of all the contributions which the west¬ 
ern hemisphere has made to the world since 
the voyages of Columbus, probably no pro¬ 
duct has gained more universal use than 
tobacco. It is declared that there is no other 


luxury in the world for which so large a 
sum of money is annually paid and, indeed, 
it has been taken out of the list of luxuries 
and has become a necessity to many mil¬ 
lions of people. It has therefore become 
in an industrial sense one of the most im¬ 
portant products of agriculture and com¬ 
merce. 

An exploring party searching for strange 
things in Cuba, reported to Columbus on 
his first voyage, that they saw people who 
carried fire brands and perfumed them¬ 
selves with herbs which they carried with 
them. On the second voyage the habit of 
snuff taking was observed. Tobacco chew¬ 
ing was noticed by the Spaniards on the 
South American coasts in 1502, and, as ex¬ 
ploration advanced, it w r as found that to¬ 
bacco smoking was common all over the new 


CUTTING TOBACCO ON AN AMERICAN PLANTATION 
















229 


The Industrial Age 


world, dating from time immemorial, and 
that it constituted an important factor in 
all tribal negotiations and religious cere¬ 
monies. 

Francisco Fernandes, a Spanish phy¬ 
sician, was sent by Philip II. in 1558 to 
ascertain the natural products of Mexico, 
and it was he who first took the plant to 
Europe. Jean Nicot, the French ambas¬ 
sador to Portugal, sent some tobacco to 
Catherine de Medici, and his name has been 
commemorated in the scientific name of the 
tobacco plant, Nicotiana. At first it was 
supposed to possess almost miraculous heal¬ 
ing power. It went to Europe through 
Spain, but its use was introduced by the 
English. Ralph Lane is said to have been 
the first English smoker, and through 
the example and influence of Sir Walter 
Raleigh, the habit spread amQng the gen¬ 
tlemen of Queen Elizabeth’s court. 

There are many species of nicotiana, but 
those of which the leaves are used for 
smoking are few in number. These with 
but two exceptions, one a native of New 
Caledonia and the other of Australia, all 
are of American origin. The tobacco plant 
flourishes over wide areas, but is best suited 
for regions having a mean temperature of 
not less than forty degrees, where early 
autumn frosts do not occur, and where there 
is neither excessive moisture or drought. 
Tropical climates develop the finest quali¬ 
ties, where there is no excessive moisture. 
The tobacco plant absorbs its food from the 
soil very rapidly and leaves it in an ex¬ 
hausted condition. This makes liberal 
fertilization necessary and the character of 
the fertilizer exercises a wonderful influ¬ 
ence over the quality of the tobacco. 

There is a saving in our own southern 
states, that the cultivation and saving of a 


successful tobacco crop requires fourteen 
months every year. This is justified by the 
fact that actual work on the crop begins by 
January first, and continues with little in¬ 
termission till March or even May of the 
following year. In addition to the actual 
cultivation, it involves a warfare on pests 
from the start. 

About the first week in January the 
planter goes into the thick woods where 
there is a good southern exposure and picks 
out a place for the plant bed. Then the ne¬ 
groes set to work clearing the required 
space. After the square is thoroughly 
cleared it is covered with fertilizer and 
then the seed, which is like a quantity of 
ground black pepper, is sown over the 
ground and whipped in with a brush. Forty 
days’ time is required for it to sprout. A 
little while after the seed is sown, the bed is 
covered with a flimsy cotton cloth to guard 
against the frequent changes of weather at 
that season and keep off the pests which 
would destroy young plants. Early in May 
the plants are large enough for transplant¬ 
ing into the field, which must be put in the 
very nicest order for their reception. The 
weather has much to do with success here, 
for it is only in a wet spell that sprouts will 
survive transplanting. The cultivation 
proper is not the most exacting part of the 
undertaking. The plowing or hoeing must 
be well, and even nicely done, but it ex¬ 
tends over a period of only about six weeks. 

When the plant is six weeks old it is 
topped to ten or twelve leaves, and almost 
immediately false leaves or “suckers” start 
at every joint, beginning at the bottom. As 
these detract from the proper growth of the 
leaf, it is necessary to go over the crop 
each week until cutting time, and pull off 
every new sucker that has been put out. As 


230 


The Industrial Age 


many as three successive sets of suckers will 
start at the base of every leaf. 

The most picturesque feature of the whole 
season is the worms. Where does the worm 
come from ? Who ever saw one in a coun¬ 
try where tobacco was not raised ? But let 
a man go to Alaska and get a good crop of 
tobacco under way and some morning when 
he goes out to look the prospect over he 
will be greeted by the tobacco worm. A 


great many of the worm’s brethren, also, 
and their progenitors, the tobacco fly, will 
be there. He is a big worm, and if he were 
to make his appearance suddenly on the 
floor of a house in a region where tobacco 
is not known, he would have possession of 
the place very quickly. But his appearance 
does him injustice. He is not as dangerous 
as he looks, and his only bad habit is to¬ 
bacco. If left alone he would ruin a crop 
in two weeks after his arrival. But the lit¬ 
tle negroes do not leave him alone. They 
take him familiarly between a thumb and 
forefinger, and end his career at once. 
Planters offer a bounty of so much a dozen 
for worms taken from their fields, and a 


much greater reward is paid for the capture 
of the tobacco fly from whose eggs the 
worms hatch. There is no very great num¬ 
ber of tobacco flies. A very few, say a dozen 
or so, would plentifully supply a whole 
plantation with worms, and so the early de¬ 
struction of the fly goes a long way toward 
abating the pest. To accomplish this an 
occasional “jimson weed” is allowed to grow 
in the field, and when these are in blossom 

a small amount of co¬ 
balt mixed with honey 
is placed in the flower. 
As the fly feeds on the 
blossom, a very small 
amount of the cobalt is 
fatal to him. 

In about ninety days 
after the planting, the 
tobacco is ready to cut. 
W hen ripe the green 
is dappled over with 
slightly yellow spots. 
For cutting, a strong 
knife is used. A large 
number of sticks about 
three feet long are then distributed over 
the field. One man holds the stick, while 
another cuts the plant, splits it near the 
base, and hangs it on the stick. Five to 
seven plants are placed on the stick, which 
then is laid on the ground to be taken up 
into the wagon following, and hauled to 
the barn. 

The tobacco barn is a tightly constructed 
log building, about twenty feet square and 
almost as high. There are two furnaces in¬ 
side, which are arranged to be fired from 
the outside of the building. There are sets 
of horizontal poles across the interior, from 
which the sticks of green tobacco are sus¬ 
pended. The barn holds about 800 sticks, 



CUTTING TOBACCO IN CUBA. 










231 


The Industrial Age 


probably the yield of a little less than an 
acre of ground. When it is full, the door 
is closed, and the fires are started, to be 
kept going night and day for four days. 
Beginning with a very low heat, it is in¬ 
creased to about 100 degrees by the end of 
the first twenty-four hours. Too sudden 
heat blackens the stems, and otherwise af¬ 
fects the color injuriously. 

Beginning with the second day, the tem¬ 
perature is increased about a degree an 
hour, until 125 degrees is reached. It is 
held at this temperature for from eight to 
twelve hours, after which the thermometer 
is started up again, until 180 is touched, 
and the heat is held at that until the stem 
of the tobacco is thoroughly “killed.” Then 
the fires are drawn, and a quantity of 
water is thrown in upon the ground, the 
vapor from which puts the now brittle 
leaf in condition to be handled without 
injury. Then the tobacco is taken out and 
stored away and the barn is ready to be 
filled again. 

Firing or curing is a delicate and difficult 
task to do properly. It is necessary to re¬ 
plenish the fires and observe the thermom¬ 
eter every hour. Burning a barn and its 
contents on the third or fourth day is not 
infrequent. The heat becomes so intense 
that a spark sets it off with almost an ex¬ 
plosion. Tobacco cured thus in closed barns 
is much lighter in color than that dried in 
the sunlight or in the open air. The lighter 
and evener the color, the higher the price it 
brings in the market. 

After the curing is all done, comes a 
long-drawn-out task in which the men, wo¬ 
men and children all participate—that of 
stripping the leaves from the stem and tying 
them into bunches or “hands.” This task 
is not continuous, as often for two or three 


weeks at a time the leaf is too dry to handle. 
When the air is moisture laden it becomes 
as soft and pliable as a kid glove. As the 
stripping is done, the leaves are sorted by 
color into as many as seven different grades. 
When there are ten or a dozen leaves of one 
color and grade, they are secured by placing 
the stems together, wrapping an extra leaf 
tightly around them, and drawing the end 
between the other leaves. This is now called 
a “hand,” and is the form in which tobacco 
is marketed. 

It is now ready for “bulking” for fer¬ 
mentation. For this purpose it is piled or 
stacked upon the floor of the barn or dry 
house. Fermentation is quickly set up, and 
the temperature steadily rises to about 130 
degrees. Care must be taken to prevent 
over-heating, and to secure uniform fer¬ 
mentation. This is accomplished by tak¬ 
ing down and restacking, putting the top 
to the bottom, and the outside into the 
middle. 

It requires from three to five weeks to 
complete this process, depending, of course, 
upon the quantity in the mass, and the at¬ 
mospheric conditions. The leaves should 
now have a fine brown color, and can be left 
in the mass until the following summer heat 
sets up what is termed the May sweat, when 
it is necessary to give it careful attention 
again. 

The net yield in money to the planter 
varies greatly. To insure success the closest 
attention is necessary at every stage of the 
work. A storm just before cutting-time 
sometimes damages the crop one-half. A bad 
job of curing, on the other hand, would take 
away nearly the other half. If the soil is 
very rich it is likely to add to the weight, 
but it more than counterbalances that gain 
by detracting from the quality. One Vir- 



232 


The Industrial Age 


ginia or North Carolina “cropper” or 
renter, if he has a couple of boys and 
can depend on the rest of the household 
on demand, will undertake the cultiva¬ 
tion of eight to ten acres. With fair 
luck he will make 500 pounds to the acre, 


which should bring him approximately 
$75 per acre. 

Tobacco is grown in a dozen states in this 
country, and is divided in a general way 
into “seed leaf,” which is grown in the 
Connecticut River Valley and Ohio; 
“bright leaf,” the characteristic product of 
Virginia and North and South Carolina; 
“white burley,” peculiar to Kentucky, and 
“shipping leaf,” which has a wide range of 
country to grow in. The processes every¬ 
where are much as they have just been de¬ 
scribed. 

The “hands” are pressed into hogsheads 
for shipment to the warehouse, by means 
of a simple screw press, set in a frame of 
heavy timbers. In each of the big tobacco 


markets, Louisville, Cincinnati, St. Louis, 
Richmond, Clarksville and Henderson, are 
great buildings with broad, open floors, the 
tobacco warehouses which are characteristic 
of the place. J The hogsheads of tobacco are 
rolled in upon these floors, and the cask 

itself is removed, leav¬ 
ing the mass of tobacco 
still retaining the form 
of the hogshead into 
which it has been press¬ 
ed. The inspector sticks 
an iron hook into the 
tobacco and removes a 
sample. Three samples 
are taken from each 
hogshead and are tied 
together, sealed, marked 
with the name of the 
owner, the weight, and 
the warehouse number 
of the hogshead. Then 
the bundle is laid on top 
of the cask. The auc¬ 
tioneer who sells the to¬ 
bacco passes the bundle of samples around 
the crowd of buyers, and when each has 
examined it sells the hogshead to the highest 
bidder. The purchased tobacco then is sent 
to the warehouse of the buyer, to be made 
into cigars, cigarettes, plug or fine-cut chew¬ 
ing tobacco, or smoking tobacco. 

A great improvement has been made in 
the processes of tobacco growing in Con¬ 
necticut and Florida, by the introduction 
of cloth shelters over the entire growing- 
crop. Posts are set all over the field to be 
planted, and over these stringers and gal¬ 
vanized wires are stretched. Then a great 
canopy of cloth is spread over the field, the 
whole preparation costing about $250 an 
acre. In these tented tobacco fields the 



BALED TOBACCO IN THE WAREHOUSE. 










233 


The Industrial Age 


plants are immune from insect pests, from 
the changes of climate, from the effects of 
the direct sun, and from many other diffi¬ 
culties which the planter ordinarily has to 
face. The coverings are strong enough to 
stand any ordinary wind, and the plants are 
not lashed and torn by the storms. Within 
the tents a continuously tropical climate 
exists. The leaves grow 7 more luxuriantly, 
and the plants increase to great size. The 
tobacco w T ith which these experiments have 
been made is the Sumatra product, for 
which this country has been sending annu¬ 
ally the sum of $6,000,000 to the Dutch 
East Indies. The Sumatra wrapper is con¬ 
sidered essential for cigarmaking, and the 
great profit produced by this successful ex¬ 
periment promises to keep this money at 
home instead of spending it for the im¬ 
ported product. 

Hundreds of millions of cigars and cigar¬ 
ettes are burned each year, and the mak¬ 
ing of them supports an immense army of 
workmen, who supply the tools, boxes and 
labels and wffio roll the fragrant cylinders. 
The cigarmaking business is one of the few 
which holds at bay the labor-saving ma¬ 
chine. Numerous efforts have been made 
by sanguine inventors, who saw 7 fortunes in 
a practical machine, but the hands and fin¬ 
gers of the cigarmakers, aided by the 
simplest of tools, continue to roll and shape 
the tobacco leaf into the finished product 
ready for the smoker. Few trades require 
less in the w r ay of tools than the cigarmak¬ 
ing industry. Give the skilled workman a 
hard maple board on which to roll his 
cigars, a knife, some paste and tobacco leaf 
and he is well-equipped. But, like most 
trades where the fingers are the principal 
tools, the cigarmaking business must be 
learned from the very beginning. From 


three to five years are required to make a 
skilled workman out of a boy, and some¬ 
times men cannot learn the business at all. 

Cigar manufacturing may be divided 
into two general divisions, hand and mold¬ 
making. There is considerable difference 
in a technical way between Spanish and 
American methods, but the difference comes 
in minor details, which would not be no¬ 
ticed by the casual visitor to a cigar factory. 
The fact is, nearly all ordinary cigars are 
made alike, whether the cigar box has a 
New York brand, a Key West label, or a 
Havana mark. The better class of cigars 
are the hand made, and most of the cheap 
grades are mold made. In either case the 
beginning is the same. 

The tobacco leaf is moistened, stripped, 
separated into its grades, and “booked.” 
This work is done by boys who are learn¬ 
ing their trade, or by girls. The strippers 
tear the leaf from the thick middle stem, 
and if the leaf is to be used for wrappers or 
binders, they place the spread-out leaves, 
one over the other, into a book. Before the 
leaves are stripped they are moistened by 
being dipped in w 7 ater, and laid away over 
night between damp cloths in a box. In 
spreading the leaves out for examination 
and stripping, some skill is required, for the 
stripper must know by the feel of the leaf 
just how much stretching and smoothing it 
will stand before tearing. This is a trick 
of the trade which can be learned only by 
experience. The stripper does more than 
this, however, for she separates the leaf into 
the various grades, and boys are set to work 
stripping, because they thus not only learn 
how to handle the leaf, but learn the fine 
distinctions between “wrappers,” “binders” 
and “fillers.” 

The filler is the core or the body of the 


234 


The Industrial Age 


cigar; tlie binder is the leaf which is 
wrapped around the filler, and the wrapper 
is the outside of the cigar. The best-look¬ 
ing, largest and smoothest leaves are used 
for wrappers. The stock which does not 
quite fill all the requirements for a wrap¬ 
per is used for binders, and the filler is 
stock which does not come up to the binder 
standard. This difference is not so much a 
difference of quality as of appearance, for 
the same bunch of tobacco leaf which is 
taken from a bale will be divided into three 
classes. 

The cigarmaker works seated before a 
table on which is his “board,” blade and 


tobacco leaf. A cloth pocket extends the 
length of the table, with its open top just 
above the workmen’s knees. The scraps and 
bits of leaf cut off by the workman are 
thrown into this pocket, and the three grades 
of leaf are spread on the table in little 
heaps, each grade separate. The board on 
which the cigarmaker trims the leaf and 
rolls the cigar is made of blocks of hard 


maple, glued and dovetailed together to 
make a solid block about a foot square. 
The wood is cut across the grain, so that the 
surface of the board is made up of the cross 
sections of the smaller blocks of maple. The 
binder-stock is moist enough to bear the 
working and handling without crumbling. 
The binder-stock is more moist than the 
filler, and the broad leaves to be used for 
wrappers are so moist that the leaf feels 
silkv to the touch and is elastic. 

The workman makes a bundle of tobacco 
leaf for the filler, arranging the bits so that 
the tips of the leaves are toward the butt of 
the cigar, or that end which is lighted. He 

lays the tobacco in the 
hollowed palm of his 
hand, so that the bits 
lie parallel, and packs 
them together so that 
the bunch is solid but 
not tight. This bunch 
he lays in the center of 
the trimmed leaf he has 
selected for the binder, 
and with a dexterous 
combination of twist 
and roll he wraps the 
binder around the filler 
and then puts the wrap¬ 
per on. The tool he 
uses for trimming the 
leaves to. shape is called 
a blade. It has no handle, and resembles 
the blade of a meat-chopper used in a 
kitchen when the cook makes hash for 
breakfast. The edge of the blade is curved, 
and the cutting is done by rocking the blade 
over the leaf on the board. Knives with 
handles are used for the same purpose. The 
blade is also used to roll the cigar when the 
wrapper is put on, and the rolling not only 



UNPACKING TOBACCO FROM THE BALES IN A CIGAR FACTORY. 

















The Industrial Age 


235 


gives the cigar a more cylindrical shape, but 
puts a sort of polish on it. 

In cutting the wrapper the cigarmaker 
endeavors to leave out the thick veins. The 
wrapper is cut or trimmed twice, once to 
give a narrow strip, and the second time for 
the “head.” The head is not cut out until 
the wrapper is on the body of the cigar and 
the workman is ready to twist the point. 
Then he cuts the wrapper in such a way 
that it will twist up to the point, but be¬ 
fore the point or head is made, he puts on 
some gum to hold the point in place. The 
cigar if then cut to the right length, rolled, 
and laid to one side finished. The process 
just described is generally called the “Ger¬ 
man hand-made” process. It is the one 
commonly used in the smaller shops in 
Chicago. 

Mold-made cigars call into use wooden 
molds which press the “bunches” to shape, 
ready for the wrappers. The molds are 
made of two pieces of wood in which cigar¬ 
shaped recesses are cut. Less care is used 
in bunching the filler and wrapping on the 
binder, for the mold gives the shape. The 
partly made cigars are placed in the molds 
and squeezed for an hour or so in a press. 
Then they are turned half way round in 
the molds and pressed again, and when 
taken out are “rolled” and cut to length. 
Two hundred and fifty cigars are a good 
day’s output for one workman on hand¬ 
made goods, but 500 cigars have been made 
in one day by one cigarmaker working with 
molds. 

Spanish handmade cigars are made with¬ 
out binders, for the workman spreads out 
each leaf of the filler in the palm of his 
hand and twists them to shape and puts on 
the wrapper almost in one motion. 

After the cigars have been laid neatly in 


rows in the cigar box the lid is closed over 
them and the box is put in a little screw 
press, which jams the cigars down snug 
enough to permit the lid to touch the wood, 
for the cigars more than fill the box. Then 
a number of boxes are placed in a larger 
press, a board is laid over the top row, the 
screw is turned down upon the board, and 
all of the boxes are kept in the press over 
night. Then the lids are tacked down and 
otherwise fastened, and the cigars are ready 
for the “trade.” 

& & 

HOW TRUNKS ARE MADE 

Travelers need more than trains and 
steamships to make their journeys pleas¬ 
urable. They must have their baggage with 
them, and thanks to the assaults made upon 
it in transit by their eternal enemy, the 
baggage master, they must see to it that 
trunks and valises are strong enough to 
stand the shocks to which they are sub¬ 
mitted. It has been suggested that the men 
who make trunks and the “baggage smash¬ 
ers” who apparently attempt their destruc¬ 
tion, represent two great industries in a 
state of mutual antagonism like that which 
exists between the makers of armor plate, 
the builders of hundred-ton guns, and the 
inventors of high explosives. 

The trunk-maker selects for the body or 
box of his trunk, sheets of thoroughly sea¬ 
soned basswood. This may be used solid, 
or in veneers glued with the grain of alter¬ 
nate sheets at right angles. For the best 
trunks the veneers are used, and are glued 
together so strongly that it is almost im¬ 
possible to separate them. The nails used 
in fastening the box together at the joints 
and angles are of steel wire, coated with 
gum to increase the holding power. 


236 


The Industrial Age 


After the box is completed it next re¬ 
ceives a covering of strong canvas or duck, 
pressed upon hot glue with a heavy roller. 
This adds strength to the wood, and keeps 
it from splitting, besides giving an elastic 
surface for additional durability. After 
the glue has dried, the canvas is painted 
whatever color desired. 

The next process is to put on the hard¬ 
ware, the defensive armor which contributes 
additional strength at corners, edges and 
joints, where reinforcement is necessary. 
Strips of tough steel and angle-iron are 
used for this, and the nails of Swedish iron 
are all clinched. Next hickory strips are 
nailed on to the body the long way of the 
trunk, not merely to strengthen the box, 
but to act as skids upon which it may slide 
with its heavy load when dragged over a 
truck by the baggage man. The successive 
corner clamps, handles, hinges and the 
other fittings are heavily riveted, and the 


lid is put on with the utmost care. This 
calls for the most expert workmen, for the 
lid must be opened and closed easily, and 
yet when closed and bolted must be as 
strong as the solid body. 

The lid is not fastened to the trunk until 
after the trunk lining and lid lining have 
been put on. Various fabrics are used for 
linings, such as linen, grass-cloth, duck, 
cambric, flannel and velvet. After the lin¬ 
ing is completed, the lid joined to the trunk, 
and the lock set in place, the outside of the 
trunk is varnished and it is ready to receive 
its trays. The trays are made of basswood, 
thin and light, but bound with fine steel 
clamps which are hidden under the lining. 
They are constructed with great care, for 
they, too, must withstand twists, strains 
and hard usage. When the trays are in 
place the trunk is ready to travel. 

Probably the strongest trunk made is the 
raw-hide trunk. This is produced at con- 



INTERIOR OF A TRUNK FACTORY. 








237 


The Industrial Age 


siderable expense and by not many manu¬ 
facturers, the name being a synonym for 
the highest grade. The first raw-hide trunks 
made in the west were built out of buffalo 
hide for a Chicago wholesale house twenty- 
five years ago, and those identical trunks 
are still on the road, packed with dry goods 
samples. 

Trunks are made out of basswood, tin, 
sheet iron, sole leather, canvas, split leather, 
willow, rattan, paper and pine. The com¬ 
mercial traveler is the trunk-maker’s best 
customer. These traveling representatives 
of wholesale houses use trunks to carry all 
sorts of things. A trunk was made recently 
to carry an iron safe for a sample. A mu¬ 
sical instrument house in Chicago orders 
trunks large enough to hold a complete 
organ, and traveling men for a stove house 
carry full sized samples of their goods in 


trunks. The large trunks for bicycle sales¬ 
men have become an important part of the 
product. Theatrical companies likewise are 
among the best customers of the trade. 

Valises and traveling bags of various 
sorts, of which the dress suit case is the 
most recent and popular form, are likewise 
made in great number at the trunk fac¬ 
tories. The finest leathers are used and in 
the more expensive grades such traveling 
bags are fitted with silver and cut glass 
toilet utensils and all the equipments of a 
lady’s boudoir. 

For making high grade trunks and 
valises, high grade labor must be employed. 
It is declared that expert workmen in such 
occupations are paid the highest wages 
earned by any mechanic or bench laborer in 
any manufacturing line in the United 
States. 



MAKING VALISES AND TRAVELING BAGS IN A TRUNK FACTORY. 













SCENE IN THE REMARKABLE SALT FIELD IN SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA. 
Salt cones ready for the mill after the Indian laborers have washed it. 








239 


The Industrial Age 


SALT AND ITS PRODUCTION 

It would be difficult to name anything 
more universally required by mankind 
than the common, cheap and simple sub¬ 
stance which we call salt. Indeed, not 
only mankind, but animals as well, find it 
essential to their health and will undergo 
any difficulties necessary to obtain it. 
Fortunately for the world there is nothing 
more generally found and nothing cheaper. 
The ocean, which occupies approximately 
three-fourths of the 
surface of the globe, 
holds inconceivable 
quantities of salt, car¬ 
ried into it by the riv¬ 
ers which it receives, 
and absorbed from the 
salt beds upon which it 
rests, and this supply 
in the greatest of store¬ 
houses is never dimin¬ 
ished by evaporation. 

On land, underground 
and surface deposits of 
salt alike are found the 
world over, and great 
inland bodies of water 
are saturated with this 
! simple substance, which 
they are ready to yield 
at the demand of the 
salt-gatherer. Salt is obtained in ways that 
differ as widely as do the localities where 
it is found. Perhaps the most picturesque 
and interesting of all the salt gathering 
industries is found in our own country, 
recently developed, but already taking an 
important place in the production of salt 
for the market. 

Away down in Southern California in 


the middle of the Colorado desert, about 
100 miles from the ocean and eighty miles 
from the Mexican boundary line, is the 
little station of Salton, on the Southern 
Pacific Railway. It lies between the San 
Bernardino and the San Jacinto ranges of 
mountains. Between these ranges the val¬ 
ley sinks to a level some 400 feet below the 
level of the sea, making it the most de¬ 
pressed spot in the United States. In this 
remarkable depression, a short distance to 
the south of Salton, is a field of crystal¬ 


lized salt some 300 feet below the level of 
the sea and more than a thousand acres in 
extent. Here the company owning the 
tract employs a number of laborers in the 
gathering of salt for the market, by 
methods genuinely unique. 

The salt itself exists as a crust over the 
surface of a marsh. It is constantly sup¬ 
plied by salt springs which flow from the 



GATHERING SALT IN MEXICO. 










240 


The Industrial Age 



A DRY SALT SEA IN THE DESERT. 


surrounding hills draining into the basin, 
where they rapidly evaporate, leaving the 
deposits of almost pure salt. The salt 
crust thus formed varies in thickness from 
ten to twenty inches. 

The process by which the salt is col¬ 
lected is simple in the extreme. The 
crust is plowed by a salt-plow, resting on 
four broad-tired wheels and managed by 
two men. A railway track runs across the 
salt field at either end at right angles to 
the direction in which the plowing is to 
be done and a locomotive works hack and 
forth on this line. From it steel cables 
are carried around pulleys and then 
hooked on to the plow, and the locomotive 
tugs away, drawing the peculiar imple¬ 
ment the full length of the field. The 
heavy steel share makes a broad furrow 
but a shallow one, leaving parallel ridges 
on the crust on either side. Between the 
wheel tracks the brine is exposed that 
seeps from the underlying salt springs. 
Laborers with hoes work the salt in the 
water, to separate the earthen particles 
that have adhered to it, and when this is 
done they stack up the clean salt in conical 


heaps ready to be hauled to the mill. The 
water in which this washing process goes 
on is itself so saturated with salt that it 
can absorb no more, so that there is no loss 
by the washing. 

The surface of this remarkable field of 
salt is snow white, and its brilliancy in the 
clear light of the California sun is so 
dazzling that laborers have to wear dark 
glasses to protect their eyes. These 
laborers are either Japanese or Indians, 
for no white man can stand the intense 
heat. For weeks at a time the temperature 
averages 140 degrees, and the uninter¬ 
rupted sunshine reflected from the daz¬ 
zling white surface produces a glare that is 
almost intolerable. Even the Japanese 
laborers confine their work to the sewing 
of the sacks in which the salt is packed. 
The field work and the work in the mill 
are done entirely by Indians of the Coa- 
huila tribe. 

In order to supply additional water for 
washing the salt, the company sunk an 
artesian well to a depth of 900 feet. Even 
this is still strongly alkaline, hut it is the 
only source of water for domestic pur- 









The Industrial Age 


241 


poses. The air, laden with impalpable 
particles of salt, stimulates an intense and 
painful thirst which the workmen find it 
impossible to quench with the lukewarm 
water of the artesian well. 

Out of this field of 1,000 acres of virgin 
salt, not more than ten acres are worked 
at this time, and yet from such a small 
portion about 700 tons of salt can he 
plowed and shipped daily. As fast as the 
crust is removed a new crust forms almost 
immediately after the plow has passed on. 


The drying and milling works are at 
Salton. After the salt has drained in the 
conical mounds in the field, it is loaded on 
flat-cars and hauled to the works. Here 
it passes through a mill which grinds it 
to powder and then it is sifted and packed 
into sacks for the market, in which it is 
recognized as of the best quality. 

Under certain atmospheric conditions 
this salt field displays remarkably perfect 
examples of the phenomenon known as the 
mirage. Beautiful flowering fields, sylvan 


lakes and towering cities appear in most 
deceptive form. The effect of moonlight 
on the white expanse is singularly weird 
and beautiful. 

The salt deposits of the ocean itself are 
utilized as a source of commercial supply 
in many countries, and particularly in the 
islands of the sea where other supplies do 
not exist. Even on our American coasts, 
however, the business possibilities of this 
industry are not neglected, and in the 
neighboring islands of the West Indies 


many people obtain their living by gather¬ 
ing salt. The process is to prepare a 
series of shallow pools near the ocean and 
below the level of high tide. Channels 
are cut by which the ocean water can enter 
these pools, and the channels are then 
dammed up so that the water cannot flow 
out when the tide recedes. After evapora¬ 
tion has left the ground white with dry 
salt, it is raked into heaps and hauled to 
the place of shipment, while a new period of 
evaporation is passing in the refilled pools. 



AT WORK IN THE SALTON SALT DEPOSITS. 

Indian laborers plowing, and, in background, loading salt on flat cars. 












242 


The Industrial Age 


In New York, northern Michigan, 
southern Kansas, southwestern Ontario 
and several other regions of North Ameri¬ 
ca, there are underground deposits of rock 
salt of great value. The usual process by 
which this salt is obtained involves the 
boring of wells deep into the strata of salt. 
These wells fill with w T ater, either from the 
surface drainage or underground springs, 
or are pumped full, and the water dissolves 
the salt until it is saturated and becomes a 
brine. Then it is pumped out and evapo¬ 
rated in great kettles. In several European 
countries there are mines of rock salt, ex¬ 
tending far underground, which are work¬ 
ed by shafts and tunnels in the earth, just 
as coal or iron mines would be. Austria 
and Russia have mines of this character, 
and they are considered among the most- 
interesting of all the underground indus¬ 
tries. 

Mexico in several places has salt deposits 
similar to those in southern California, 


although none so extensive. Indeed, there 
is hardly a country in the world which 
does not contain salt deposits of some sort, 
even if in some instances they are no more 
than flowing springs impregnated with this 
important substance. 

When we say salt w T e mean, usually, 
chloride of sodium or common table salt. 
This, however, is but one of many soluble 
salts contained in the ocean and in the salt 
seas of the world. Even in fresh river 
water some mineral salts are present. Of 
these a part may be removed by various 
means during the journey of the river, but 
the rest remains to be concentrated at last 
in the basin in which the river comes to 
an end. Of course in most instances the 
ultimate outlet of the rivers is the ocean 
and when this is not the case whatever out¬ 
let is final is sure to be salt. 

There are not very many salt lakes in 
the world, or lakes without, an outlet. 
North America has one such important 



PLOWING FURROWS IN THE FIELD OF SALT. 
















243 


The Industrial Age 


lake, the Great Salt Lake of Utah, into 
whose basin drain a number of rivers in¬ 
cluded between the Rocky Mountains and 
the Sierra Nevadas. Asia has two or three 
of the same character, notably the Caspian 
Sea, which is the largest land-locked body 
of water on the globe, and nearly five times 
as large as Lake Superior. Lake Balkash, 
the Sea of Aral and the Dead Sea are 
others in the Asiatic continent, the latter 
being one of the few at a lower level than 
that of the salt deposit in southern Cali¬ 
fornia. 

It would be easily possible indeed for 
this American salt field to become another 
Dead Sea. It lies far below the level of 
the ocean, as has been said before, and the 
Colorado River, which carries a consider¬ 
able stream, is several hundred feet above 
it and not far away. In the summer of 
1891, indeed, there was a flood in this 
river and a large area near Salton became 
a lake of considerable depth. When the 
river flood subsided, however, so that the 
supply of the lake was cut off, the rapid 
evaporation from its surface soon carried 
away the water, and left it in its former 
condition. 

The saltness of the sea is evidence of its 
power of transportation if not of destruc¬ 
tion, for at least a very large part of the 
salt is brought down into the sea bv rivers. 
This, however, must be uniformly distrib¬ 
uted by diffusion or by currents, for ocean 
water is practically the same composition 
in all parts of the globe. True, it is a little 
more salt in warm regions than in cold, but 
this difference is due to the greater amount 
of evaporation. For a time, also, it is more 
brackish, at any rate near the surface, in 
the neighborhood of the mouth of a large 
river. That the mineral substances must 


be mainly if not wholly brought down in 
solution by the rivers, is proved by the fact 
that every sheet of water for which there 
is no outlet is salt. Evaporation cannot 
remove the salt constituents, which are 
present in greater or less degree in every 
stream, so they remain behind and the 
water very slowly but very surely becomes 
more salt. 

There was a time, as is proved by the 
character of the fossils which are found in 
beds high above the present level of the 
water, when the Dead Sea was but slightly 
brackish. The ocean, also, may be more 
salt at the present time than it was when 
the world was young. It would become 
much more so if countless millions of 
minute organisms were not ever drawing 
from it the supplies which are needed in 
the construction of the solid parts of their 
bodily frames. 

The Dead Sea is recognized as the most 
fully impregnated with salts of all the 
bodies of water in the world. Less than 
74 per cent of its entire bulk is water, and 
more than 26 per cent is of salts held in 
solution. Chloride of sodium, however, or 
common salt, is not the dominant salt, 
chloride of magnesium being 16 per cent 
of the total bulk of the sea, while common 
salt is but 3| per cent. Our own Great 
Salt Lake, in Utah, stands at the head of 
all in the amount of chloride of sodium in 
solution, with nearly 12 per cent dissolved 
in it. 

It is this large proportion of salt in the 
water which gives to the Dead Sea and the 
Great Salt Lake their extraordinary buoy¬ 
ancy. In these bodies of water it is abso¬ 
lutely impossible for the human body to 
sink, and difficult to swim, so dense is the 
saline fluid. 


244 


The Industrial Age 


FLOUR AND FLOUR MILLS 

It is an ancient saying that bread is the 
staff of life, but in ordinary justice it seems 
as if something ought to be said of the flour 
from which the bread is made, and the 
wheat which is ground into flour. Flour 
mills have changed greatly in character in 
the last few years, not only in this country 
but in the other great milling countries of 
the world, of which Hungary stands sec¬ 
ond to the United States. Immense mill¬ 
ing companies have established their great 
enterprises in the cities of the great lakes, 


wheel outside, and sometimes a windmill 
flapped its gaunt wings in the air above. 
The wheat in passing through the processes 
was carried from one machine to another 
in bags, and the flour which finally poured 
from the bolting reel was brown and coarse. 

It was not until as late as 1877 that 
American millers grew discontented with 
the old rude buhr stones and began experi¬ 
menting with a new roller-process which 
had recently been invented in Europe. 
Since that time the industry has taken 
wonderful strides, until today it may be 
numbered among the exact sciences. 



FLOUR MILLS FACING THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER AT MINNEAPOLIS. 


the upper Mississippi Valley, and the 
northwest, producing flour from a single 
mill sometimes as rapidly as a thousand lit¬ 
tle mills of the olden time would have done. 
Minneapolis is recognized as the greatest 
flour-milling city in the world, with Buda¬ 
pest as a close rival. 

Half a century ago every little village in 
the land had its own flour mill, and the 
wheat was ground for the farmers in grists 
of a few bushels each. Sometimes the 
crude grinding stones whirred in response 
to the throbbing and splashing of a water- 


The grinding of wheat by the most im¬ 
proved methods is a continuous process. 
The wheat enters the cleaning machines at 
the top of the mill, and passes steadily 
downward until it spouts in the form of 
flour of several grades, bran and shorts, 
from the chutes in the basement. The mill 
has three different classes of machines for 
doing its work, each marvelously adapted 
to its purposes. First, the wheat is cleaned 
by means of various fans and brushes. 
Then it is crushed several different times 
between delicately corrugated iron rollers, 








245 


The Industrial Age 


one of which moves faster than the other. 
The last process is that of separating the 
crushed wheat into its different products, 
and this is accomplished by means of skill¬ 
fully arranged sieves, bolters and air-blasts. 

When the wheat reaches the mills it is 
run from the cars into the tin carrying- 
cups of an elevator belt, which lifts it to 
the top of the building and dumps it into 
the bins. As fast as it is needed it is let 
out by means of spouts into the machines, 
and begins its course downward. 

It shakes in a slow, 
steady stream into 
the mouth of a de¬ 
vice known as the 
wheat-separator and 
oat-extractor. As it 
falls downward a 
blast of air strikes it, 
and the chaff and 
light dirt are carried 
away; the wheat falls 
upon a sieve set at an 
incline and passes 
through the meshes. 

Grains of corn, oats 
and pieces of straw 
are too big to go 
through, and, as the 
sieve shakes, they rat¬ 
tle down to the end 
and fall into a spout. After passing 
through three such sieves the wheat strikes 
a fourth in which the perforations are so 
small that only the bits of clay and small 
seeds go' through, and the wheat itself is 
“tailed over” into a spout which carries it 
along to the cockle-separator. 

The next machine is a cylinder in which 
a u T ire brush revolves very rapidly. As 
the wheat goes through, the fuzz at the end 


of the kernel and every particle of dirt 
from the crease are wiped out and sucked 
away into an air-shaft. From this ma¬ 
chine the wheat passes in a steady stream 
over some powerful magnets, which draw 
out any bits of iron wire, nails and screws 
which may have fallen into the grain from 
the harvesters or thrashers. 

The wheat is now clean and ready to go 
downstairs to the rollers for crushing. 
There are five sets of these machines, in the 
first of which the spiral corrugations on the 


rolls are comparatively coarse, so that the 
wheat' in passing through will simply be 
broken open longitudinally. The rolls of 
the other sets grow progressively finer in 
corrugations, and are set much closer to¬ 
gether. 

From the rolls the crushed wheat goes 
up to be “scalped.” The machines used in 
most mills for this purpose are centrifugal 
reels or bolters covered with wire cloth and 



TESTING FLOUR IN THE LABORATORY OF A BIG MILL. 
































246 


The 'Industrial Age 


silk gauze, the meshes in which vary in size 
for the wheat from each set of rolls. The 
crushed wheat is thrown at the sieves by 
centrifugal force, and many impurities are 
removed. A new German machine, known 
as the plansifter, was introduced in a Chi¬ 
cago mill, and since that time it has been 
adopted by many first-class millers. It con¬ 
sists of a long, flat box full of sieves set at 


The middlings, or crushed wheat, is now 
carried on to the middlings purifier, the in¬ 
vention of which a few years ago revolu¬ 
tionized the whole art of milling. Its work 
is to remove the impurities and bran from 
the flour. It accomplishes this purpose by 
subjecting the passing stream of middlings 
to air blasts of varying force. The light 
dust and bran are carried upward and 



BAKING BREAD BY ELECTRICITY. 


an' incline, and perforated with graduated 
meshes. The whole device is given an ec¬ 
centric motion by being fastened a few 
inches at one side of the center of a great 
wheel. By this means of jolting it the 
crushed wheat is rattled through the sieves 
and graded according to the size of mesh 
through which it passes. 


caught in little pockets, and the purified 
middlings pass back to the second set of 
rollers, where they are crushed again. This 
circuit of processes—the rollers, the plan- 
sifter and the middlings purifier—is re¬ 
peated five different times and the separa¬ 
tion and grinding is then complete. The 
flour from the last process is carried down- 































The Industrial Age 


247 


stairs, where it runs into sacks and is tied 
up ready for the market. 

One of the most important machines in 
a mill is the dust collector. Before it was 
invented the air of the mills was always 
full of flying particles of flour, which some¬ 
times exploded with all the force of gun¬ 
powder. The dust collector consists of a 
fan, which, in creating a vacuum, sucks the 
flour out of the air and deposits it in a 
chamber by itself. This dust can be used 
in inferior grades of flour. 

A barrel of flour will make about 260 
pound loaves of bread. If the combined 
bakeries of Chicago use 2,000 barrels daily 
the number of loaves made is 520,000, 
which, at a retail price of 5 cents, cost $26,- 
000 daily. Probably as much more bread 
is made in the homes. 

American flour is now used in almost 
every part of the world. A story is told of 
a traveler who visited the South Sea is¬ 
lands for the purpose of describing the ter¬ 
rible depths of barbarism in which its sav¬ 
age inhabitants were supposed to live. He 
secured an interpreter and began his ex¬ 
plorations. When they reached the first 
bamboo and thatch village the traveler 
stopped on the roadside to experience feel¬ 
ings of wonder and exultation. He had 
heard that few white men had ever visited 
these particular savages, and like every 
person who believes his eyes behold un¬ 
known wonders, his spirits rose to a high 
pitch. He entered the village and was 
taken to the chief’s bamboo hut. Just as he 
approached the door he was transfixed with 
amazement bordering on horror. There 
beside a long war club, the sword of a 
swordfish, and a primitive tom-tom, stood a 
real American barrel with a colored sign 
on the top advertising so-and-so’s flour 
from Minneapolis, Minn. 


According to the census of 1890 the 
number of flour mills in the United States 
was 18,470, with a capitalization of $208,- 
473,500. A total of 63,481 men were em¬ 
ployed, and their wages reached the sum 
of $27,035,742. The value of the wheat 
which they ground was $434,152,290, near¬ 
ly all raised in the western states, and the 
flour produced worth $513,971,474. 

The largest number of mills in any one 
state was 2,226 in Pennsylvania, but Min¬ 
nesota, with only 307 mills, ground $52,- 
383,867 worth of wheat to Pennsylvania’s 
$33,238,981. The largest value of wheat 
used, next to Minnesota, was $44,890,115 
in Hew York. Then followed in regular 
order Ohio, Pennsylvania, Illinois and Mis¬ 
souri. Illinois had 647 mills, with a capi¬ 
tal of $13,101,860 and produced $37,974,- 
885 worth of flour in 1890. The census 

i 

figures show that the products of the flour 
and grist mills of the country exceed in 
value that of any other single product from 
the raw material, even the iron, steel and 
lumber industries. The sugar-refining in¬ 
dustry, which has caused so much anxiety 
on the part of congress, represents in value 
of annual products less than one-fourth that 
of flour-milling. The meat and packing 
industry, which seems so’tremendous, does 
not produce as much as the flour-mills with¬ 
in $80,000,000 annually. 

A noticeable thing about the industry, is 
the fact that the village mill is gradually 
disappearing. The wealthy and powerful 
millers of the cities are slowly swallowing 
up the business. This is strikingly shown 
by the fact that according to the census of 
1880 there were 24,338 mills in the United 
States with a capitalization of $177,361,- 
878, while in 1890 the number of mills had 
decreased to 18,470, while the capitaliza¬ 
tion had increased to $208,473,500. If 


The Industrial Age 


O • Q 
O 


this startling change continues it will be 
only a few years before half a dozen mil¬ 
lers will control the whole industry in the 
United States. 

& & 3 

ICE, ARTIFICIAL AND NATURAL 

There is no article more intimately as¬ 
sociated with our genuine comfort in the 
hot, trying weather of midsummer, than 
ice, which is now so universally distributed 
as to be recognized as no longer a luxury 


portant as to have its influence upon 
municipal politics and state legislation, and 
so profitable as to make fortunes for those 
who are engaged in it. In our northern 
states, nature by her own processes will 
make ice in the winter, enough to serve for 
the summer, if it is properly preserved, 
but in the southern states of our own coun¬ 
try, and in the tropics, nature’s gifts do not 
take this form, and man must jDrovide cold 
things for himself. So it is that inventors 
have devised simple machines which by 



ARTIFICIAL ICE IN STORAGE. 


but a necessity. Ice is an essential factor 
for health and comfort, particularly in the 
cities, where people live crowded together, 
and the refreshing conditions of rural life 
are not at hand. The result of this wide use 
of the transparent blocks of frozen water is 
that for its preparation and distribution an 
immense industry has grown up, so im- 


chemical and mechanical processes produce 
ice at little cost, whether it be on the 
equator or not. So excellent is the ice thus 
frozen that great ice-manufacturing com¬ 
panies have been established in the north¬ 
ern cities as well, competing in price and 
quality with those companies which dis¬ 
tribute nature’s own product. 









The Industrial Age 


249 


It is an old scientific trick to freeze water 
in the fire, by wrapping a small bottle with 
a rag soaked in ether or chloroform. The 
heat of the fire evaporates the volatile 
ether so quickly that the ether sucks the 
heat out of the water and freezes it. This 
is practically what the icemaker does, only 
he uses ammonia or sulphurous oxide, in¬ 
stead of ether or chloroform, and works on 
a big scale with large pumps, steam en¬ 
gines, and miles of iron pipe. 

At ordinary temperatures ammonia is a 
vapor or gas. The ammonia which is 
bought at a drug store is really ammonia 
water, for it is a water in which ammonia 
gas has been dissolved or absorbed. The 
icemaker uses ammonia gas, sulphurous 
oxide—which is the choking, suffocating 
fumes given out when sulphur is burned— 
or ammonia water, according to the system 
he employs. Anhydrous ammonia is am¬ 
monia without water in it, and the ice¬ 
maker who uses ammonia, buys anhydrous 
ammonia. 

The whole story of artificial icemaking 
can be told in a paragraph, for it is simply 
permitting pure liquid ammonia to evapo¬ 
rate or expand inside of iron pipes which 
are coiled in tanks filled with salt brine, 
which gives up the heat required by the 
ammonia in evaporating, and thus lowers 
its temperature below the freezing point. 
The fresh water is in smaller cans which 
are surrounded by the brine, and is frozen, 
for the brine does not freeze even at zero. 

But to do all this, expensive, heavy and 
special machinery must be employed, and 
the combination of steam-boilers, pumps, 
condensers, tanks, pipes and other ma¬ 
chinery gives a complicated appearance to 
an artificial ice plant which is confusing. 

The great pump is the principal piece 


of machinery in the ice-making establish¬ 
ment. It performs a double office, for 
with one stroke of the piston it sucks in 
the anhydrous ammonia gars, and with the 
next compresses the gas to a liquid, for the 
anhydrous ammonia is used over and over 
again, first as a liquid, then as a gas, freez¬ 
ing water, and back as a liquid again. The 
ammonia gas is liquefied not only by pres¬ 
sure but alsa by cold. In an ice-making 
plant both are used. The pump forces the 
gas into the condenser, which is a series 
of coils of small pipe over which water is 
constantly flowing. The gas, pressed into 
the smaller pipe, turns to liquid ammonia. 
As it condenses, the liquid ammonia flows 
into a storage tank through small pipes 
leading from the condenser. All this time 
it is under pressure which forces it along, 
so that the liquid ammonia flows from the 
storage tank, which is placed in a horizontal 
position, into two large vertical cylinders, 
and from there into the expansion coils, 
which lie in the bottom of the expansion 
tanks. The pipes of the expansion coils 
are much larger than the pipes which make 
up the condenser, and the liquid ammonia 
expands and evaporates as it moves along, 
keeping the salt water or brine in the freez¬ 
ing tanks at a temperature of 18 degrees 
or colder. 

All this time the big pump is pushing 
the liquid ammonia along, and sucking the 
ammonia gas back again, so that the am¬ 
monia, whether gas or liquid, is moving 
around, condensing, expanding, freezing, 
condensing again, expanding again, freez¬ 
ing again, and so on. 

In making artificial ice the manufacturer 
wants pure water. To be certain that the 
water is free from sediment, typhoid germs 
and other impurities he filters and distills 


250 


The Industrial Age 


the water before it is frozen. In some ice 
works the water is filtered once before it 
is distilled and twice afterward. 

The freezing tanks are made of iron. 
They usually are set below the floor, for 
the purpose of facilitating the handling of 


is kept in motion by an agitator somewhat 
like a screw propeller. This gives the brine 
an even temperature. It requires from 
forty-eight to sixty hours to freeze the 
water in one of the cans. 

The cans are covered while the water is 




. . -lit——•*'* 

WM 

■;r 1 jS 

< 

l, ! 

I* 






FREEZING TANK ROOM IN AN ICE FACTORY. 

The tanks are shown in the floor, each with rings by which they are lifted. 


the ice. The tanks are about 50 feet long, 
20 feet wide and 4 feet deep. The cans in 
which the distilled water is frozen are 44 
inches by 22 inches by 11 inches in size. 
The pipes which contain the anhydrous 
ammonia go back and forth across the tank 
between the cans, and the salt water brine 


freezing, so that the whole process of freez¬ 
ing is really going on under the floor, for 
the covers are the plates of the floor. Over 
the freezing tank is a traveling crane, with 
a block and tackle for hoisting the cans with 
the frozen blocks out of the tank. The cans 
are lifted so that when they are clear of 



















The Industrial Age 


251 


the tank they tilt upside down. They are 
then carried by the traveling crane to the 
head of a gangway which runs into the 
icehouse. Here streams of tepid water are 
directed upon the can. In a few moments 
the ice holding the cake to the can melts, 
and the block of artificial ice slides out of 
the can and down the gangway. The can is 
then taken back, filled with water, and 
dropped into the tank again. 

Where shafts or tunnels go through 
quicksands artificial refrigeration is some¬ 
times used to freeze the treacherous ma¬ 
terial. The anhydrous ammonia plant is 
on the surface or at the mouth of the tun¬ 
nel, and from it brine chilled to zero is 
sent through pipes to the place of working. 
Pipes are driven ahead of the work into 
the quicksand, and the circulating brine 
freezes the loose ground into a hard 
cylinder. The work is then carried on 
through this frozen material, which shuts 
out the quicksand until the brick is laid in. 

Fortunately nearly every city and town 
has some lake or river near by where ice 
can be cut in winter. The lakes of Michi¬ 
gan, Wisconsin and Minnesota, filled with 
pure water as they are, furnish a large 
quantity of the ice used in Detroit, Chi¬ 
cago, Milwaukee, Minneapolis, St. Paul 
and the other smaller cities within their 
territory. During the winter season busy 
scenes may be observed at these lakes, which 
are the favored resorts of multitudes of 
summer visitors in vacation time. Their 
frozen surface is alive with men and teams 
cutting the ice, rafting it to shore, and 
turning it over to the sleds that haul it to 
the railway for shipment to the ice houses. 

There was a time when people were more 
careless about the health conditions of the 
food and its surroundings than they are 


now, but it has come to De so clear'y recog¬ 
nized that many of our bodily ills come 
from carelessness in the sanitation of our 
houses and in the freshness of our food, 
that people now scrutinize these details with 
great care. Ice made from impure water 
is no longer acceptable for our refrigerators 
or our drinking water. Laws have been 
passed protecting the public in this matter, 
and their rigid enforcement has assisted 
materially in reducing typhoid and kindred 
diseases. 

<38 <38 

IVORY, HOW OBTAINED AND 
USED 

Every ivory billiard ball m use in the 
world is said to have cost the life of a 
human being. And still the demand for 
ivory, not only for the manufacture of these 
simple spheres for a popular game, but 
for a multitude of other uses in decorative 
and toilet articles, continues, with the price 
so high that the trade still goes on in spite 
of its disastrous cost in human life. 

Most of the heavy expense has been paid 
in the jungles of central Africa, where a 
man does not count for half as much as a 
humped ox or a trained ape. For nature 
has built an effectual barrier about her cul¬ 
tivators of billiard balls—the elephants— 
and he who would penetrate it must take 
his life in his hands. 

In the first place she has provided an 
atmosphere of great heat, reeking half the 
year with moisture, in which lurk the germs 
of a hundred unnamed diseases, and rent 
for two seasons with sudden storms accom¬ 
panied by heavy rains. Then there is the 
barrier of a rank and tangled' vegetation, 
through which no roads but those of the 
jungle-folk have yet pierced. The huge 


252 


The Industrial Age 



So the elephant is given a chance to grow 
a little before the harvesters of the ivory 
crop can reach him. When he has trump¬ 
eted for a few score of years, and his tusks 
have made him a power in the herd, some 

native hunter spies 
him as he thrashes 
through the jungle or 
wades in a morass. 
Then a great number 
of the bravest warriors 
gather and build a 
huge inclosure of 
vines, into which the 
elephant one day 
walks. From the sur¬ 
rounding trees come a 
shower of arrows, and 
perhaps a bullet or two 
from an ancient gun 
obtained at a hundred 
times its value from 
some wandering trad¬ 
er. The elephant 
charges about trumpet¬ 
ing, but on every side 
the barrier holds him 
in. At last he falls, 
overcome by numbers. 
Then his great tusks 
are packed away, and 
a row of naked natives 
carry them for days 
through the jungle, 
until they are placed 
in the king’s treas¬ 
ury as a part of the 
wealth as well as the currency of a nation. 

After a time traders from England and 
from other countries appear, and the tusks 
are bartered for bright nothings, old-fash¬ 
ioned and shop-worn fabrics, food, whisky 


trees conceal fierce wild animals, poison¬ 
ous snakes, and insects "whose stings mean 
death at the end of the days of suffering. 
Impassable morasses, lakes, broad rivers 
and mountain ranges are also numerous, 


IVORY MARKET AT ANTWERP. 

Tusks displayed ready for buyers. 

and yet more dangerous are the jealous 
savages, who have learned enough of civili¬ 
zation to distrust it, and w 7 ho know that a 
man never protests against robbery after 
he is dead. 































The Industrial Age 


253 


and firearms. There is another long period 
of transporting the precious ivory on the 
backs of natives, with the constant danger 
of attack from hostile tribes and the treach¬ 
ery of friendly ones. At last it is aboard 
ship, and after weeks on the sea it arrives 
at the great ports where it is sold to carvers 
and manufacturers. 

The best ivory comes from Africa. Some 
of the tusks are from eight to ten feet long, 
and often weigh 170 pounds. The Indian 
elephants’ tusks are much shorter and of 
less weight, and the great demand has re¬ 
duced the supply to such an extent that it 
is now rare to find a large tusk. Indian 
ivory is not so good in quality as that from 
Africa. Much of the ivory used in Russia 
and other parts of Europe is found in 
northern Russia and Siberia, in the re¬ 
mains of prehistoric mammoths. Where 
the skeletons have been always frozen in 
the earth, the ivory is as good as the ordi¬ 
nary Indian product, but much of it has 
been injured by exposure to the weather. 
Tusks have been found which were more 
than 12 feet long and weighed upwards of 
200 pounds. 

The value of ivory rests mainly in its 
toughness, its elasticity, and its quality of 
taking a high polish. It is filled with mil¬ 
lions of minute holes which give it an elas¬ 
ticity which no solid object could ever have. 
In effect ivory is the same substance as 
the dentine of the teeth, and it is unlike 
bone in having no channel for the passage 
of blood. The teeth or tusks of the nar¬ 
whal, sperm whale, walrus, and hippopota¬ 
mus are also used as ivory, but the quality 
is usually poor. 

Great skill is required in buying tusks, 
for the external appearance is most often 
deceptive. The inside may be full of ab¬ 


scesses and cracks, and sometimes the core 
is filled with pieces of stone and chunks of 
iron by the tricky natives and no less 
tricky dealers. 

When at last the tusk reaches the manu¬ 
facturer of billiard balls it is again ex¬ 
amined very carefully for flaws, and even 
if the smallest crack is perceptible the 
ivory is used for some other purpose. If 
the tusk is found to be perfect and of about 
the right size—a little larger in diameter 
than the ball is to be—it is sent out to 
the workroom. Here workmen measure 
the tusk into the proper distances to be cut 
into blocks. It is then sawed into lengths 
of two and a half to three inches, accord¬ 
ing to the size of balls to be made, and 
the turners take the blocks in hand. In 
order to save the corners of the blocks the 
turner cuts a ring at each end and slowly 
deepens it until a rough ring drops off. 
This is subsequently finished into a martin¬ 
gale ring like those used on expensive har¬ 
ness. Two rings come from each billiard 
ball block. The remaining ivory is now 
almost round, and after a few more shav¬ 
ings are taken off it is laid aside to drv for 

O *j 

about six months, for “green” ivory is 
rather soft, and there is always a likelihood 
of some shrinkage. 

When it has been seasoned it goes to the 
workman again, and with still more deli¬ 
cate chisels he pares it down smooth and 
exactly round, a task requiring much skill 
and care. Then the ball is roughly pol¬ 
ished by means of an ingenious little ma¬ 
chine, after which it is treated to a rub¬ 
bing with chalk and chamois skin, and 
finally with plain, soft leather. It is now 
bright, shinv, and to one who doesn’t know 
about such things, perfectly smooth. But a 
workman spends much time rubbing it with 



254 


The Industrial Age 



the palms of his hands, the best 
of all devices. 

Every particle of sawdust 
and shavings from an ivory 
shop is scrupulously saved. By 
a wonderful process these are 
treated with chemicals, submit¬ 
ted to enormous hydraulic pres¬ 
sure, and molded into various 
small articles so perfect in every 
particular that only an expert 
can tell them from solid ivory. 


BRINGING IVORY FROM THE AFRICAN JUNGLES 
TO THE COAST FOR SHIPMENT. 


Worn-out billiard balls are cut 
into various small articles. 

The carving of ivory is one 
of the oldest arts in the world. 
Excellent bas-reliefs and images 
are found in ancient ruins, and 
when they are affected by time 
and weather they are partially 
restored by boiling in gelatine. 
The most expert carvers are the 
Japanese and Chinese, who 
spend years on a single piece, 
making it exquisitely beautiful. 

Many attempts have been 
made to produce artificial ivory, 
but thus far they have not been 
very successful, the elephant 
still retaining a monopoly of 
the business. Ivory is grow¬ 
ing more costly and more rare 
from year to year, and it is only 










The Industrial Age 


255 


a question of time when the sources of sup¬ 
ply will fail. 

Until a few years ago London and Liver¬ 
pool were the two great ivory markets of 
the world, but they have been outstripped 
of late by Antwerp. This is on account 
of the development of the trade in the 
Congo Free State, which is a colony of 
Belgium. The Antwerp market was 
opened less than ten years ago. The stock 
offered there for sale is remarkable not 
only for the great number of tusks, but 
also for the enormous size of some of them. 
Among those sold lately was a pair weigh¬ 
ing nearly 350 pounds. A few days be¬ 
fore the opening of the market the tusks, 
all laid out and numbered in lots, are 
placed on public exhibition in some great 
hall, as represented in the accompanying 
illustration, and the buyers come here to 
select what they want and bid for them. 

The world’s consumption of ivory is very 
large. The annual average quantity used 
is about 1,500,000 pounds. Taking into 
consideration the fact that in the wholesale 
markets such as Antwerp and London ivory 
costs on an average $1.75 a pound, an idea 
may be had of its importance in commerce. 

Unfortunately the future of this trade, 
which has caused streams of blood, is 
seriously threatened. The constant war 
waged upon the elephant on account of his 
ivory is bringing him nearer and nearer to 
extinction. The Congo Free State has 
occupied itself earnestly with this question, 
and has officially established a closed sea¬ 
son and limited conditions, during which 
elephant-hunting is absolutely forbidden. 
It is also proposed to establish elephant 
farms in the Congo State, as has been done 
by the English with ostriches in South 
Africa. 


OSTRICH FARMS IN AFRICA 
AND CALIFORNIA 

When the demands of fashion for plumes 
and the careless slaughter of the great birds 
began to threaten the extermination of the 
ostrich, clever business men in South Africa 
decided to domesticate the valuable pro¬ 
ducers of the big feathers, and raise them 
more carefully, for profit. So it was that 
a new industry was created. Eggs were 
obtained and hatched, the young birds care¬ 
fully reared, and though the first experi¬ 
ments were carried on at a loss, it was not 
long before the milliners of the whole world 
were drawing their supply of plumes from 
the ostrich farms of Cape Colony and 
Natal. The trade now has reached such 
proportions that in a single year ostrich 
feathers to the value of more than $3,000,- 
000 have been exported from South Africa. 
An illustration on page 420 in this volume 
shows a characteristic group of ostriches 
on one of these queer ranches near Cape 
Town. 

When Americans saw the profit in ostrich 
farms, they promptly looked about to find 
a region in this country where the same 
industry could be established. In Southern 
California, Arizona and Hew Mexico they 
found favorable conditions, and now there 
are a score of large and profitable enter¬ 
prises of the kind in operation in the south¬ 
west. The first birds and eggs were brought 
from South Africa, of course, but now they 
are bred here with entire success. 

These ostrich farms produce a large part 
of the plumes used in this country. The 
feathers are plucked from the big birds 
once a year, the plumes bringing about $20 
a pound. These peculiar ranches are places 
of great interest for traveling strangers. 



SANTOS-DUMONT AND HIS SUCCESSFUL AIRSHIP. 

This is the famous craft known as “Santos-Dumont No. 6,” with which the young Brazilian inventor 
made his famous voyage around the Eiffel Tower, winning the prize of $20,000. In the small 
picture he is shown in the workshop where the airship was made, inspecting the 
bag, as he was careful to do with every inch of the whole vessel, 









BOOK II 


THE WORLD'S SCIENCE AND 



AIR-SHIPS A SUCCESS 


More progress lias been made in aerial 
navigation within the last ten years than 
there had been before in the century that 
had passed since the Montgolfier brothers 
invented the first balloon. The most dis¬ 
tinguished success has been made by a 
young Brazilian, M. Santos-Dumont, whose 
experiments, continued at great expense 
and with untiring energy for several years, 
at last brought him international fame. 
During his experiments in Paris in the 
summer of 1901, the young inventor suc¬ 
ceeded in driving his aerial ship a distance 
of ten miles in forty minutes, and per¬ 
formed evolutions which showed that he 
had his craft under complete control during 
the trial. Paris has always been the center 
of activity in aerial navigation, and a large 
club of aeronauts has helped to stimulate 
general interest in the conquest of the air. 
One of the members, M. Deutsch, in order 
to stimulate invention, offered a prize of 
100,000 francs ($20,000) for a successful 
balloon trip from St. Cloud around the Eif¬ 
fel Tower and return in forty minutes. 
Various inventors worked for this prize, 
which was finally won by the young Bra¬ 
zilian, who gave the entire sum to the char¬ 
ities of Paris. 

M. Santos-Dumont was born in Brazil in 


1873, and as a very young man became in¬ 
terested in aerial navigation. His first ex¬ 
periments were with spherical balloons, but 
he soon abandoned these for those of cylin¬ 
drical or cigar shape, and his triumphant 
success was gained with the fifth he con¬ 
structed. The balloon proper with which 
he won the large prize, was 111 feet long 
and twenty feet in diameter. Beneath the 



ROUNDING THE EIFFEL TOWER. 


257 















258 


The tOorld's Science and Indention 


balloon, suspended by steel wires, was a 
cradle fifty-nine feet long, composed of pine 
poles secured together at the ends and 
braced in skeleton fashion like the trusses 
of a bridge. This cradle contained a four- 
cylinder motor of sixteen horse-power. The 
screw propeller of the strange craft was at 
one end, and at the other the aeronaut sat, 
in a small basket, in reach of electric con- 


after handful of sand, and the balloon 
slowly rose higher and higher. The rudder 
worked well, and the balloon was turned 
upon its course directly toward the Eiffel 
Tower. The daring navigator rounded the 
great structure at a distance of not more 
than 300 feet from it, and at a height of 
some 500 feet above the ground. He re¬ 
turned again to the park whence he had 



THE SUCCESSFUL SANTOS-DUMONT AIR-SHIP. 


This is the vessel in which the young Brazilian inventor sailed from St. Cloud to the Eiffel Tower and 
back again, a total distance of 10 miles in 40 minutes, the most noteworthy 
achievement in the history of aerial navigation. 


nections which controlled the valves and 
rudder. 

The start was made from the huge shed 
at St. Cloud, on the banks of the Seine 
Fiver, near Paris. The sliding doors of 
the shed which sheltered the strange ship 
were opened at five o’clock in the morning, 
the craft was wheeled out into the open 
air, and the motor was given a turn. The 
ropes were cast off, the inventor took his 
seat in the basket, throwing out handful 


started, without the slightest difficulty, 
brought the machine to the ground unin¬ 
jured, and descended from his basket with 
the knowledge that he had outdone all his 
predecessors by this marvelous achieve¬ 
ment. Never halting in his experiments, 
Santos-Dumont constructed another and 
yet another of his air ships, each an im¬ 
provement on its predecessor, and contin¬ 
ued his aerial voyages on the Mediterra¬ 
nean coast and at other places in France. 










The XOorld's Science and Indention 


259 


It was as a result of this triumph that the 
directors of the St. Louis World’s Fair de¬ 
cided to offer large prizes for achievements 
in controllable air ships, to be exhibited at 
the Louisiana Purchase Exposition. 

Inventors have been at work on the prob¬ 
lems of aerial navigation for a long time, 
and the experiments, roughly speaking, 
have been in three directions. The bal¬ 
loon which supports itself and additional 
weight by the buoyancy of its contents, to 
be propelled by a motor and directed by a 
rudder, has been the favorite theory upon 
which to work. The true flying machine, 
which without buoyancy of its own should 
be supported and propelled as birds are, by 
an actual flapping wing-motion, is the second 
direction in which inventors have worked, 
and with less success. The aeroplane has 
been the third fundamental theory upon 
which inventors have labored. The kite it¬ 
self is the most primary of the aeroplanes, 
supporting itself as it does, not by any nat¬ 
ural buoyancy, but entirely by the pressure 
of the air against its surface. Three note¬ 
worthy inventors, Lilienthal, Maxim and 
Chanute, are best known in this line of 
experiments. They have worked in the 
same direction with a considerable degree 
of success. The idea is that a combination 
of plane surfaces, properly adjusted and 
balanced, would enable the navigator to re¬ 
main in the air by soaring, just as a bird 
may do with outstretched wings. 

The most practical use of balloons thus 
far has been made in warfare and in mili¬ 
tary experiments. The idea of using bal¬ 
loons in war is more than 100 vears old, 
the first attempt made to put the project 
into execution being in France in 1794. 
Napoleon organized a balloon corps for his 
second campaign in Egypt, but before it 


could be employed, the wagons containing 
the materials were captured by the British. 
During the siege of Paris in 1870, balloons 
were used extensively, and news was car¬ 
ried by that means from the beleaguered 
city to the provinces. 

There is a military school of ballooning 
at Aldershot, where every balloon intended 
for the service is tested, where those whose 
business it is to use the balloons are in¬ 
structed, and where all sorts of experiments 
are carried on. All the nations of Europe 
are engaged in attempting to bring the 
science of aerial navigation to perfection. 
It is no doubt a serious matter to consider 
that if ever the science were really made 
practical, the finest navy afloat' could not 
stop the destruction of a city by a military 
balloon armed with explosives. 

The latest improvement in war balloons 
comes from Germany, and experiments 
have been conducted in England with bal¬ 
loons of the same type. They are strange- 
looking objects, like a huge sausage float¬ 
ing in the air, instead of the familiar shape. 
Hitherto the wind has been the greatest 
difficulty to overcome in this science. Even 
a moderate wind was sufficient to prevent 
the huge sphere of the familiar type of bal¬ 
loon from rising to a great height. The 
new invention provides for an airship of 
great length and comparatively small diam¬ 
eter, floating at an angle of about 45 de¬ 
grees to the horizon. It rises in the air on 
a slant somewhat like a kite, and a smaller 
balloon, towed astern of it, acting like the 
tail of a kite, assists in keeping the balloon 
in the desired position and helps to main¬ 
tain its steadiness. Oscillation is largely ob¬ 
viated, and special advantages for photog¬ 
raphy are thus afforded. The basket is 
hung to the rear end, and from it extends 


260 


The t&Jorld’s Science and Indention 


a cable which holds the balloon and the 
telephone wires by which communication 
is maintained. By such a captive balloon 
battles may be viewed from a distance, for¬ 
tifications may be inspected, and other mili¬ 
tary objects may be attained. 

No longer do scientists and mechanical 
engineers discredit the possibility of a prac¬ 
tical flying machine or airship. Such a 
successful invention will be no more won¬ 
derful than other triumphs of genius which 
the last few years have seen, and it seems 
a reasonable prospect that we are on the 
verge of a successful aerial invention. 


TRIUMPHS OF PHOTOGRAPHY 

Photographs taken from a balloon high 
in the air, and showing clearly great com¬ 
mercial or landscape scenes, with a camera 
as large as a small room, are the latest de¬ 
velopments of the photographer’s art and 
industry. Views including thousands of 
men and women, actually recognizable by 
their friends, can be made when occasion 
demands. The progress of photography at 
this time is so rapid that one hesitates to 
limit its possibilities by any prediction. 

Long before books were made, before 
even paper and printing were invented, 



PREPARING TO TAKE A GREAT PHOTOGRAPH. 

The view of the Chicago Stock Yards, taken from the balloon high in the air, is one of the most 

noteworthy achievements of photography. 




















2G1 


The XOorld's Science and Indention 


back in the childhood of the race, primi¬ 
tive man recorded the events of his life and 
the manners and customs of the times by 
inscriptions carved in the face of the eter¬ 
nal rock. It was before the time of written 
words or even an alphabet. And so these 
early historians wrote their works in that 
most graphic of all manners, by making 
pictures. It is a self-evident fact that crude 
as are the drawings in stone that have come 
down to us through the ages, they give us 
a far better idea of life as it was than could 
be possible if instead of pictures they had 
merely described things in the simple 
words of a primitive language. Art is the 
universal language, understood by all, need¬ 
ing no translator for a picture of things as 
they are. 

So it has been through all the ages and 
so it is to-day, that pictorial representations 
have been not merely an important adjunct 
to literature, but in many ways have sur¬ 
passed it in the popular view. Descriptive 
matter combined with illustrations, pre¬ 
sents subjects with clearness to the inquirer, 
but if only one can be chosen there are 
many instances in which the picture would 
tell the story better than would the text 
alone. 

The first photograph made in England 
in 1802, or even the first product of the per¬ 
fected apparatus in 1841, will hardly sug¬ 
gest the same processes that are used now 
in these most wonderful modern pictures. 
Within the last fifteen years of the nine¬ 
teenth century such advances were made as 
naturally led up to the most conspicuous 
triumph of all. The old wet plate or col¬ 
lodion process of photography, with its 
slow exposure, was superseded by the dry 
plate, rapid in action and convenient to 
handle. Two dozen dry plates could be 



THE LARGEST CAMERA EVER MADE. 

handled with more ease than a single one 
of the old-fashioned kind, and so amateur 
photography spread until hand cameras be¬ 
came almost as common in the household as 
stereoscopes used to be. The invention of 
the transparent film of celluloid, wrapped 
in black paper and wound on a spool like 
ribbon, so that it could be placed in the 
camera by daylight, made it possible to do 
away with glass plates for photographs, and 
travelers consequently could provide them¬ 
selves with material for a thousand pic¬ 
tures, more easily than for two dozen under 
the old regime. 

To-day photography is recognized alike 
as an industry, a science, and an art. The 
public demands photographic illustrations 
for its books and its magazines, remaining 
no longer contented with imaginative views, 
skilfully painted, drawn or engraved by a 
fallible artist. Nature has become the one 
acceptable illustrator. At the behest of the 
photographer, by his lenses, his sensitive 
































262 


The XOorld*f Science and Indention 


plates, and his paper, the sun itself im¬ 
prints the image of whatever scene is to be 
recorded, and gives it to us with the certifi¬ 
cate of nature’s truth. Such a work as the 
volume in hand, illustrated as it is by hun¬ 
dreds of photographs gathered from all the 
world, could not have been produced at all 
except by the aid of this graphic art. With 
the best illustrations possible otherwise, it 
would have cost many times as much as it 
does, while being in no degree comparable 
with the work as it now stands. So it is 
that the industry and ^art of the photog¬ 
rapher, and the science of the inventive 
genius which has developed the camera, 
make it possible to bring to every reader a 
clear perception of the great and interesting 
things of all the world in such a form. 

To-day every land is the scene of the 
photographer’s labors. The explorers who 
make a dash for the north pole, they who 
penetrate the jungles of Central Africa, 
and they who surmount the highest peaks 
of the Andes, in every instance depend on 
the camera as a truthful witness of what is 
found. Great historical occasions, political 
events, commercial scenes, all are the sub¬ 
ject of photography. Books of natural his¬ 
tory, formerly illustrated by conventional 
drawings from stuffed birds and animals, 
now have photographic representations of 
the wild creatures of the forest, taken in 
their own habitat, by patient, wary lovers 
of nature. Such great institutions as the 
Chicago Stock Yards, large business of¬ 
fices and factories, immense popular gath¬ 
erings and the like, many of which are in¬ 
cluded in this volume, are now the subject 
of the photographer’s skill. Is it not a 
manifest fact that we would know far 
more about the life and manners of our 
ancestors, their homes and their cities even 


one century ago, if an art thus developed 
had been at their command, by which they 
might have left true records in pictorial 
form ? Is it not likewise true that our de¬ 
scendants a hundred years later, by means 
of such collections of photographs, will 
have a clearer view of the world as it is 
to-day than they could have by any other 
record that we can leave to them ? 

The great camera with which these larg- 



READY FOR A FARM PICTURE. 

Showing the great camera on a specially erected 
tower, with a range of many miles. 










% & Su - **%-i 




'mm. 


- -k^A 




v * ■' u 


■ 


'W. v - -*SF- 


'O <*-• 


'O (V> 


a ^ 










Photographed oo «h. Crosse Point, race track hear Demit, rrh,»*l«.«der 




























264 


The ¥Oortd f f Science and Indention 


est views are taken, measures eight by four 
and one-half feet, and one sensitive plate 
for a single photographic exposure costs 
$500. For bird’s-eye views of cities, farms, 
industrial and manufacturing plants, rail¬ 
way yards, stock yards, and the like, where 
no suitable elevation exists, a balloon is used 
to hoist the camera and the photographer 
far above the earth while he takes the 
picture. Farm views of property for sale 
are used by agents in the finding of buyers, 
and such views are likewise becoming pop¬ 
ular among farmers themselves who take 
pride in their property. For such a 
picture, the camera may be mounted high 
in a treetop. Great business concerns use 
such photographs to advertise their enter¬ 
prises, and thus photography in this most 
striking development of the art, becomes 
a recognized industry. 

, 5 * & 

THE AUTOMOBILE AND ITS 
DEVELOPMENT 

Automobiles have become so common in 
the streets of the larger American cities, 
that except when some novel design makes 
its first appearance there is no longer any 
special attention given them as they pass. 
The bicycle itself became a familiar sight 
hardly more rapidly than has the automo¬ 
bile, in the very few years since it was put 
on the market as a practical road machine. 
Scientists and inventors have been busy 
perfecting the various power-appliances 
and running-gear utilized; capitalists have 
hurried their investments into great manu¬ 
factories for the construction of self-pro¬ 
pelling vehicles, and the public has been 
prompt to respond to the attractions of the 
swift and comfortable conveyance as per¬ 
fected by the energetic business concerns 


that placed them on the market. The strik¬ 
ing rapidity with which these contrivances 
have come to be used, and the manifest 
possibilities which they have in their per¬ 
fected forms, have created a phrase “the 
Horseless Age,” for these years of activity 
in such inventions. 

Ever since the steam engine itself was 
invented and the locomotive adapted from 
it, there have been efforts made to build 
practical self-propelling road machines 
which would not require a track. Heavy 
traction engines and steam rollers for road 
improvement have been quite generally em¬ 
ployed, but they have never taken such a 
form as would make them available as pas¬ 
senger or pleasure vehicles. About 1890 
French inventors turned their attention in 
this direction, and till a few years ago 
virtually all the progress that had been 
made was in France. Then American 
energy and ingenuity likewise became in¬ 
terested, and since then France and the 
United States have been rivals in the race 
for improvement in automobiles. 

Thanks to the larger leisure class of 
wealthy men with time and money for ex¬ 
perimentation and touring, automobiles 
have multiplied in France far more rapidly 
than in this country. In 1899 there were 
but 1,672 of the “horseless carriages” in 
France. One year later there were 5,286. 
In 1901 the number was above 9,000, and 
the increase still continues with the same 
rapidity. Of course the uniform excellence 
of the roads throughout France and most 
of the other European countries helped to 
advance the development of the motor car¬ 
riage. With us, except in limited districts, 
the country roads are not such as to en¬ 
courage touring, and the vehicles conse¬ 
quently have been confined to the cities. 


The tOorld** Science and Indention 


265 


The movement for road improvement and 
the rapid introduction of automobiles 
should be effective allies for each other. 
Good roads throughout the country will 
make the use of the automobile possible 
where now it is impossible, and the multi¬ 
plication of such vehicles in villages and 
on farms will help to stimulate local pride 
for the improvement of the roads. 

Self propelling vehicles, or automobiles, 
are now built in scores of patterns and are 
adapted to every sort of use. Light pleas¬ 
ure carriages, omnibuses, delivery wagons 
and heavy drays alike are seen on the 
streets of cities. In Paris the fire depart¬ 
ment uses an electric automobile, and in 
other cities the chiefs employ light vehicles 
for their own use in going to fires. The 


mail is gathered for the postoffices of sev¬ 
eral of the larger cities by large wagons 
equipped with motors. Ambulance and 
ammunition wagons have been equipped 
with motors by the French military authori¬ 
ties, and railway hand cars driven by light 
gasoline engines are in use. 

It has been difficult for designers to com¬ 
pletely abandon the forms of vehicles that 
have developed under former conditions. 
One great trouble with the motor carriage, 
in the judgment of most critics, is that it 
does not get far enough away from its pred¬ 
ecessors, and makes too evident the fact 
that it is really a “horseless carriage.” Of 
late there is a tendency to more graceful 
designs, smaller wheels and less gearing. 

For pleasure uses and for practical busi- 



READY FOR A WINTER SPIN THROUGH THE COUNTRY. 


































266 


The XXJorid** Science and Indention 


ness it is necessary to provide a vehicle as 
light as possible for the necessary strength 
required. A cheap and reliable motive 
power, without noise and without odor, is 
likewise a requisite. Five or six different 
power mechanisms are used, of which elec¬ 
tricity, steam and gasoline are the most 
popular. Compressed air and liquid air 
are also the object of experiments, with 
varying degree of success. 

Henri Fournier, who is recognized as, 
perhaps, the leading automobilist of the 
world, prefers a hydro-carbon engine, and 
all his own road machines are thus fitted. 
With such a motor he rode from Paris to 
Bordeaux, a distance of 348 miles, eighteen 
miles of it through cities, in six hours, 
forty-four minutes and forty-four seconds. 
The 330 miles along open roads he covered 
at an average of fifty-three miles an hour, 
and for some of the way he was traveling 
at seventy miles an hour. The fastest train 
in Europe requires an hour longer to make 
the same trip. In a race from Paris to 
Berlin, 744 miles, he covered the distance 
in sixteen hours and six minutes. Ho such 
American speed records for such distances 
have been made, but for short runs some as¬ 
tonishing achievements are recorded. On 
Eovember 16, 1901, at Prospect Park, 
Brooklyn, Fournier himself made a mile 
in fifty-one and four-fifths seconds, which 
is the world’s record for a straight boule¬ 
vard run. Three weeks before, all Ameri¬ 
can track records up to ten miles were bro- 

* 

ken by Alexander Winton of Cleveland, at 
Detroit. His fastest mile was made in one 
minute, six and two-fiftlis seconds, while 
he covered ten miles in eleven minutes and 
nine seconds. 

But the automobile is not merely a con¬ 
veyance for speed and pleasure. In 1901, 


a Chicago enthusiast made a cross-country 
tour of 2,600 miles over the typical Ameri¬ 
can country roads, without once requiring 
the attention of an expert mechanic for his 
motor or his vehicle. The Sierra Eevada 
Mountains were crossed during the month 
of May, 1901, at a season when the snow- 
covered mountain trails were not considered 
fit for horse traffic. Pike’s Peak, too, has 
been surmounted by at least one automo¬ 
bile. The hill-climbing capacity of the per¬ 
fected machine is something astonishing. 
For city use the electric vehicle has been 
favored, because of its simplicity, cleanli¬ 
ness and silence. Equipped with storage 
batteries as it is, it must be recharged fre¬ 
quently, however, and consequently is not 
yet available for use throughout the coun¬ 
try. As storage batteries are steadily im¬ 
proving and electric power plants are mul¬ 
tiplying all over the country, this form of 
machine is certain to become even more 
available and popular. With the same bat¬ 
tery the current not only operates the motor 
for the wheel, but also lights the lamps and 
rings the alarm gong. The machines oper¬ 
ated by gasoline, either through a modifica¬ 
tion of the ordinary gasoline engine or by 
steam heated from a gasoline flame, are in¬ 
dependent of the cities and charging sta¬ 
tions, for that volatile liquid can be ob¬ 
tained for a few cents a gallon wherever 
one goes. 

The expense of machines has been great 
enough to forbid their general use, ranging 
as they do all the way from $600 to $4,000. 
But as the machines gain in simplicity they 
reduce in cost. Already devices have been 
planned by which any vehicle may be tem¬ 
porarily converted into an automobile. A 
front axle carries a motor between its two 
wheels, and this axle may be attached to 


The &Jortd*s Science and Indention 


267 


any carriage or wagon as a substitute for 
its own equipment. With this appliance 
perfected, the farmer, for instance, with 
one of them, could change it from surrey 
or spring wagon to liaycart or lumber 
wagon, and have as many automobiles at 
will as he had vehicles. It may be long 
before the phrase “horseless age” becomes 
even approximately true, but beyond ques¬ 
tion the applications of electricity and other 
motive power to a multitude of the uses 
where horses have been employed will work 
a great change within the next few years. 

jt & 

THE ROENTGEN OR “X” RAYS 

It is barely five years since the announce¬ 
ment was made through the press that a 
discovery had been made by which pictures 


can be taken showing the interior of the 
human body. The announcement was 
greeted with widespread incredulity at the 
time, but within the five years that have 
elapsed, the public has become entirely fa¬ 
miliar with the pictures and the phenom¬ 
ena involved in their production, and the 
stage of wonderment has almost passed. 

The discoverer was Professor Roentgen 
of Wurzburg University, Germany, whose 
experiments, carried on through a consid¬ 
erable period, had reached this triumphant 
conclusion. The rays utilized for this pur¬ 
pose are developed by the Crookes tube, the 
invention of a famous English chemist. As 
the peculiar electrical rays thus generated 
and identified by Professor Roentgen were 
hitherto unknown, he used to designate 
them the algebraic term of X, meaning an 



A ROENTGEN RAY PHOTOGRAPH OF A BROKEN ARM. 
A fracture of the ulna, with dislocation of the radius. 





268 


The tOortd's Science and Indention 


unknown quantity. His fellow scientists 
throughout the world, recognizing his note¬ 
worthy contribution to science, promptly 
named them the Roentgen rays, and it is 
by this name that they are properly known, 
although the popular usage still applies the 
characterization of X rays. 

Until the discovery of these rays and the 
application of them to practical use, it was 
impossible for surgeons to he absolutely 
sure of the location of bodily injuries or 
the condition they would find within the 
body, until after an operation. By their 
means, however, it is now possible for the 
surgeon to examine fractures or the condi¬ 
tion of the lungs, to trace the location of a 
bullet, or to make such other examination 
of internal ailments as is necessary. It has 
been possible to use the rays so that a bullet 
lodged against a man’s heart was photo¬ 
graphed before removal and was then taken 
out and the recovery of the man assured. 
Foreign growths in the lungs, pins and 
needles which have penetrated into the 
body, broken ribs, swallowed buttons, and 
all such things can be examined with care 
prior to the operation, so that the necessary 
surgery can be performed with the least 
danger to the patient. Hie use of these 
rays is not objectionable nor painful to the 
patient, except when experiments are made 
repeatedly upon the same person, when 
sometimes the weakening of certain vital 
organs has resulted. It is a recognized dis¬ 
covery in surgery that is utilized in all the 
principal hospitals of the world as a meas¬ 
ure of the greatest value. 

Brain specialists have hailed with joy 
the X ray as a medium for learning 
whether clots of blood are pressing on cer¬ 
tain parts of the brain, thereby causing in¬ 
sanity or inaction of some of the faculties. 


One well-known lawyer in a fight with bur¬ 
glars received a severe blow on the head 
which rendered him insane at times. By 
means of a skiagraph or X ray picture, a 
shadow was seen that indicated a pressure 
on one of the brain convolutions. A cleft 
was made in the skull, the pressure re¬ 
moved, small bone particles placed over the 
cleft and the skin replaced. Apparently 
the lawyer’s reason was restored. 

In stomach diseases it has been verv dif- 

o 

ficult to locate enlargements or to indicate 

c 

conditions of the membranes. Recently 
saturated chemical solutions impervious to 
the X rays have been poured into the stom¬ 
ach, and skiagraphs taken which resulted 
in remarkable discoveries. Other uses of 
these rays are constantly coming before the 
public. Some time ago a Chicagoan suf¬ 
fered great agony from what seemed to be 
an abscess behind the base of the nose. Bv 
means of the Roentgen rays a skiagraph 
show T ed that the sufferer had in the cavity 
at the back of his nose a small sac con¬ 
taining thirty-two miniature teeth. An 
operation was performed successfully, but 
for which the patient might have died. It 
is hinted that mental conditions are ex¬ 
pected to be discovered by the aid of this 
remarkable light. Certainly nearly every 
other malady has been treated with a meas¬ 
ure of success. The heart can be seen beat¬ 
ing in one’s breast, and enlargements or 
diseases can be promptly treated. Con¬ 
sumption of the lungs is discernible before 
it reaches its last stages, and ruptures, 
fractures and the presence of foreign sub¬ 
stances can at once be noted. 

Apart from medical use the X ray was 
recently employed to explore the interior of 
a mummy casket that had never been 
opened since the time that some old Egyp- 


The XVorld’s Science and Indention 


269 


tian Pharaoh had been wrapped in his belonged could not be ascertained, were eas- 
burial clothes. Also mummified animals, ily classified after skiagraphs had been 
so dried up that the family to which they made of their bones and skulls. 



HATPIN IN THE STOMACH OF A THREE-YEAR-OLD CHILD. 

The hatpin shows with the head downward in the stomach. It was removed by operation. The hatpin 

was six and one-half inches long. 



270 


The 'World's Science and Indention 


Some noteworthy experiments have been 
made which display the remarkable scope 
of the application of the Roentgen rays. 
Coins inside of pocketbooks, the lead in 
a pencil, the kernel of walnuts within the 
shells, and spectacles within their cases, 
have been photographed. Fish, mice, and 
frogs have been photographed, showing the 
skeletons. 

The ordinary camera may be used in 
photographing by the Roentgen rays. A 
sensitive plate is laid in a box, face down¬ 
ward, over the subject to be photographed. 
The Crookes tube which develops the ray is 
placed under the table or stretcher on 
which the subject is resting and the light 
passes through the patient’s body and 
prints a shadow picture on the plate. In 
the original experiments, there was great 
danger of burning the patient by the elec¬ 
trical current developed, but this has been 
obviated by more improved appliances. 
The electrical current itself is produced by 
the static machine and this current passes 
through the Crookes tube and illuminates 
whatever part of the body it is desired to 
examine. 

It is apparent that the possible uses of 
such a discovery are manifold, and its value 
is impossible to be measured. With the 
whole human body thus subject to careful 
examination, it is a guard against unneces¬ 
sary or misdirected surgery. Thus is one 
more scientific discovery added to the list 
of those of noteworthy importance, not 
merely in the limited circles of special stu¬ 
dents, but to the whole world. 

There can be no monopoly in brains, and 
no monopoly of the benefits which come to 
the world from such great scientific achieve¬ 
ments. We all share the advantages of in¬ 
tellectual progress, whatever its form. 


MODERN DEVELOPMENTS OF 
ELECTRICITY 

Electricity is a force of nature which is 
utilized in almost every department of 
industrial activity to-day. Its applications 
are so varied in the transmission of power, 
light and intelligence, that it is no longer 
possible to ignore it in the development of 
any great mechanical and industrial enter¬ 
prise or even in the common activities of 
life. It is not necessary to turn to such re¬ 
cent applications of electricity as wireless 
telegraphy, Roentgen rays and the like, to 
be impressed by its importance. 

It is the electric telegraph which trans- 










The XOorld’s Science and Indention 


271 


mits our messages from town to town, the 
world over, in the twinkling of an eye. It 
is the telephone, perfected by careful ex¬ 
perimentation, that enables us to commu¬ 
nicate by ordinary conversation between 
persons not only within the same town, 
but a thousand miles apart. It is the elec¬ 
tric trolley car which has speedily sup¬ 
planted almost all other systems of street 
railway transportation. The European 
cities are following those of America in 
this manner, and trolley-lines are being 
constructed all over the world as fast as 
the multitude of electrical supply and 
manufacturing companies can produce the 
materials. It is within comparatively re¬ 
cent years that we had the first introduction 
of the electric light, both arc and incandes¬ 
cent, and vet now it is almost universally 
used in cities for all public purposes, and 


is rapidly extending into the smaller towns. 
Pictures are sent by telegraph so that an 
artist in one city may transmit them in¬ 
stantly to another city, in complete repro¬ 
duction. 

Experiments have shown that plants may 
be grown under the electric light almost as 
successfully as under the sunlight. It is in 
St. Petersburg that the most important ex¬ 
periments in this direction have been made. 
Owing to the long winters in.the far north, 
during which the daylight is brief, in con¬ 
servatories it was found difficult to produce 
thrifty plants and flowers at this season. 
It was this that stimulated the experiments 
with electricitv, and it was found that the 
artificial light completely supplemented the 
light of the sun. In addition to this, elec¬ 
trical currents have been used directly to 
stimulate plant growing with good results. 



ELECTRICAL ILLUMINATION OF A CITY STREET. 














272 


The 'World's Science and Indention 


In telegraphy various improvements 
have been made, among others being one 
invention by which the typewriter and the * 
telegraph instrument are combined. The 
wires are attached to a sort of electrical 
typewriter, which, upon being operated, 
sets in motion a similar machine at the 
other end. The operator transmitting the 
message merely writes it by playing on the 


keys of the machine before him, and it is 
recorded at the receiving station, wliere- 
ever that may be. By perfecting this sys¬ 
tem the transmission of newspaper cor¬ 
respondence will be greatly facilitated, for 
the correspondent himself may dispatch his 
account of events, without the aid of a 
telegraph operator. Another recent inven¬ 
tion in telegraphy is a method of perforat¬ 
ing strips of paper with a machine similar 
to a typewriter, and then placing these 
strips in a sending device which transmits 


the messages at a rate of 10,000 words an 
hour or even more. Such a machine makes 
it unnecessary to duplicate telegraph wires, 
by the additional speed attained. As many 
strips as can be prepared by a number of 
men can be sent over a single wire in a 
few minutes. 

The developments of trolley lines are 
numerous. In addition to the well-known 

street railway systems 
operated by overhead 
trolleys, there are other 
modifications of this 
method of power-trans¬ 
mission which have not 
yet come into general 
use. The underground 
trolley, favored because 
it obviates the necessity 
of using the unsightly 
poles and dangerous 
wires of the overhead 
system, is utilized in a 
number of progressive 
cities, and beyond ques¬ 
tion will come into 
more general use. The 
modern elevated rail¬ 
ways of Chicago and 
other cities are oper¬ 
ated by what is known as the third- 
rail system, which is in effect a modi¬ 
fication of the underneath trollev. The 
underground railways of New York, Bos¬ 
ton, London and several European cities, 
which have been extending very rapidly 
within the last few years, are all operated 
by electricity and the tunnels themselves 
are brilliantly lighted by the same force. 
Canal boats are operated by trolley on sev¬ 
eral European canals, and the system is 
under consideration for introduction in 



DYNAMOS OF AN ELECTRIC LIGHT PLANT. 

















The tOGrids Science and Indention 


273 




some American 
canals. Trolley 
cars are oper- 
ated on the 
streets of some 
European cities 
without tracks 
and large quan¬ 
tities of freight 
are transported 
in this manner. 

Electrici t y 
has a peculiar 
convenience of 
transmiss ion 
from the fact 
that its power 
can be conduct¬ 
ed for long dis¬ 
tances over 
wires with com¬ 
paratively slight 
loss. Dynamos 


perated by trackless trolley car. 

waterfalls and rapids 
have been installed in 
various places with 
great success. The most 
noteworthy of these un¬ 
dertakings is at Ni¬ 
agara Falls. The great 
cataract now generates 
the electric power for a 
large number of facto¬ 
ries in the vicinity, for 
the street railways and 
electric lights of Buf¬ 
falo, and for various 
other industrial pur¬ 
poses. The total power 
now developed and util- 

switch ROOM OF Niagara falls power house. ized by the works at 





























274 


The tOorld's Science and Indention 


Niagara is about 50,000 horse-power. The 
flow of water over the falls is 275,000 cubie 
feet a second, or 500,000 tons per minute. 
A canal has been cut on the American side, 
taking water from the river above the falls, 
and leading it to a great pit into which it 
plunges, operating a series of turbine en¬ 
gines which connect with the dynamos. It 
is estimated that works could be constructed 
sufficient to develop 7,500,000 horse-power 
from the falls, so that the 50,000 horse¬ 
power now utilized may be many times mul¬ 
tiplied. The result of this enterprise has 
been the rapid growth of the city of Niagara 


Tails and the multiplication of large fac¬ 
tories and industries there. 

At various other cities, particularly in 
the west, waterfalls have been used for the 
development of electrical power, and many 
street railways and electric lighting plants 
are operated by currents transmitted for 
many miles from the source of the power. 

The applications of electrical power are 
so numerous that they cannot even be cat¬ 
alogued. Great factory machinery is run 
by electricity; bridges are turned or hoisted 
bv the invisible current; elevators and 
automobiles utilize the same power. In 



A TROLLEY-CAR SNOW-PLOW ON A MONTREAL STREET RAILWAY. 










The 'World’s Science and Indention 


275 


fact the mere listing of the uses of elec¬ 
tricity, industrial, scientific and otherwise, 
would make a chapter, as truly a chapter of 
wonders as this modern industrial age and 
its allies, science and invention, can offer. 

E. E. Eines, an Indianapolis electrician, 
has invented an incandescent bulb by which 
the degrees of illumination may be varied. 
He has been working on it for years, and 
finally completed a lamp that is a success. 

His invention is especially designed for 
dwellings, hotels and hospitals. He has 
taken an ordinary sixteen-candle-power 
globe and arranged it so that it may be 
turned to use eight, four, or two, candle- 
power. This is done by using connections 
that are different from the old style, and 
two filaments—the little wires that curve 
around the inside of the bulb. 

By turning the globe a little the light 
may be reduced from sixteen to eight 
candle power. A little farther reduces it 
to four, and still farther to two. Then, if 
it is desired to have sixteen power again, 
one just turns it back and the light burns 
bright. The advantages of this system in a 
sick-room will be appreciated by the hos¬ 
pital authorities. 

Rines is a graduate of Cooper Institute 
and Columbia College and worked twelve 
vears with Thomas A. Edison. 

“I have had practical as well as technical 
tests made of this lamp,” he said. “It con¬ 
sumes three and one-half watts per candle 
power per hour, which is the same as any 
high-grade, high-efficiency standard lamp. 
When one filament is burning full eight 
candle-power, it consumes twenty-eight 
watts per hour. When burning two candle- 
power two filaments dark, red or in series, 
it consumes seven watts an hour for a night 
lamp. The two candle-power will save 


forty-nine watts an hour. On ordinary 
lighting an eight candle-power lamp, which 
is generally used, will save twenty-eight 
watts an hour. When burning sixteen 
candle-power, the two filaments in multiple, 
this lamp will save over the average lamp 
one-fourth to two and one-half watts an 
hour. Its life will equal those of any three 
standard lamps. In consequence of cur¬ 
rent this lamp will save 13,650 watts in 
500 hours, the life of an ordinary lamp.” 

je <£ ji 

BASKET MAKING 

BY MACHINERY 

Two billion baskets of fruit are marketed 
annually in the United States and the de¬ 
mand for such baskets is increasing at the 
rate of 150,000,000 per year. The peaches 
and the berries must be shipped into the 
cities with the utmost rapidity and regu¬ 
larity, in order to take advantage of the 
best market conditions, and obtain the best 
prices for the products. So it is that one 
of the most important departments in the 
freight service of American railways is that 
which gives its attention to these shipments. 
So it is that during the summer season, to 
offer a single example, the fleet of vessels 
plying across Lake Michigan between Chi¬ 
cago and the ports of the State of Michigan, 
are filled to the limit of their capacity with 
luscious cargoes of peaches and berries. 

A recently perfected invention in the in¬ 
terest of the fruit grower is recognized as of 
the highest importance in this enormous 
traffic. These 2,000,000,000 baskets have 
been made by hand, and, of course, 
although the price has seemed low, there 
has been an immense waste of labor in this 
process. Machines have now been in¬ 
vented and are in practical operation, by 


276 


The XOoriel's Science and Indention 


which these baskets are made automatically, 
doing away with hand work, .and enabling 
one girl and one machine to do the work 
of twelve men. The names of the two in¬ 
ventors who have shared in this noteworthy 
achievement have given to the invention the 
name of the Mergenthaler-IIorton Basket 
Machine. The former was already famous 
as the inventor of the type-setting machine, 
which has revolutionized the mechanical 


departments of newspaper offices. The new 
invention is considered quite as great a 
triumph. Hand labor in such affairs can¬ 
not hope to compete with the production of 
perfect machines. Already the baskets thus 
automatically produced have proved so suc¬ 
cessful that commission merchants urge 
that their shippers pack in such baskets, 
because they are stronger and more shape¬ 
ly and satisfactory. 

The various patterns of machines that 
are made, are adapted to turn out baskets 
of various sizes and shapes according to the 


demand of the trade. A single machine 
will turn out, day after day, over 4,000 
complete grape baskets. A single berry bas¬ 
ket machine will turn out 12,000 complete 
quart berry baskets a day or twenty baskets 
a minute. The machines work with almost 
human ingenuity, and with a jmecision 
characteristic of the mechanical exactness 
of the mind of a great inventor. It is diffi¬ 
cult to give any idea of the impression this 

machine creates 
upon the mind 
of one who ob¬ 
serves the work 
for the first 
time. The end¬ 
less stream of 
baskets coming 
from the ma¬ 
chine at the 
rate of twenty a 
minute, abso¬ 
lutely complete 
and perfect in 
every respect, 
with the raw 
material in the 
shape of long 
strips of wood 
fed into the opposite side, can¬ 
not be satisfactorily shown by any photo¬ 
graph. In the three seconds necessary 
to turn out such a complete basket, the 
sides and the bottom are formed of 
crossed sheets of wood of appropriate 
shape, bent by means of a form and a die, 
secured at their edges by wrapped bands 
inside and outside the edges, and 
strongly nailed by staples cut into proper 
lengths from a roll of wire, bent and driven 
firmly into the wood. The grape baskets 
are made on similar principles. 



GRAPE BASKET MACHINE IN OPERATION. 

bein; 







The ^COortd's Science and Indention 


m 


LIQUID AIR. 

Liquid air seems almost a contradiction 
in terms at first thought and jet scientists 
are able to liquefy not only air but many 
other gases, while they can also turn solids 
into liquid, and the resulting liquid into 
gases. It is all a matter of temperature 
and pressure. Charles E. Tripler, a scien¬ 
tist of New York City, is the one who made 
liquid air familiarly known, cheapened its 
production and applied it to practical com¬ 
mercial purposes. He was not, however, 
the pioneer in the experiments. Scientists 
had long observed that to compress a gas 
into a reduced volume, raised its tempera¬ 
ture greatly. The heat thus resulting was 
believed to be generated by the pressure ap¬ 
plied, but experiments soon proved it was 
not caused by the actual increase of heat of 
the whole body, but rather by the concen¬ 
tration of the heat of the entire mass into 
the smaller space. 

Experiments next showed that if this gas 
under pressure was cooled, and then al¬ 
lowed to expand to its former volume, it 
would fall greatly in temperature, and in 
practice a drop of 200 degrees was readily 
obtained. Scientists made little headway 
in the effort to liquefy air, until 1877, 
when a French experimenter named Raoul 
Pictet submitted oxygen gas to a great pres¬ 
sure, combined with intense cold, and pro¬ 
duced a few drops of clear liquid that soon 
evaporated into the air after a few mo¬ 
ments of violent bubbling. Fifteen years 
later, in 1892, there was a like success with 
nitrogen, the other constituent of air. 
About the same time Professor Dewar of 
England performed the same experiments, 
and then succeeded in producing a small 
quantity of liquid air, or rather a sort of 
slush of air, water and ice. Professor De¬ 


war’s experiments aroused the utmost inter¬ 
est among scientists, but the cost of the ap¬ 
paratus and processes, which amounted to 
$3,000 for this first ounce of liquid air, 
limited it to laboratory experimentation. 

It was Professor Tripler who devised 
the means by which this wonderful product 
could be made with ease, at a cost of not 
more than twenty cents a gallon. His 
process comes as near being a practical 
form of the chimerical perpetual motion as 
can be conceived, for he utilized power gen¬ 
erated by the liquid air itself to produce 
more liquid air, and as the production from 
a given quantity is in each instance a larger 
quantity, there is the constant increase of 
power at command. After exhaustive in¬ 
vestigation of various ice-making and re¬ 
frigerating plants, such as are used in pack¬ 
ing houses and breweries, he devised the ap¬ 
paratus now in use. 

A typical apparatus includes a power 
plant operating an air compressor, and a 
barrel shaped tank about fifteen feet high, 
penetrated by a multitude of small pipes 
and valves, protected by felt and canvas to 
keep out the heat. It is arranged so that 
the expanding air, which constantly grows 
cooler, passes about the pipes containing 
the working material. Air is placed under 
a pressure of 2,500 pounds to the square 
inch, and cooled to about fifty degrees by 
being passed in pipes through cold running 
water. Next it is conveyed to the receiver 
through two sets of pipes, one containing 
the air to be liquefied, the other the air 
that does the work of liquefying, both un¬ 
der the same heavy pressure. By opening 
a tap in the receiver, the air from the latter 
pipe rushes up and around all the pipes in 
the barrel-like space, expanding, reducing 
the pressure, taking up the heat wherever 


278 


The ^COorld's Science and Indention 


any can be found, growing warmer, and 
gradually rising to the top of the space. 

During this process it is cooled, the air 
confined in the pipes and now gradually re¬ 
turning to the compressor, is again brought 
under pressure and cooled, only to be re¬ 
leased once more in the receiver to absorb 
more heat from the confined air in the 
pipes. This process is so rapid and so ef¬ 
fective, as the temperature of the air under 
treatment goes down in jumps of 100 de¬ 
grees every time it is treated to this chill¬ 
ing process, that it takes only fifteen 
minutes to produce the desired result. At 
the end of that time the faucet at the bot¬ 
tom may be opened, and the liquid air at 
a temperature of 312 degrees below zero 
begins to flow from the pipes. 

In order to preserve the product thus 
yielded, various devices have been pre¬ 
pared. Liquid air is of such an expand¬ 
ing nature that if confined it would ex¬ 
plode, so it is carried sometimes in a bulb 
of glass, surrounded by an outer vessel of 
glass, the two having a vacuum between 
them and joined in a common neck at the 
top. The vacuum delays the passage of 
heat, so that the evaporation of the liquid 
in the inner tube is reduced to a minimum. 
The cold, heavy mist that evaporates from 
the surface of the liquid and remains in the 
mouth of the bulb, helps to shield the rest 
of the contents to some extent. A similar 
vessel for commercial uses and the ship¬ 
ment of large quantities of the liquid, has 
been made from heavy tin, covered with 
felt and canvas. In a shipment of nine 
hours, air thus packed loses less than one- 
third of its bulk. 

The commercial possibilities of this pe¬ 
culiar product are hardly yet realized, al¬ 
though it is clearly understood that as a 


source of concentrated power it has great 
value. It is eleven and one-half times as 
powerful as compressed air, and yet it may 
be carried in a pasteboard box, while the 
heaviest steel tanks would be required to 
control as much energy in compressed air. 
Experiments are in jmogress in the labora¬ 
tory of Mr. Tripler all the time, looking to¬ 
ward the applications of liquid air for 
motive power. Airships are seeking some¬ 
thing that combines great power with light¬ 
ness; submarine navigators want an eco¬ 
nomical motive power and air for the 
crews to breath; deep sea divers hope that 
some service may be rendered to their peril¬ 
ous profession by the use of casks of the 
liquid adapted to their apparatus, and auto¬ 
mobiles have been adapted to this power. 
In mining, in the production of incandes¬ 
cent electric light bulbs, in surgery and in 
the production of explosives, the same pe¬ 
culiar substance has its manifest use. 

The degree of cold which this tempera¬ 
ture indicates is hard to realize. Mr. 
Tripler has appeared in public and per¬ 
formed many picturesque and striking ex¬ 
periments which indicate this. A rose may 
be frozen in its full form, or an egg be 
made so solid that when broken it will scat¬ 
ter like a powder. The surface of a frozen 
potato is as hard as stone and beautiful as 
ivory. Frozen butter may be pounded in 
a mortar until it is as fine as flour, and raw 
beef steak becomes pale and then breaks 
like petrified wood. We have generally 
considered mercury and alcohol as dif¬ 
ficult to freeze, but when they meet this 
powerful liquid, mercury becomes hard as 
a rock and alcohol a white, stringy sub¬ 
stance like molasses candy. Steel in bars 
may be readily reduced to flame by dip¬ 
ping it in a glass of this air and lighting it. 


The XOorld's Science and Indention 


279 



HOW THE PRISM ACTS. 

Showing ray of light from 
above, deflected to a horizon¬ 
tal course as it passes 
through the glass. 


LUXFER PRISMS AS LIGHT 
TRANSMITTERS 

While some scientists have been busy 
with new inventions for the production of 
improved light from electricity and gas, 
others have given their attention to the 

more effective use 
of the light which 
is free to all, that 
of the sun, which 
is the ultimate 
source of all light. 
The Luxfer 
prism, invented 
by a Canadian in¬ 
vestigator of the 
phenomena of 
light, J . G. 

Pennycuick, i s 
admittedly one of the most noteworthy of 
contributions to practical optics. 

Luxfer prisms are sheets of crystal glass 
having a smooth outer surface, and an inner 
surface divided into a series of small, accu¬ 
rately formed prisms. They can be united 
into plates of any size, to fit any window 
sash. The rays of light from without, that 
strike the smooth surface, penetrate it as 
they do any other glass. The prisms on 
the opposite surface, however, are set at 
such an angle that the light passing through 
them is refracted to a horizontal direction, 
and thus illuminates the room much far¬ 
ther from the window than is the case with 
ordinary, plane-surfaced glass. The dark 
comers are lighted, the gas and electric 
light bills are reduced, and all this without 
a meter to continually register the saving 
and bring in a charge for it. 

These prisms and their modified forms 
are applied to use in a multitude of ways. 


Large stores have them placed in the tran¬ 
som frames above the front windows, so that 
the rear of the long rooms may receive 
ample light. The same prisms placed like 
an awning in front of windows in a nar¬ 
row, shaded street, gather the scanty light 



LUXFER PRISMS IN USE. 

Illumination in a basement salesroom by means of 
prisms in the sidewalk. 


from above and deflect it into the building 
so equipped. Sidewalks made of Luxfer 
prisms receive the direct light from the 
sky on ( the upper face, and turn or refract 
it into the basement of the building ad¬ 
joining. It is said that more than five 
thousand prominent buildings throughout 
the United States installed Luxfer prisms 
within the first five years of their manu¬ 
facture. This is noteworthy evidence of the 
fact that new inventions that are of genu¬ 
ine value are sure to find welcome. 
























ON THE AUDITORIUM TOWER—HOME OF THE W T EATHER BUREAU IN CHICAGO. 

Here, 320 feet above the ground, the observations are made which help to forecast the weather for the 
Great Lakes region. The small tower with the encircling balcony is the signal 
service office, and the instruments are on the roof. 




































The 'World's Science and Indention 


281 


THE WEATHER BUREAU AND ITS WORK 


Before the invention of the electric tele¬ 
graph for the prompt communication neces¬ 
sary between various parts of the world, 
and the numerous special instruments de¬ 
vised by scientists for recording atmos¬ 
pheric conditions, people depended upon the 
opinions of keen local observers, whose ex¬ 
perience had taught them the significance 
of various visible signs. All sorts of tradi¬ 
tions and predictions that had come down 
from the past were heeded. The origin of 
scientific weather study is of comparatively 
recent date. Even now 
the value of it is not 
fully understood. The 
well-founded doubts 
and jests based upon 
the superseded method 
of predictions still re¬ 
main. People do not 
realize the completeness 
of the organization of 
the Weather Bureau 
and the real scientific accuracy of its work. 
A single error in a forecast becomes more 
conspicuous than a score of accurate pre¬ 
dictions, and the result is that the weather 
man is still not fully appreciated. 

The Weather Bureau of the United 
States Department of Agriculture publishes 
daily more than 100,000 weather bulletins, 
not counting the forecasts in the news¬ 
papers. Most of these bulletins are in the 
form of postal-cards, printed by postmasters 
from telegraphic reports, and sent by them 
to outlying towns for display at suitable 
points. There is also an elaborate system 
of redistribution, by means of telephones 
and railroads from established centers, so 


that there are comparatively few accessible 
places which do not now receive daily 
weather forecasts, even a very short time 
after the observers have completed their 
work. The old system of conveying in¬ 
formation about the weather, by means of 
flag displays, is also in general use. 

It is a wonderful picture of atmospheric 
conditions that is presented twice daily to 
the trained eye of the weather forecaster. 
It embraces an area extending from the At¬ 
lantic to the Pacific, from the north coast 


of South America northward to the utter¬ 
most confines of Canadian habitation. 
America’s cold waves, hot waves and storms 
are shown wherever present in this broad 
area. Their development since last re¬ 
ported is noted, and from the knowledge 
thus gained their future course and in¬ 
tensity is quite successfully forecast. 
Every twelve hours the kaleidoscope 
changes, and a new graphic picture of 
weather conditions is shown. Nowhere 
else in the world can meteorologists find 
such an opportunity to study storms and 
atmospheric changes. 

In our Atlantic and Gulf ports there are 
floating over $30,000,000 worth of craft on 



MEDICINE HAT, ON THE SASKATCHEWAN RIVER. 

From the great plains of the Canadian northwest come the blizzards of mid-winter. 







282 


The XOorld’s Science and Indention 



any day of the year. And at every port, 
whether on the Atlantic, on the Pacific or 
on the Lakes, there is either a full meteor¬ 
ological observatory or a storm-warning dis¬ 
play man, who attends to the lighting of 
the danger lights at night, to the display of 
the danger flags by day, and to the distribu¬ 
tion of storm-warning messages among ves- 


protected with greater certainty through 
these warnings than that of any other part 
of the American coast for the reason that 
practically all of the storms, except those 
from the Gulf, which reach the Atlantic 
coast, originate in the Mississippi Valley. 
The meteorological data of the Mississippi 
Valley storms, covering the entire period of 


FORECASTING ROOM, CHICAGO STATION OF THE WEATHER BUREAU. 


sel masters. While the daily predictions of 
rain or snow by which the public measures 
the value of the weather service are subject 
to a considerable element of error, namely, 
about one failure in five predictions, the 
marine warnings of the service have been so 
well made that in over six years no pro¬ 
tracted storm has reached any point of the 
United States without warning being dis¬ 
played well in advance. As a result of 
these warnings the loss of life and property 
has been reduced to a minimum. 

The shipping of the Atlantic seaboard is 


the service of the Weather Bureau, shows 
that these storms reach the Atlantic coast 
in about twenty-four hours from the begin¬ 
ning of the eastward movement. It is only 
necessary, therefore, for the weather ob¬ 
servers to note the origin of the Mississippi 
Valley storm and the beginning of its east¬ 
ward movement, in order to predict accu¬ 
rately the time of its arrival on the Atlantic 
coast and give warning to shipping. 

It is a notable example of the utility of 
the American weather service, extended 
into the West Indies, that the great Gal- 



















The XOorld's Science and Indention 


283 


veston hurricane of 1900 was detected on 
September 1 at the time of its inception in 
the ocean south of Porto Rico, and that the 
reports were so complete that at no time did 
the observers lose track of the storm. Such 
full information was given as it progressed 
northward, that notwithstanding the exten¬ 
sive commerce of the Gulf of Mexico, little 
or no loss of life or property occurred upon 
the open waters of the Gulf. The destruc¬ 
tion of life at Galveston was much less than 
it would have been without the warning 
that had been given. 

When a marked cold wave develops, 
warnings are given so far in advance that 
farmers and shippers are able to save prop¬ 
erty of enormous value by protecting it 
from frosts. There is one instance recorded 
in the Weather Bureau showing from defi¬ 
nite information that more than $3,400,000 
worth of property was saved by the advance 
warning in reference to a single cold wave. 
The fruit interests of California derive 
great benefit from rain warnings. On ac¬ 
count of the peculiar topography of that 
region, these warnings are made with a high 
degree of accuracv, but a few hours before 
the coming of the rain, yet far enough in 
advance to enable the owners of vineyards, 
most of which are connected by telephone, 
to gather and stack their trays and thus 
save the drying raisins from destruction. 
In the cranberry marshes of Wisconsin the 
flood gates are regulated by the frost warn¬ 
ings of the Bureau, and where formerly a 
profitable crop was secured only once in sev¬ 
eral years, it is now the rare exception that 
damage occurs. Growers of sugar-cane in 
Louisiana, the truck gardeners from Vir¬ 
ginia to the Gulf, and the orange growers 
of Florida, time their operations by the 
frost warnings of the Bureau. From the 


estimates of these industries it is believed 
that the amount annually saved to them is 
far greater than that expended for the sup¬ 
port of the entire department. 

The flood warning service in operation 
along large rivers is another valuable fea¬ 
ture. It is now possible to foretell three to 
five days in advance the height of the river 
at a given point within a few inches. The 
danger line at every city has been accu¬ 
rately determined, so that when a flood is 
likely to exceed this limit, residents of low 
districts and merchants having goods stored 
in cellars are notified to move their prop¬ 
erty out of reach of the rising waters. An 
illustration of the efficiency of this system 
was shown during the great floods of 1897. 
Throughout nearly the whole area that was 
submerged, the warning bulletins preceded 
the flow by several days, and the statisti¬ 
cians of the government estimate that 
$15,000,000 worth of live stock and mov¬ 
able property was removed to high ground 
as the result of the forewarnings. Measure¬ 
ments of snowfall in high mountain ranges 
of the west have given the Bureau informa¬ 
tion by which very accurate estimates may 
be made as to the supplies of water from 
this source, to be expected during the grow¬ 
ing season. In this way the weather service 
has been brought into close contact with 
those interested in irrigation, and has be¬ 
come a valuable aid to them. 

The instruments used in a fully- 
equipped signal station of the Weather 
Bureau are most ingenious and perfect in 
their applications. The ordinary ther¬ 
mometer and barometer, with which most 
people are familiar, are but rudimentary 
in the processes of forecasting the weather. 
Nevertheless they are prime requisites. 
The barometer registers the changing pres- 



INSTRUMENTS AND EQUIPMENT OF A WEATHER BUREAU STATION. 

i Barometer- 2 Barograph; 3. Signal tower showing flags, anemometer, anemoscope and time ball; 
1. tsarom ^ ’ Telethermograph; 5. Anemometer; 6. Triple register; 7. Hygrometer. 



































The 'World's Science and Indention 


285 


sure of the atmosphere. The barograph is 
an improved barometer, which keeps per¬ 
petual record, automatically, of the atmos¬ 
pheric pressure. The telethermometer 
combines the functions of the thermometer 
and the telegraph. It registers automatic¬ 
ally, inside the signal office, what the 
temperature is outside, communicating 
from the thermometer without by an electric 
current over a wire. The anemometer 
registers the velocity of the wind. It is a 
perfectly balanced windmill on a small 
scale, connected with a dial. The anemo¬ 
scope is better known in familiar language 
as a weather vane., for it merely points the 
exact direction of the wind. The hygrom¬ 
eter measures the humidity of the atmos¬ 
phere, and thus helps to forecast rains. 
Then there is a triple register of great 
value, which records the conditions as to 
wind, rain and sunshine. All such instru¬ 
ments are gradually being brought to a 
higher degree of perfection, as increased 
attention is being given to meteorology. 

It was about one hundred years after the 
invention of the barometer, namely in 
1747, that Benjamin Franklin divined that 
certain storms had a rotary motion, and 
that they progressed in a northeasterly 
direction. A hundred years later other 
scientists gathered data and completely es¬ 
tablished the truth of that which Franklin 
had dimly outlined. So it was that Amer¬ 
icans were the pioneers in discovering the 
rotary and progressive character of storms, 
and in demonstrating the practicability of 
weather service. This country has always 
kept in the lead among practical meteor¬ 
ologists, largely because of its area, which 
renders it possible to construct such a broad 
picture of air conditions as is necessary in 
the making of the most useful forecasts. 


It would require an international service 
in Europe to equal ours in the extent of 
area covered, and in practical value. Aus¬ 
tralia, with an area equal to that of the 
United States, and well-defined conditions, 
has followed our example with a highly 
organized, effective service. 

In 1870 Congress established the Weather 
Bureau under the War Department, and it 
was administered under the direction of the 
military branch of the government for some 
eighteen years, until it was transferred to 
the Department of Agriculture. Under the 
new regime its value has multiplied many 
times and the expenditure of the $1,000,- 
000 annually which the service requires has 
become of slight consequence in comparison 
with the immense benefits it produces. 

^ 

MOVING PICTURES AND 

HOW THEY ARE MADE 

The moving-picture machine, under its 
various names, has become comparatively 
familiar since the World’s Columbian Ex¬ 
position at Chicago in 1893, when it was 
first shown in its practical form. Famil¬ 
iarity, however, does not decrease the won¬ 
derful qualities of the invention, which is 
of the utmost importance in many ways. 
Cinematograph, Biograph or whatever it 
may be called, the invention is a develop¬ 
ment of Edison’s Kinetoscope, another of 
the array of marvelous inventions which 
the “wizard of Menlo Park” has given to 
the world. 

Many familiar experiments and tricks 
are based upon what is known in the 
science of optics as persistence of vision. 
This is a quality by which we retain upon 
the retina of the eye the image of what we 


286 


The XOorld’s Science and Indention 


have seen, for a brief period after the light 
has been cut off or we have shut our eyes. 
A rapidly whirling wheel does not conceal 
an object on the other side of it from our 
view, while the spokes of the wheel in turn 
are actually intervening between it and the 
eye. The same faculty of the eye is util¬ 
ized in viewing motion pictures. 

A toy invented many years ago, called 
the zoetrope, was the forerunner of the 
more important moving-picture machines. 
It is a cylindrical box about four inches 
high and eight inches in diameter, ar¬ 
ranged to turn on a pivot in the bottom, the 
top being removed. On the inner circum¬ 
ference of the box are arranged a succession 
of pictures, each one in a stage of motion 
a little farther advanced than the one be¬ 
fore it. Through the circumference of the 
box a series of slits penetrates. The ob¬ 
server, holding the box by the pivot and 
twirling it quickly, looks intently through 
the slits as they pass his eye in haste, and 
sees the figures within apparently moving 
forward rapidly, something after the 
fashion of real life, although perhaps 
greatly distorted. 

The series of experiments which fol¬ 
lowed the zoetrope all utilized the same 
principle found in the most perfect ma¬ 
chines, that is to say the rapid passing of 
a strip of pictures differing but slightly, be¬ 
hind the lens of a lantern, having a shutter 
which cut off the light for a short interval 
as a new picture was moving into place, and 
again opened to allow the passage of light 
as the picture paused an instant before the 
lens. Not until the modem development 
of instantaneous photography, the dry plate 
and the transparent film, could such pic¬ 
tures be obtained rapidly and correctly 
enough to produce satisfactory results. 


The first utilization of photogra]Dhy in 
this form was to place a number of cameras 
in a row, opening and shutting the lenses 
automatically as the moving object j)assed 
before them. Then Edison took up the 
work, producing the kinetoscope, by which 
he took a series of photographs on long 
strips of film, at the rate of some thirty a 
second. Since that time the further ex¬ 
periments have been merely in the direc¬ 
tion of improved mechanical devices for 
taking photographs with greater rapidity 
and regularity, and then producing them 
on the screen by improved lanterns. 

Strips of celluloid, varying in length 
from seventy feet to 600 feet, are used for 
making the negatives. They are sensitized 
the same as are ordinary glass plates or cel¬ 
luloid films for cameras, and are wound 
upon spools. The camera mechanism is so 
arranged that this strip of film passes 
through the camera at the focal point, un¬ 
winds bit by bit, stops for a fraction of a 
second in front of the lens while an ex¬ 
posure is made, j>roceeds for another inch 
when the light is cut off, stops again at the 
right instant for a second photograph, and 
so continues indefinitely until the whole roll 
is exhausted. By the delicate mechanism 
employed 1,000 pictures may be made in a 
little more than a minute, and each frac¬ 
tion of the film stops for the fraction of 
the second while the shutter is open, and 
moves on again while the shutter remains 
closed. 

It is readily seen that to produce a series 
of pictures of an event extending over a con¬ 
siderable time, an immense quantity of films 
and an expensive equipment of cameras and 
mechanism must be provided. When the 
record is complete, however, the hundreds 
or thousands of pictures are developed, still 


The 'GDorld.'f Science and Indention 


287 


on the original rolls, and from the completed 
negatives a reverse or a positive is made 
upon other similar rolls of celluloid films 
covered with gelatine. This is in order to 
get all the objects into their proper relations 
erf light, either black or white, for in the 
original negative of every photograph the 
lights and shadows are exactly reversed. 

The picture is now ready to be thrown 
upon the screen. It is passed through a ma¬ 
chine to which a powerful light, such 
as that of a magic lantern, is fitted. 

As the pictures pass before the lens 
they halt briefly, the shutter is thrown 
open automatically and the view is 
projected; then the shutter is closed, 
the film moves on, another picture 
takes the place of the first, the shutter 
is opened and another view becomes 
visible. Moving about fifteen to the 
second as the pictures do, the eyes’ 
persistence of vision heretofore men¬ 
tioned retains the image, and gives the 
impression of an actually moving ob¬ 
ject. The machines have not become so 
perfect as to entirely eliminate a slight jerk¬ 
ing motion, which results from the imper¬ 
fections of the mechanism, but they are con¬ 
tinually improving. They promise to be 
of the utmost value in recording for the fu¬ 
ture the actual processes and facts of many 
important events of today. With the phono¬ 
graph to preserve the voices of the great 
ones of mankind and the kinetoscope to por¬ 
tray their exact movements and manners, 
posterity will have a fairly complete idea of 
certain phases of the world as it is now. 
What would we not give for a series of 
kinetoscope pictures and phonographic rec¬ 
ords of the great, events of the past cen¬ 
turies? History would take new forms, 
could such text books be utilized. 


THE PHONOGRAPH AND 
ITS USES 

The phonograph, which but a few years 
ago was an awe-inspiring scientific mystery, 
used for entertainment in exhibition halls, 
has been developed to a perfection which 
puts it in common use in great business 
offices and educational institutions, for a 
multitude of practical and familiar pur¬ 



THE MODERN TALKING MACHINE. 

poses. Talking machines under various 
names, be they called phonographs, gramo¬ 
phones, graphophones or otherwise, are all 
based on the same general principle. There 
is a metal cylinder covered with a thin layer 
of wax on which a pointed pen inscribes 
tracings corresponding to the vibrations 
caught by a membrane placed on top of the 
instrument. The wax cylinder is rapidly 
revolved by means of an electric battery, 
and as one speaks in front of the membrane 
the cylinder advances slowly in a horizontal 
position, at the same time revolving stead¬ 
ily. The membrane vibrates much or little, 
according to the sounds produced by the 
operator. The pen moves according to the 
vibrations, and peculiar, almost impercep- 






288 


The XOorld's Science and Indention 


tible, tracings on the wax are the result. A 
funnel and tube, into which the operator 
speaks, carry the sound to the membrane. 

To obtain reproductions of the sounds as 
inscribed on the wax cylinder it is replaced 
in its original position. Another pen of 
different construction is mounted so that its 
point retraces the original tracings of the 
first pen, the membrane is made to vibrate 
again, and the sound is reproduced through 
the tube and funnel. 

The phonograph is both the ear and the 
voice. It is a tympanum like the tympanum 
of the ear, and it vibrates in unison with 
the sound waves that push against it, but 
it does more than the ear’s tympanum, for it 
makes a permanent record of what it hears. 
Like the voice, the phonograph sets in mo¬ 
tion waves of sound, but it is not limited, as 
the voice, to the production of a compara¬ 
tively few sound waves. Instead, every 
musical tone or sound of nature, single or 
complicated, from the delicate whisper to 
the crashing melody of a great military 
band, can be recreated. 

For purposes of entertainment the pho¬ 
nograph in its various forms has become 
common, and its cost is but little. The best 
music, vocal or instrumental; great ser¬ 
mons, orations and lectures, and the dra¬ 
matic readings of lecturers and elocution¬ 
ists may be sent the world over, recorded on 
simple wax cylinders, at small expense, to 
be reproduced at will or to be preserved un¬ 
til those who spoke or sang have long since 
passed away. 

For business purposes the phonograph is 
used as a partial substitute for stenog¬ 
raphers and secretaries. Business men 
dictate their letters to the silent machine, 
which afterwards dictates them in turn to 
typewriters for transcription. Schools of 


language have adopted phonographs for the 
teaching of the foreign tongues. Skilled 
professors dictate lessons in French, Span¬ 
ish, German or Italian, and the little wax 
cylinders repeat them as many times as 
necessary to the students, thus assuring 
careful instruction in pronunciation. Other 
uses of the ingenious instrument are con¬ 
stantly suggesting themselves, and it is now 
recognized as one of the more important 
recent contributions of science to the world 
of practical inventions and utilities. 

«£ j)t £ 

COMPRESSED AIR AND 

PNEUMATIC TUBES 

The power of compressed air has been 
utilized for a long time in certain mechan¬ 
ical processes, but by the introduction of 
pneumatic tube systems the uses of it have 
been many times multiplied. Air com¬ 
pressed into a smaller space than it natur¬ 
ally demands tends to expand like any other 
compressed gas. This tendency to expan¬ 
sion, properly directed and controlled, be¬ 
comes available for a multitude of uses. 
Inexhaustible as the material is, and trans¬ 
mitting its expansive force for long dis¬ 
tances without perceptible decrease by fric¬ 
tion, it is easily controlled and in reach the 
world over. 

Among its other simple applications com¬ 
pressed air is used for cleaning dust out of 
carpets and upholstery. It may be used 
also for applying paint to high ceilings by 
means of a spray. Ground glass and glass 
signs are engraved in whatever patterns de¬ 
sired, by the force of a blast driven by a 
stream of compressed air. In art it is used 
for the finishing of crayon portraits, by 
means of an apparatus called the air brush. 


The XOorld’s Science and Indention 


289 


The more important commercial uses to 
which this natural force is applied are in 
the transportation of packages and the ap¬ 
plication of power. Street cars, elevators 
and automobiles are run by compressed air 
and it proves to be a safe, convenient, eco¬ 
nomical and noiseless method of power 
transmission. The first utilization of com¬ 
pressed air for transporting packages was 
in the great stores of New York, Chicago 
and other cities. Pneumatic tubes extend¬ 
ing all over these places communicate from 
floor to floor, and through them little boxes 
are sent rapidly to the cashier’s desk, con¬ 
veying the money received in payment and 
returning the change. 

From this beginning pneumatic tube sys¬ 
tems have been developed in many other 
places and for more pretentious purposes. 
In both the cities named, and several others, 
such systems of tu'bes buried under the 
streets convey messages rapidly between 
newspaper offices and the press associations 
which supply them with much of their ma¬ 


terial. An eight-inch tube extending from 
the New York’ City postoffice to the post- 
office of Brooklyn, over the Brooklyn 
Bridge, carries many wagon loads of par¬ 
cels daily, much more rapidly and cheaper 
than could be done in any other way. 

These practical applications have proved 
the value of such a service, and there is a 
manifest movement toward the introduction 
of larger systems wherever traffic demands. 
Chicago, Philadelphia and New York 
moved first in the matter, inducing the 
national government to establish general 
systems between all the postoffices and 
branches throughout those cities. A cor¬ 
poration obtained a franchise in Chicago, 
and built tunnels throughout the business 
portion of the city, where all the necessary 
pneumatic tubes for any service demanded 
could be readily installed, in addition to the 
telegraph and telephone wires already in 
service. 

The tubes used for these purposes are 
made of heavy seamless brass, highly pol- 



















290 


The XOorld's Science and Indention 


ished inside, and of uniform diameter. The 
boxes or “carriers” which travel in them 
are cylindrical, to fit the tube. A strip of 
sheepskin bound around the box at either 
end, with the wool outside, makes it tight 
enough to be carried forward by the force 
of the current of air, without producing 
enough friction to bind it in the tube. Light 
carriers operated with tubes at high pres¬ 
sure travel at the rate of about a mile in 
three minutes, while heavier carriers are 
driven a little less rapidly. The systems 
are somewhat expensive to install, if large 
tubes are to be buried under ground, but 
after installation their operation is com¬ 
paratively inexpensive. It has even been 
suggested that small passenger cars could be 
driven through tunnels in the same manner, 
but no experiments in this direction have 
been made. For mail and express packages, 
however, compressed air and pneumatic 
tubes offer transportation facilities unsur¬ 
passed, and the uses of them are growing 
with the utmost rapidity. 

GREAT AND FAMOUS TELE¬ 
SCOPES 

While inventors and scientists in one di¬ 
rection have been improving methods of 
transportation and communication on the 
earth by means of railways, telegraphs and 
kindred appliances others equally energetic 
have devoted themselves to the effort to 
communicate with other worlds than this, 
or at least to study them to better advan¬ 
tage. Telescopes have multiplied and have 
grown greater and more perfect, as truly 
as locomotives have done, and they bring 
the starg nearer to the vision of the ob¬ 
server with striking brilliancy. The United 


States not only possesses the largest tele¬ 
scope in the world but the second, fourth, 
fifth and eighth as well, in the first eight. 

This largest of all star-gazing apparatus 
is located on the shores of Lake Geneva, 
near Williams Bay, Wisconsin. The great 
telescope and the observatory in which it is 
mounted were given to the University of 
Chicago by Charles T. Yerkes, the street 
raihvay magnate of Chicago and London. 
The huge lens of the great instrument has 
an aperture of forty inches, which is four 
inches greater than that of the Lick Ob¬ 
servatory in California, its nearest rival. 
The lenses were ground in Cambridge, Mas¬ 
sachusetts, by Alvan Clark, whose father 
was a telescope maker, and whose sons con¬ 
tinue the business. The glass proper is 
composed of two lenses, one of ground glass' 
and the other of flint glass, ranging in 
thickness from three-quarters of an inch to 
two inches, and placed eight inches apart. 
They weigh 500 pounds and were four years 
in polishing, the final touches being given 
by the maker’s finger tips. 

The great tube is sixty-five feet long and 
weighs 40,000 pounds, yet the whole instru¬ 
ment is so evenly poised that it can be 
moved by the hand to any angle or position. 
The dome of the observatory is 90 feet in 
diameter. Under the telescope is a floor 
which may be raised and lowered by means 
of electric motors to whatever height would 
be most convenient for the observer. The 
great dome itself is likewise movable, being 
mounted on car wheels which run on a track 
around the wall, as is clearly shown in the 
accompanying illustration. At the will of 
the operator the whole dome may be re¬ 
volved above, so that the large opening in 
the roof may be brought opposite any star. 
The motive power for the dome is elec- 



THE LARGEST AND MOST POWERFUL TELESCOPE IN THE WORLD. 

Interior view of the Yerkes Observatory. The tube of the telescope is sixty-five feet long and the lens 
is forty inches in diameter. The floor is hoisted, the telescope shifted, and 
the dome turned by electric motors. 




































202 


The 'World's Science and Indention 


tricity, and the great sliding shutters in the 
roof are also opened and closed by power 
from the dynamos. Inside the base of the 
tube is a clock-like arrangement that adjusts 
various parts of the workings, keeping the 
lens moving steadily in the path of the star 
which is being studied. The total cost of 
the huge telescope and the observatory was 
$500,000, but the scientific results obtained 
have justified the cost. 

As an accessory to this great instrument 
the astronomers of the Yerkes Observatory 
have built a still larger telescope of another 
kind. It has no great dome over it, no tube 
containing great lenses, and nothing to sug¬ 
gest its purpose to the stranger. In appear¬ 
ance it is merely a long wooden shed, about 
eight feet wide and about the same height, 
with a gable roof, built flat upon the ground 
and extending to a length of 165 feet. It 
is open at one end, and it suggests nothing 
as much as a long corn-crib or chicken- 
house without doors or windows. A thirty- 
inch mirror, mounted at the open end of 
this peculiar horizontal telescope, reflects 
the stars’ rays into the long horizontal tube, 
to a concave mirror at the other end, which 
will focus the rays either upon a photo¬ 
graphic plate or into the slit of the spectro¬ 
scope. 

With this instrument photographs of 
eclipses, stars and other astronomical sub¬ 
jects can be made with great success. It is 
no longer sufficient to watch the stars 
through a revolving telescope. The ap¬ 
paratus adapted for the various purposes of 
astronomy takes widely different forms, and 
the most complete observatory is the one 
most fully equipped. It is believed that the 
horizontal telescope at the Yerkes Observa¬ 
tory is but the forerunner of another many 
times as large. Already one a thousand feet 


in length is contemplated. The forty-inch 
telescope mounted in the dome gives a pho¬ 
tograph of the moon seven inches in diam¬ 
eter. The completed horizontal telescope 
makes the moon appear more than nineteen 
inches across. Through the 1,000-foot tele¬ 
scope the observer will behold a moon 100 
inches in diameter. Every little detail will 
be enlarged and the 8 by 10 plates now 
used to cover the whole image will then be 
used to obtain a picture of a single crater 
or some dark valley of the moon. With 
such keen scrutiny turned upon the heav¬ 
ens we may expect noteworthy discoveries 
in astronomy before many more years have 
passed. 

J* S & 

SIZE OF GREATEST TELESCOPES 
IN THE WORLD 


Inches 

Name. Place. aperture. 

Yerkes Observatory, William’s Bay, Wis. 40 

Lick Observatory, Mt. Hamilton, Cal. 36 

Imperial Observatory, Pulkova, Russia. 30 

Naval Observatory, Washington, D. C. 26 

University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Va. 26 

University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria. 26 

Greenwich Observatory, Greenwich, England. 26 

Halsted Observatory, Princeton, N. J. 23 


The list of those from 18 to 6 inches aperture is too 
numerous to tabulate. 

J* & 

TELEPHONES, THEIR MECHAN¬ 
ISM AND DEVELOPMENT 

The telephone itself has become exceed- 
ingly common within comparatively few 
years since its invention, but the improve¬ 
ments and applications of it which are 
made from time to time continually prove 
anew the remarkable value of the invention 
in its everyday uses. 

The principles of the telephone are not 
extremely complicated, in comparison with 
those of other electrical appliances. It is 
well understood that when a person talks. 










The 'World's Science and Indention 


293 



sings or whistles, lie produces sound waves 
which are carried through the air, for the 
particles of air are thrown into vibration 
which is carried along from one particle to 
another. Similar sound waves or vibra¬ 
tions are transmitted through solid bodies 


seasoned wood, to a surprising degree. 
Many experiments have been made in the 
transmission of sound by electricity and 
vibrations in solid bodies, but it was not un¬ 
til 1876, our American Centennial year, 
that Professor Alexander Graham Bell 


when sound is made adjacent to them. It 
has been found that all sorts of substances 
which are capable of being vibrated trans¬ 
mit sounds, some with poor success, and 
others, such as iron, steel, silver and well 


produced the speaking telephone which in 
its improved shape is the telephone used 
almost exclusively to-day. 

A thin, flat, circular piece of iron called 
the diaphragm is the essential factor in the 


The portion of the modern lampline multiple switchboard here shown requires six miles of silk and cotton 

insulated cables to connect it with the distributing racks. 


PART OF OPERATING ROOM IN A TELEPHONE EXCHANGE. 
























294 


The ^COortd's Science and Indention 


transmission of sound through the tele¬ 
phone, while a similar diaphragm in the 
receiver at the other end of the line con¬ 
veys the sound to the ear of the listener. 
When the voice is directed into the trans¬ 
mitter of the telephone, the diaphragm 
shakes or vibrates, because the voice makes 
sound-waves which strike it and set it in 
motion. Now the diaphragm is so sensitive 
to these sound waves that it moves back and 
forth faster or slower according to the 
length of their vibrations. These move¬ 
ments of the diaphragm in the transmitter 
cause different kinds of currents of elec¬ 
tricity, supplied by a battery in the instru¬ 
ment, to flow over the wire to the dia¬ 
phragm in the receiver. This latter one 
then vibrates exactly as the first one does, 
and sets in motion sound waves exactly like 
those made by the voice in the transmitter. 
Thus it is that one may be heard to speak 
at a great distance through the telephone. 

Magnetism and electricity work together 
in the telephone. If some wire be wound 
around a piece of soft iron and a current 
of electricity be sent through the wire, the 
iron at once becomes a magnet and will 
remain a magnet just as long as the elec¬ 
tricity is flowing through the wire. The 
instant the current is shut off, the iron 
ceases to be a magnet and becomes only a 
piece of iron again. A magnet made in 
this way is called an electro-magnet and 
the two forces of magnetism and electricity 
are very closely related. If a piece of 
steel, however, be magnetized, it becomes a 
permanent magnet. In the receiver of the 
telephone, in the part which one holds to 
the ear for hearing, is a permanent mag¬ 
net made of four strips of steel, each of 
which is magnetized separately. At one 
end of this bar magnet is an electro-magnet, 


with fine copper wire wound on a spool 
around the iron core or center which is 
attached to the steel magnet. Two small 
copper wires lead back from the electro¬ 
magnet to the closed end of the receiver, 
where they connect with the green covered 
cords which contain the wires leading 
through the instrument on the wall to the 
wires which reach the outer world. 

At the open end of the receiver appears 
a diaphragm fitted so closely to the iron 
core of the electro-magnet as almost to 
touch it. In the transmitter there is a dia¬ 
phragm, but no magnet. Instead of the 
magnet is a little platinum knob on the 
end of a slender spring which rests in the- 
center of the diaphragm, and which in turn 
presses against a carbon button on the end 
of another spring. The wires from the 
platinum and carbon run to a little cylinder 
of coiled wire called the induction coil. 
The transmitter is an electric instrument, 
and in that respect is widely different from 
the receiver, which is a magnetic instru¬ 
ment. It so happens that an electric tele¬ 
phone is best for the speaking end, and a 
magnetic telephone is best for the hearing 
end. 

There are many more scientific details 
that might be explained, but the foregoing 
facts are the essentials in connection with 
the simplest form of telephones. In usage 
the telephone is becoming more essential 
every day. At first its limit was the trans¬ 
mission of speech for a very few miles, but 
now distance seems to be no barrier. Long 
distance telephone service is now main¬ 
tained without difficulty throughout all the 
states east of the Rockv Mountains, and 
one may talk to his friend in direct con¬ 
versation between places as widely sepa¬ 
rated as Montgomery, Alabama; Hastings, 


'The *£0 arid's Science and Indention 


295 


Nebraska; Bangor, Maine, and Richmond, 
Virginia, with all intervening cities of 
prominence accessible by connecting lines. 

And still in the United States we are 
behind some other countries in the quality 
and cost of our telephone service. The 
Swedish instruments excel ours in the dis¬ 
tinctness and ease with which they trans¬ 
mit the human voice. They are used in 
many countries, and wherever thev are used 
are highly favored. With them persons 


conversing are not required to listen intent¬ 
ly with the receiver at the ear, nor yet to 
speak directly into the transmitter, but they 
carry on their conversation with perfect 
ease, although clear across the room from 
the telephone itself. In the Australian 
colonies the telephone is a part of the post- 
office department, and there is a fixed 
charge of $18 a year for the service instead 
of prices ranging from $50 to $200 a year 
as in the United States. One result of this 


is that telephones are found everywhere. 
It is an interesting feature of the telephone 
system in Australia that it has been ex¬ 
tended to remote sheep stations, many miles 
from the cities and towns, and the tele¬ 
phone wires are strung along fence posts 
between two of the barb wire strands, thus 
obviating the necessity of erecting poles. 

In France a system of military tele¬ 
phones has been developed. A part of each 
signal corps in the army has been organized 

into a telephone squad, 
and each soldier in the 
squad carries a whole 
telephonic outfit on his 
back. In the company 
service there are four 
telephone operators, in 
charge of a corporal, 
who is the “hello girl” 
and the “central sta¬ 
tion” combined. A tele¬ 
phone station is built on 
the back of each oper¬ 
ator and is carried from 
point to point as if it 
were a knapsack. In his 
hand the operator car¬ 
ries a reel of wire hold¬ 
ing enough wire, which 
is made with a steel 
core surrounded by copper, to run a line 
of over G,000 feet. The reel is connected 
with a sword bayonet, so that the operator 
by sticking his bayonet into the earth turns 
it into a ground-wire, for but a single wire 
is used, the return being an earth circuit. 

Small dry batteries are used. In estab¬ 
lishing a regimental telephone line, the cor¬ 
poral takes up his station near the head¬ 
quarters of the commanding officer, and 
fixing his telephone to his ear, sticks his 



PART OF DISTRIBUTING RACKS IN REAR OF SWITCHBOARD. 

The equipment here shown is sufficient for 3,500 instruments. It includes 3,500 
lightning arrestors and 60,000 feet of “jumper wire.” 

































296 


The 'COorld’s Science and Indention 


sword bayonet in the earth and orders the 
«/ 

operators to run a line. One of them con¬ 
nects his reel of wire to the telephone on 
the corporal’s back, and starts off in the 
given direction upon the run, the wire un¬ 
reeling as he moves forward. He keeps 
his line of travel as straight as possible, 
but selects points where the wire can be 
caught up from the ground on bushes and 
trees. 

Having run out his line of about 6,000 

feet, the operator makes 

the ground connection 

with his bavonet and 
«/ 

calls up central. If all 
is right, operator num¬ 
ber two connects his 
wire with the line al¬ 
ready installed, and 
runs away until he has 
unreeled his wire, when 
he calls up central and 
operator number three 
takes up the run, which 
is finished by operator 
number four, so that a 
telephone line of over 
four and one-lialf miles 
is quickly strung by the 
pedestrian telephone sta¬ 
tions. This may be 
one continuous line, 
or the four lines may radiate in as many 
directions from the central station. 

A helper follows the line man and loops 
up the wire where it is possible on trees 
and bushes, but where there are none he 
leaves it on the ground. He also acts as 
repairer and line man moving back and 
forth between the stations. The operators 
have the receivers of the telephone strapped 
to their ears and thus are ready at all times 


to receive orders and transmit them. The 
operators are provided with small camp 
stools, for sometimes they are stationed in 
one place for several hours. In such cases 
the telephone outfit is taken from the back, 
and leaned up against a stone or tree. At 
headquarters, during maneuvers, experi¬ 
mental campaigns and sham battles, sta¬ 
tionary exchanges are installed with con- 
nections made with all parts of the field. 
In this headquarters central station a small 


switchboard is used, and the corporal, who 
is chief operator, receives reports and trans¬ 
mits the orders as readily as if wires were 
strung on solid poles instead of trailing 
through the grass over the ground. Cav¬ 
alrymen are used in this service as well as 
infantrymen. The ground connection is 
made through the bit, body and shoes of 
the horse, while in other respects the oper¬ 
ator is equipped with the infantry outfit. 



CORNER IN TELEPHONE EXCHANGE BATTERY ROOM. 


Showing power dynamos for connecting with 2,500 Subscribers. 























The *GDorl<Ts Science and Indention 


297 


This branch of the service is distinct from 
the telegraph service, which strings wires 
or hangs them on the boughs of trees. 

Jt 

TELEPHONING WITHOUT WIRES 

We have had the telephone for more 
than a quarter of a century in practical 
working use, and have begun to think of it 
no longer as extraordinary. In truth, how¬ 
ever, the advances and improvements in 
the ordinary telephone since the first suc¬ 
cessful experiments were made, mark al¬ 
most as great progress as did the original 
invention itself. Of very recent success 
are the experiments of Marconi with wire¬ 
less telegraphy, an astounding and import¬ 
ant advance over the ordinary system of 
telegraphy through wires. Now comes the 
announcement that an American inventor, 
unheralded and modest, has carried out 
successful experiments in telephoning and 
is able to transmit speech for great dis¬ 
tances without wires. 

The inventor is Nathan Stubblefield. 
The first public test of telephoning with¬ 
out wires was made at the Kentucky vil¬ 
lage where the inventor lived, on the first 
day of January, 1902, only a few weeks 
after Marconi’s success in signaling across 
the Atlantic by telegraph without wires. 

The next demonstration was made ten 
days later for a newspaper correspondent 
from St. Louis and the account of it was 
published in detail in that city. The in¬ 
vestigator wrote as follows in regard to 
what he learned: 

“Mr. Stubblefield has worked for ten 
years to discover an apparatus by which 
he could overcome the use of wires in tele¬ 
phoning, during which time he has be¬ 


come a technical electrician of high order. 
He has kept in touch with all the leading 
electricians, and is familiar with every im¬ 
portant discovery in the field of electricity. 
Naturally he has been a close observer of 
the work of Marconi. 

“The transmitting apparatus is con¬ 
cealed in a box. Two wires of the thick¬ 
ness of a lead pencil coil from its corners 
and disappear through the walls of the 
room, and enter the ground outside. On 
top of the box is an ordinary telephone 
transmitter and a telephone switch. This; 
is the machine through which the voice 
of the sender is passed into the ground, to 
be transmitted by the earth’s electrical 
waves to the ear of the person who has an 
instrument capable of receiving and repro¬ 
ducing it. 

“We went into the, cornfield back of the 
house. After walking five hundred yards 
we came to the experimental station the 
inventor has used for several months. It 
is a dry goods box fastened to the top of 
a stump. A roof to shed the rain has been 
placed on top of it; one side is hinged for 
a door, and the wires connected with the 
ground on both sides run into it and are 
attached to a pair of telephone receivers. 
The box was built as a shelter from the 
weather, and as a protection to the re¬ 
ceivers. I took a seat in the box and Mr. 
Stubblefield shouted a ‘hello’ to the house. 
This was a signal to his son to begin send¬ 
ing messages. I placed the receiver to my 
ears and listened. Presently there came 
with extraordinary distinctness several 
spasmodic buzzings and then a voice which 
said: ‘Hello, can you hear me? Now I 
will count ten. One—two—three—four— 
five—six—seven—eight—nine—ten. Did 
you hear that? Now I will whisper.’ 


298 


The 'World's Science and Indention 


“I heard as clearly as if the speaker 
were only across a 12-foot room the ten 
numerals whispered. ‘Now I will whis¬ 


tle/ said the voice. For a minute or more 
the tuneless whistle of a hoy was con¬ 
veyed to the listener’s ears. ‘I am ffoinff 

O O 


to play the mouth organ now/ said the 
voice. Immediately came the strains of a 
harmonica played without melody, but the 

notes were clear and 
unmistakable. ‘I will 
now repeat the pro¬ 
gram/ said the voice, 
and it did. 

“A n examination 
of the station 
showed that the wires 
leading from the re¬ 
ceivers terminated in 
steel rods, each of 
which was tapped 
with a hollow nickel- 
plated ball of iron, 
below which was an 
inverted metal cup. 
The wire enters the 
hall at the top and is 
attached to the rod. 
The rod is thrust 
into the ground two- 
thirds of its length. 
Another test was 
made after the rods 
had been drawn from 
the ground and thrust 
into it again at a spot 
chosen haphazard by 
the correspondent. 
Again the ‘hello’ 
signal was made 
by Stubblefield, and 
after a few minutes' 
wait came the mys¬ 
terious ‘Hello! Can 
you hear me V and 
a repetition of the program of counted 
numerals, whispers, whistling and harmon¬ 
ica playing. 



MR. STUBBLEFIELD RECEIVING MESSAGES BY WIRELESS TELEPHONE. 


Note the two steel rods in the ground, which establish connection with the electrical 
currents of the earth, being connected by 30 feet of wire 
attached to the receiver. 













The ^eOorld's Science and Indention 


299 


“ ‘Now/ said Mr. Stubblefield, who car¬ 
ried under his arm duplicates of the ball- 
tipped steel-rods. ‘I wish you would lead 
the way. Go where you will, sink the rods 
into the ground and listen for a telephone 
messaged 

“Away we went, down a wagon track, 
through the wide cornfield. A gate was 
opened into a lane between the hedge that 
bordered the field and a dense oak woods. 
We pursued the lane for about 500 yards 
and struck into the woods. I led the way. 
Into the heart of the woods we walked for 
nearly a mile. In a ravine I stopped. 
Glow far are we from the house now V I 
asked. ‘About a mile,’ Stubblefield an¬ 
swered. ‘Place the rods where you will 
and listen for a telephone message.’ 

“I took the four rods from Stubblefield. 
Each pair of rods was joined by an ordi¬ 
nary insulated wire about 30 feet long, in 
the center of which was a small round tele¬ 
phone receiver. Two of the rods were sunk 
in the ground, about half their length, the 
wires between them hanging loosely, and 
with plenty of play. I placed a receiver 
at each ear and waited. In a few moments 
came the signal and the voice of Stubble¬ 
field’s son. The voice was quite as clear 
and distinct as it was 500 yards from the 
transmitting station. The rods were 
moved here and there, but always the mes¬ 
sage came.” 

Nathan Stubblefield comes from a fam¬ 
ily distinguished in his locality. Ilis father 
was a lawyer, much respected in that part 
of Kentucky. Ilis brothers are merchants 
and leaders in the community. But Na¬ 
than Stubblefield is another type. He cares 
only for his home, his family, and electric¬ 
ity. He educates his children in person, 
and after seeing that his family is well pro¬ 


vided for, spends the remainder of his sub¬ 
stance in electrical experiments. 

His son, Bernard B. Stubblefield, 14 
years of age, has been for four years his 
father’s sole assistant. He is a remarkable 
boy. Ilis father has been his only educator, 
and the lad is now an expert electrician and 
reads abstruse works on electricity and 
technical electrical journals with the same 
zest that other boys read stories of travel 
and adventures. His father says of the 
boy that he would be able to carry out and 
finish this system of wireless telephony 
should the father die, so closely has he 
been allied with every step in its discovery 
and development. 

“I have been working for this, ten or 
twelve years,” he said. “Long before I 
heard of Marconi’s efforts, or the efforts of 
others, to solve the problem of transmission 
of messages through space without wires, 
I began to think about it and work for it. 
This solution is not the result of an in¬ 
spiration or the work of a minute. It is 
the climax of the labor of years. Of course 
I worked along the lines all the others are 
working. The earth, the air, the water, all 
the universe, as we know it, is permeated 
with the remarkable fluid which we call 
electricity, the most wonderful of God’s 
gifts to the world, and capable of the most 
inestimable benefits when it is mastered by 
man. For years I have been trying to make 
the bare earth do the work of the wires. I 
know now that I have conquered it. The 
electrical fluid that permeates the earth car¬ 
ries the human voice, transmitted to it bv 
any apparatus, with much more clarity and 
lucidity than it does over wires. I have 
solved the problem of telephoning without 
wires through the earth, as Signor Marconi 
has of sending signals through space. But 


300 


The *COorld*s Science and Indention 


I can also telephone without wires through 
s-pace as well as through the earth, because 
my medium is everywhere. 

“As to the practicability of my inven¬ 
tion, all that I claim for it now is that it is 
capable of sending simultaneous messages 
from a central distributing station over a 
very wide territory. For instance, any one 
having a receiving instrument, which would 
consist merely of a telephone receiver and 
a few feet of wire, and a signaling gong, 
could, upon being signaled by a trans¬ 
mitting station in Washington, or nearer, 
if advisable, be informed of weather news. 
Eventually it will be used for the general 
transmission of news of every description. 
I have as yet devised no method whereby 
it can be used with privacy. Wherever 
there is a receiving station the signal and 
message may be heard simultaneously. 
Eventually I, or some one, will discover a 
method of tuning the transmitting and re¬ 
ceiving instruments so that each will an¬ 
swer only to its mate. 

“I claim for my apparatus that it will 
work as well through air and water as it 
does through the earth. That it will con¬ 
vey messages between the land and sea, for 
instance, from lighthouses to ships, from 
vessels in any part of the ocean to vessels 
or their owners on land, if each carry my 
transmitters and receivers; it can be used 
on moving trains so that they may be 
spoken between stations and thus prevent 
accidents. There is no conceivable position 
or station in which they may not be used. 
The all-enveloping electricity, the medium 
of carriage, insures that. The curvature 
of the earth means nothing to me—it will 
not deter messages sent by my apparatus. 
I have shown what my machine will do 
through the earth by grounding the wires. 


I will say that it is not absolutely 
necessary to ground the wires. I can 
send messages with one wire in the 
ground, the other in the air, or with no 
wires at all. In fact, my first and crude 
experiments were made without ground 
wires. I have sent messages by means 
of a cumbersome and incomplete machine 
through a brick wall and several other walls 
of lath and plaster without wires of any 
description. The present method of 
grounding wires merely insures greater 
power in transmission. Several years ago 
I invented an earth cell which derived 
enough electrical energy from the sur¬ 
rounding source to run a small motor con¬ 
tinuously for two months and six days 
without being touched. There was enough 
energy in the motor to run a clock and 
other small pieces of machinery or ring a 
large gong. This earth cell can be greatly 
magnified. Its discovery was the begin¬ 
ning of my experiments with wireless tele¬ 
phony. The earth cell was merely buried 
in the ground and connected by wires with 
the motor. The earth’s electrical currents 
supplied it with power. The expense of 
my wireless telephony apparatus will not 
be great—not greater than that used for 
ordinary telephoning, minus the present 
enormous cost of wiring.” 

In May Mr. Stubblefield went to Wash¬ 
ington and conducted a public test in the 
presence of a number of scientists and capi¬ 
talists from Hew York and Chicago. These 
tests were made on board a steamer on the 
Potomac River and on land nearby. Dur¬ 
ing the land tests, complete sentences, fig¬ 
ures and music were heard at a distance of 
several hundred yards, and conversation 
was as distinct as by the ordinary wire 
telephone. Persons each carrying a re- 


The XOorld's Science and Indention 


301 


ceiver and transmitter with two steel rods, 
walking about at some distance from the 
stationary station, were enabled to in¬ 
stantly open communication by thrusting 
the rods into the ground at any point. An 
even more remarkable test resulted in the 
maintenance of com¬ 
munication between 
a station on the shore 
and a steamer an¬ 
chored several hun¬ 
dred feet from the 
shore. Communica¬ 
tion between the 
steamer and the shore 
was opened by drop¬ 
ping the wires from 
the apparatus o n 
board the vessel into 
water at the stern of 
the boat. 

An interesting ar¬ 
ticle bv Professor A. 

e/ 

Frederick Collins, the 
well-known electrical 
scientist in the “Elec¬ 
trical World and En¬ 
gineer,” relates his ob¬ 
servation of the dem¬ 
onstrations of wire¬ 
less telephony and 
gives his opinion as 
to the practical value 
of the invention. He 
savs in part: 

“There are many 
instances where an ordinary telephone 
cannot be employed. As an illustra¬ 
tion let me cite a few cases: Two 
families lived only 1,500 feet apart, and 
where telephones costing $25 per pair 
would have answered the purpose, but 


owing to a railroad operating the adjoining 
properties, permission could not be ob¬ 
tained to stretch the wires; as an experi¬ 
ment the wireless telephone was tried, and 
with success. Another case was in the 
Thousand Islands, where a cable was laid 


AND HIS SON TRANSMITTING MESSAGES BY WIRE¬ 
LESS TELEPHONY. 

from an island to the main land, at a cost 
of $2,000; here, again, a wireless telephone 
could have served the purpose at a cost not 
exceeding $200. A third case is in Har- 
beth, where the borough officials will not 
permit the Bell Telephone company to erect 



NATHAN STUBBLEFIELD 











302 


The XOorld’s Science and Indention 


poles. Two physicians have had telephones 
in their residences for nearly a year, hop¬ 
ing that the* Bell people would effect con¬ 
nection with their lines, one-fourth and one- 
half mile away. The contention was a mat¬ 
ter of one narrow street. This distance 
could have been easily bridged by means of 
a wireless telephone; in fact, communica¬ 
tion was established between one of the 
residences and the writer’s laboratory, 
where three streets intersected the line of 
wave propagation, but as it took place un¬ 
der the surface of the earth, no one objected 
to it. But the most useful sjdiere of the 
wireless telephone, and the one which the 
writer has ever advocated, is its application 
to vessels in harbors. The wireless tele¬ 
phone is a first-hand instrument; it is sim¬ 
ple, reliable, and it may be applied to any 
vessel at a comparatively small cost. 

“The synchronization of wireless tele¬ 
phony is one of the knotty problems. It is 
this question that staggers the most san¬ 
guine ; but if one had asked Professor Bell, 
in 1876, how any two of 40,000 subscribers 
might be put into instant communication 
one with the other, he, doubtless, would 
have found it difficult to even picture in 
his mind’s eye the modern central station 
switchboard. It must be remembered that 
the wire telephone has had engaged in its 
improvement the brightest scientists, the 
most original investigators of the world for 
-a period of over a quarter of a century, and 
this experience and application has brought 
the ‘toy’ to be one of the most potent factors 
of the commercial world. Would that a 
little of such applied energy could be put 
on the wireless telephone.” 

As an evidence that the practical value 
of the wireless telephone is recognized, the 
Gordon Telephone Company of Charleston, 


South Carolina, promptly ordered a com¬ 
plete equipment to connect that city with 
the sea islands along the coast. Only a 
year before, that company spent $25,000 
in one winter to install and maintain its 
marine cables, and the president of the 
company estimated that an equally satis¬ 
factory service by wireless telephone would 
have cost but $2,500 to install. 

Wireless telephony stands in practically 
the same position that wireless telegraphy 
did prior to 1897, for the reason that its 
great value is not realized, since it has not 
been tried by the crucial test of commercial 
usage. As a consequence there are very 
few persons engaged in solving the riddle 
of making it an instrument of wide range 
and indispensable utility. Nevertheless, in 
England and France various inventors are 
now making experimental tests looking for 
the same results. 

At the end of July, 1902, an English 
company announced its incorporation and 
immediate readiness to supply wireless 
telegraph equipment of the Armstrong- 
Orling system, claimed to be much simpler, 
cheaper and more perfect than that of Mar¬ 
coni. Wireless telephone apparatus also 
was offered by the same company, the com¬ 
plete outfit for short distances to cost but 
$20, with a yearly royalty of $5. Thus it 
is that the advance of science and inven¬ 
tion fully keeps up with the most rapid 
material progress of the world. 

<.* jt & 

PERPETUAL MOTION MACHINES 

Perpetual motion was a will-o’-the-wisp 
that led philosophers, scientists and me¬ 
chanics a merry dance for many years. 
Men of wide thought and deep learning 


The 'COorld’s Science and Indention 


303 


spent the best years of their lives trying 
to find the missing link which might give 
them a self-acting machine, that would 
produce power out of itself and hy itself 
and yet never run down. The present gen¬ 
eration of mechanics, however, have had 
little to do with perpetual motion. They 
have laid it on the shelf along with other 
demonstrated impossibilities and chimeras. 

Occasionally some one will bring for¬ 
ward a combination of wheels, gears, levers 
and cams which he declares is a perpetual 
motion machine, but he receives nothing 
hut jeers for a reward. In the earlier part 
of the nineteenth century, however, men be¬ 
lieved that a self-acting perpetual motion 
machine w T as a possibility, and a century 
earlier many patrons of the arts proved 
easv victims of frauds and charlatans, who 
concealed spiral springs and clock work in 
the cases of their machines, and thus proved 
that they had discovered how to make an 
impossibility possible. 

A favorite idea which the old-time per¬ 
petual motion enthusiasts thought to make 
practical was the overbalanced wheel, in 
which weights rolling down toward the rim 
on one side increased the leverage on that 
side, because the rolling weights moved to¬ 
ward the center on the ascending side. A 
! simple test showed that the weights would 
not roll of their own accord, and the in¬ 
ventor bent his energies toward the con¬ 
struction of mechanism which would make 
the weights obedient. 

Hydraulic power was the fundamental 
principle on which numerous perpetual mo¬ 
tion machines were based, and pumps were 
connected with water-wheels in order that 
the water, having done its work on the 
wheel, would he pumped to a height to work 
over again. Capillary attraction was seized 


upon by several perpetual motion mechan¬ 
ics as a source of energy, and levers, 
springs, screw's, cams, eccentrics, weights, 
air, quicksilver, gas, the wind, heat, steam 
and magnetism were used for the purpose 
of bringing perpetual motion into the field 
of applied mechanics. 

Some of the attempts made to secure the 
desired results produced machines curious 
and interesting. One of them used bellows 
which blew up bladders attached to the 
arms of a wheel in a tank of water. This 
was brought out in England in 1823, but 
as usual there was a missing link. Soon 
after this machine was given to the world 
another genius produced a combination 
water-wheel and a rotary pump affair, 
which he declared would certainly run it¬ 
self, through all time. The Archimedes 
screw was utilized by another pursuer of 
perpetual motion. All of these devices 
were brought out during a widespread dis¬ 
cussion in England of the mechanical pos¬ 
sibilities of perpetual motion. The agita¬ 
tion was contemporaneous with the inven¬ 
tion of the steam locomotive, and all Eng¬ 
land was excited over the possibility of 
power producers. Engineers, mechanics, 
scientists and chemists took up the fad, and 
perpetual motion was a living issue. Final¬ 
ly level-headed men combined to fight the 
crazy notion, and their exposures of the 
many frauds which were foisted on the 
people killed the chimera and it was placed 
in the grave with other picturesque hoaxes. 

,•* 

CLOCKS WHICH FURNISH LIGHT 

If a recent invention in the way of time¬ 
pieces comes into general use, we will no 
longer need to he troubled by groping in 
the dark for matches, when we wake up in 


304 


The XiVorld’s Science and Indention 


the night and want to know what time it is. 
One of the big clock manufactories of the 
United States has begun to make and 
sell an ingenious time-piece called the Alad¬ 
din clock. The dial or face of the clock 
upon which the figures are painted to in¬ 
dicate the hours, and over which the hands 
pass as they turn, is made of translucent 
glass, a quality which does not make itself 


apparent under ordinary circumstances, be¬ 
cause there is no light behind it, and conse¬ 
quently it appears like any other enameled 
clock dial. As a matter of fact, however, it 
is not so simple. 

Behind the glass is an electric light, in¬ 
side the clock, which is connected with a 
push button on the end of a long, flexible 
cord in the interior of which wires are car¬ 
ried after the fashion of electrical connec¬ 


tions. This push button is supposed to be 
safely stowed away under the sleeper’s pil¬ 
low when he retires, or else hung from the 
ceiling above his head or over the bedpost, 
as may be most convenient for him. Now 
let the darkness come when it will. If he 
wakes in the night to find an intruder in the 
room, or as a result of sleeplessness, a slight 
pressure on the button will flood the room 


with light in a most mysterious fashion 
from this ingenious clock face, without any 
noise or without any stirring from his posi¬ 
tion. 

It is quite evident that such a time-piece 
has several distinct advantages which are 
bound to make it popular for many uses. It 
is this sort of thing that may be termed a 
genuine “Yankee notion,” and gains for the 
United States the distinction of being a 



“ALADDIN CLOCK,” EQUIPPED WITH ELECTRIC CONNECTION FOR NIGHT USE. 














The i&Jorld'f Science and Indention 


305 


nation of ingenious and deft contrivers, who 
can improve anything if they will only give 
their attention to it. 

*5* £ 

ACETYLENE GAS 

Within comparatively recent times a re¬ 
markably successful illuminant has been 
introduced under the name of acetylene 
gas. It has become familiar rapidly as a 
satisfactory light for buildings, both pub¬ 
lic and private, and has gained great popu¬ 
larity for carriage and bicycle lamps. Its 
brightness shows far through the night, and 
a bicycle lamp equipped with the acetylene 
light is readily distinguishable from its 
less brilliant rivals on the road. 

Acetylene is generated when calcium car¬ 
bide is put into water. Calcium carbide is 
a hard, porous, grayish material, produced 
by fusing pulverized coke and air-slaked 
lime in an electric furnace. One ton of 
this carbide makes 11,000 cubic feet of 
acetylene gas, which, it is said, is equiv¬ 
alent in illuminating power to 264,000 
cubic feet of ordinary coal gas. 

The processes of the manufacture of 
carbide are as follows: Two thousand 
pounds of lime and 1,500 pounds of coke 
are placed in an electric furnace, and the 
product is a ton of calcic carbide. The 
coke is crushed and pulverized by suitable 
machinery, and the lime is slowly air- 
slaked and then is thoroughly mixed with 
the coke. The electrical furnace is built 
of firebrick, and in it is a cast-iron crucible 
about two bv three feet in size. 

The cast-iron plate in the bottom is pro¬ 
tected from the intense heat of the electric 
arc by a thick layer of powdered carbon, 
which is a good conductor of electricity but 
a poor conductor of heat. This plate forms 


one of the “electrodes” or poles of the elec¬ 
tric cable, which conveys the current to the 
furnace. The other electrode is a large 
pencil of carbon, which hangs vertically 
over the plate. It is so arranged that it 
can be lowered until the carbon touches the 
plate, or drawn up and out of the furnace 
altogether. It is connected with the other 
electric cable, both running from an alter¬ 
nating generator. 

The carbon pencil is an important part 
of the outfit. It is made of six carbon 
slabs, each three feet long and four inches 
square, clamped together so as to form a 
composite pencil having a cross section of 
ninety-six square inches. The spaces be¬ 
tween the carbon slabs are filled with pow¬ 
dered coke and coal tar, rammed down hard 
and afterward baked, so that the pencil is 
practically one piece of carbon and is used 
as such. 

When the current is on, an electric arc, 
similar to that formed in an ordinary arc 
light but many times more intense, hotter 
and more brilliant, is formed between the 
cast-iron bottom plate and the great carbon 
pencil. The heat from this arc is so in¬ 
tense that it fuses the coke and lime into a 
solid mass. 

When the furnace is ready to be charged 
the carbon pencil is lowered until it touches 
the bottom electrode, and the mass of com¬ 
bined coke and lime is shoveled in around 
it. Then the doors are tightly closed and 
the current switched on. So long as the 
pencil touches the bottom electrode nothing 
happens except that the current flows 
through the pencil and bottom plate with¬ 
out raising a disturbance. But a great 
change takes place when the attendant, by 
turning a hand-wheel, lifts the pencil a 
short distance from the bottom plate. The 


306 


The XOorld's Science and Indention 


current then leaps across the space and the 
electric arc bursts out, fusing the lime and 
coke around it, thus making calcic carbide. 

As the fusing continues the pencil grad¬ 
ually is lifted higher and higher, for the 
calcium carbide is an excellent conductor, 
and the electric arc is maintained in all of 
its intensity. When the pencil has reached 
its highest point the current is turned off, 
and the contents of the furnace are allowed 
to cool. The product is in the form of a 
cone of calcic carbide, surrounded by the 
lime and coke which was outside of the in¬ 
fluence of the arc. Although the heat of 
the furnace is intense, the coke and lime 
will not fuse unless it is in the fusing zone 
of the arc. The carbide remains un¬ 
changed in dry air, but if it is moistened 
it gives out a thick, heavy gas, which has a 
slight smell of garlic in it, and this is the 
acetylene gas. 

The calcium carbide, when placed in 
water, forms a carbon vapor by the chemi¬ 
cal combination of two parts of carbon with 
two parts of hydrogen. The oxygen com¬ 
bines with the calcium. The gas can be 
used in many ways. It can be distributed 
through street mains, as ordinary gas is 
distributed, but this plan is not regarded 
as the best, because of the great cost of in¬ 
stallation and the leakage. The carbide 
cones themselves can be delivered to resi¬ 
dences, and a small automatic generator 
connected with the gas piping of the house 
will take the place of the gas meter. It is 
easy to liquify this gas, and the liquid gas 
can be stored in small tanks, delivered to 
houses and tapped from reservoirs fitted 
with proper expansion valves. Plants for 
the manufacture of this gas for use on 
farms and country estates can be built at 
small cost, with the result that superior il¬ 


luminating gas may be used far from the 
city. 

The lamps for bicycle use have small 
compartments in which the carbide and 
water are kept separate, the water being al¬ 
lowed to drip through a very small hole, 
one drop at a time, and as the gas is gen¬ 
erated it flows out through a jet where it 
is lighted. This gas gives out no odor or 
smoke when burning, but has a decidedly 
disagreeable smell if it escapes Avithout 
being burned, and this odor will betray a 
leak instantly. The appliances for using it 
are being improved constantly to make it 
safe in handling, and there is no doubt that 
it is an important addition to the list of il- 
luminants in general use. 

& Jt 

FINDING VALUE IN CORN 
STALKS 

It has long been realized that a valua¬ 
ble product of the farm was going to waste 
because of the failure to utilize corn stalks 
to good advantage. Little use has been 
made of them except as fodder and fuel, 
although it has been understood that they 
contain many elements of commercial 
value, if some method of making them 
available could be discovered. Many scien¬ 
tists have turned their attention to this 
matter, with varying success, until finally a 
process and a machine have been invented 
which seem to promise an important devel¬ 
opment in this direction. 

The farmers of the United States of 
America cultivate more than 80,000,000 
acres of corn each year and this enormous 
crop, under present methods, has been 
raised almost entirely for the kernels. A 
feAV husks have been saved for mattresses, 
and a slight per cent of the fodder has been 
fed to stock, but it may be stated roughly 


The 'World's Science and Indention 


307 


that of this great crop hardly more than 
one-half is saved and utilized. It is de¬ 
clared that by processes now developed the 
part which has been wasted can he turned 
into meat, paper, and other products of 
high value. The processes contemplate uti¬ 
lizing every bit of the waste portions of the 
product. 

Each ear of the corn is covered with sev¬ 
eral layers of husks. 

Those next to the ear 
are fine and delicate; 
those on the outside 
are coarser. The finer 
husks have a commer¬ 
cial value outside of 
their use for feed, be¬ 
ing worth several dol¬ 
lars a ton for mat¬ 
tresses and uphol¬ 
stery material. The 
leaves of the cornstalk 
are long and tender, 
and cure naturally in 
the field. They are 
of a high feed value, 
almost wholly digesti¬ 
ble, as the per cent of 
fiber in them is small. 

The leaves, together 
with the coarser husks 
from the ear, are to 
be preserved in this 
process as valuable winter feed for stock. 

The shell and pith of the stalk are direct 
opposites to the leaves in composition. 
When matured the shell becomes hard, 
dense and woody, and after being treated 
in a strong solution of lime will produce 
over sixty per cent of fiber from 100 
pounds of stock. In fact there is almost no 
digestible matter in the shell after it be¬ 


comes dried. Within the shell is the pith, 
which amounts to 23 per cent of the clean 
stalk. This pith has the power of absorb¬ 
ing liquid faster and in larger quantities 
than any other known substance. A pound 
of dried pith will absorb twenty-five times 
its weight of moisture. The stalk, shell and 
pith of the corn stalk are recognized as hav¬ 
ing virtually no food value, for an animal 


fattens on what it digests, not what it eats. 

The ingenious machine which has been 
invented to utilize the waste products of 
the corn plant, separates all of these dif¬ 
ferent elements with the utmost ease, so 
that each one of the by-products can be 
treated on its merits. The de-pithing ma¬ 
chine, when stalks are fed to it as they are 
cut and brought from the field, snaps off 



MILL EQUIPPED FOR TREATING CORNSTALKS. 
















308 


The titorld's Science and Indention 


the ears and drops them on the husking- 
rolls, while the stalks themselves pass into 
another portion of the apparatus. The 
husking-rolls husk the ears, delivering 
them to a conveyer, and the husked ears 
pass into a corncrib. The husks them¬ 
selves pass into the bin. The leaves are 
next stripped off the stalk and are then 
drawn from the machine to another bin. 
The dirt, too, has been cleaned away in the 
2 ?rocess. The clean stalk next passes into 
the de-pithing section of the machine, 
where the shell and the pith are separated 
and deposited on separate conveyers. Thus 
the component parts of the corn plant are 
separated, so that all can be used for what¬ 
ever purpose they are adaptable. 

It is believed that as these machines mul¬ 
tiply there will be some remarkable devel¬ 
opments in the manufacture of paper. To¬ 
day the forests of our country furnish most 
of the fiber out of which the ordinary 
grades of paper are made. These forests 
do not renew themselves, so that the sup¬ 
ply of paper stock is rapidly being reduced. 
Successive corn crops, however, are raised 
every year on the same field, and with the 
shell and the pith of the corn stalk used in 
the manufacture of paper stock, there will 
be a noteworthy change in the paper trade. 
Not only paper, but a multitude of other 
articles made out of wood pulp’ can be 
made out of these hitherto waste products 
of the corn stalk. With these machines put 
into practical operation throughout the 
states of the immense corn belt, the fanner 
should find a great increase in his income 
from the corn fields. Hitherto the farmer 
has received his profit only on the ears of 
corn. If to this we may add several dollars 
an acre for what has been considered a 
waste product, it will go far to increase the 


profits of farming in the Mississippi val¬ 
ley. It is estimated that the annual waste 
of corn stalks in the seven leading corn- 
producing states is nearly 60,000,000 tons, 
valued, if utilized in this manner, at three 
dollars per ton. An increase of $180,000,- 
000 in the farmers’ income in these seven 
states annually would be an item of strik¬ 
ing importance. 

The tendency of great commercial un¬ 
dertakings in this age is to eliminate waste. 
The Chicago packing houses are famous 
largely because there is no waste permitted, 
but some use is made of every ounce of the 
animals slaughtered there. The utilization 
of what were formerly considered waste 
portions has made the great profit of those 
concerns. The utilization of the cotton¬ 
seed for oil and cattle feed saves to the cot¬ 
ton growing states about $60,000,000 a 
year, a sum contributed by what was but a 
few years ago an absolutely waste product, 
a nuisance to the planter, who was seeking 
some cheap way to get rid of it. Most 
careful attention should be paid to the de¬ 
velopment of this new process for utilizing 
corn stalks, in the hope that a similar sav¬ 
ing will be made for the farmer of the 
north. 

& j* jt 

SAVING GOLD FROM SOOT 

In 1900, while workmen were making 
repairs to the roof of a building in the 
Omaha plant of the American Smelter and 
Refining Company, they were amazed to 
find the shingles and boards covered with 
atoms of metal. One of the boards was 
taken to the assayer, who burned it, re¬ 
torted the ashes and imparted the startling 
information that the metal was composed 
of gold, silver, lead and copper. 


The 'World’s Science and Indention 


309 


Other hoards were burned with like re¬ 
sults, and the mystery grew more perplex¬ 
ing. Finally some one standing on the 
roof of the building had occasion to brush 
from his coat sleeves flakes of soot which 
were dropping from the great, rolling 
clouds of smoke and gas emerging from the 
giant stacks near by, and found hits of 
metal, which gave an idea to those who 
were investigating the puzzle. 

Sheets of common cheese cloth, cut to 
fit the interior of the stacks, were pre¬ 
pared. Through the center of the sheets 
were cut holes large enough to allow the 
necessary free draught. The sheets were 
fastened at various heights in the stacks 
and allowed to remain in position for sev¬ 
eral weeks. When removed and subjected 
to treatment the chemist produced gold, sil¬ 
ver, copper and lead worth hundreds of dol¬ 
lars. 

More cheese cloth catchers were inserted 
in the smokestacks, a few feet apart, one 
above the other, from the base to the crown. 
A semi-circular steel house was built, ex¬ 
tending from the furnaces to the base of 
the stacks; a blower was placed in position 
to cool and force the smoke and gas through 
the steel house and up the flues. In its pas¬ 
sage the smoke deposited in the steel house 
hundreds of pounds of grime, which was al¬ 
lowed to gather and pack for six months. 
That of the grime which managed to travel 
through the circular house and reach the 
flues was caught by the cheese cloth, a very 
small portion, practically, escaping to the 
outside. 

When the steel house became filled with 
packed soot—highly inflammable—the 
mass was touched off with a common match 
and allowed to burn for several days, after 
which it was found that there still remained 


in the inciosure many tons of a peculiar, 
dead-looking cinder, hard and worthless in 
appearance. This cinder was run through 
the furnaces, receiving treatment in the 
same manner as the original ores, and read¬ 
ily yielding its precious wealth. 

Twice a year the Omaha plant gathers 
a six months “smokehouse and cheesecloth 
harvest,” receiving 500 tons of cinder, 
which yields more than $25,000. Fifty 
thousand dollars per year scattered over 
Omaha in smoke! That’s what it has 
amounted to for twenty years. 

& S 

THE MARINER’S COMPASS 

The mariner’s compass frequently is re¬ 
ferred to as an example of constancy and 
fidelity, and as an unerring guide whose 
“needle ever points to the north.” The 
“needle which guides the travelers of un¬ 
known wastes” has been endowed by writers 
and poets with all of the virtues commonly 
supposed to reside in gravity, the earth’s 
orbit, the sun, and other things unchange¬ 
able. As a matter of fact, however, the 
magnetic needle in a ship’s compass does 
not always point to the real north; it is 
not “ever constant;” it is as susceptible to 
errors as other products of man’s hands, 
and no navigator who knows his business 
will take his oath that his compass is ab¬ 
solutely correct at all times. 

If the little bar magnet which swings in 
a compass were left undisturbed by outside 
influences; if it were delicately poised and 
nicely adjusted ; if there were no iron, steel 
or other metals susceptible to magnetism in 
the vessel, and if the magnetic pole and the 
geographical pole were one and the same, 
the needle, probably, would ever and always 


310 


The XOorld's Science and In-dention 


point to the north. But the magnetic pole 
is not the geographical pole. 

The earth, itself a great magnet, has its 
negative and positive poles, just as the 
smallest horseshoe magnet, or the tiniest 
bar magnet has, but the earth’s magnetic 
poles are always moving, and this move¬ 
ment, constant though slow, causes that 
“variation” which keeps navigators and 
scientists on guard, making observations, 
drawing magnetic charts, and searching for 
the cause of this pole traveling. 

A bar magnet is a straight bar of steel 
which has been permanently magnetized. 
If a horseshoe magnet were straightened 



THE MARINER’S COMPASS. 


out, it, too, would be a bar magnet, with 
its positive and negative poles at opposite 
ends. Midway between the poles in a bar 
magnet is a point where the magnetism is 
neither positive nor negative. This is the 
neutral ground. 

If a slender piece of wire, or a steel 
needle, is suspended in its center by a 
thread over a bar magnet, the negative end 
of that needle will point toward the posi¬ 
tive end of the magnet, or the positive end 
w 7 ill point to the negative pole. If the 
needle is held directly over the neutral part 
of the magnet it will hang horizontally— 
parallel with the magnet. If it is moved 


toward one of the ends of the bar magnet 
one end of the needle will dip toward it, 
and the nearer it is moved to the end of 
the pole the more the needle will dip, and 
when directly over the pole it will dip as 
nearly straight downward as the thread will 
permit. 

If that bar magnet is jxlaced in a bucket 
of water so that it is just on the surface, 
and the needle is pivoted on a bit of cork 
large enough to make it float, the positive 
end of the needle will point toward the 
negative pole of the magnet, and the nega¬ 
tive end toward the positive pole of the 
magnet. If the needle is floated opposite 
the center of the magnet, it will swing 
around parallel to it; as it is moved toward 
the pole one end will swing more and more, 
until the needle stands at right angles to 
the end of the bar. 

If the magnet is placed under the surface 
of the water an inch or so, the needle not 
only will point toward the pole which at¬ 
tracts it, but will dip toward it also, and 
this is just what happens to the needle in 
a mariner’s compass. It not only swings 
horizontally, but it dips downward also, 
just as though an immense bar magnet 
pierced the center of the globe, with its 
north and south poles sticking out at the 
magnetic poles of the earth. 

To compensate for this dip, the compass 
needles or cards are provided with sliding 
weights, or other adjustments, so that they 
will be kept on a horizontal plane. From 
the poles of every magnet invisible “lines 
of force” shoot out and curve back toward 
the center of the magnet. The space cut by 
these lines of force is called the “magnetic 
field,” and when in this magnetic field a 
freely poised needle will always place it¬ 
self parallel to the lines of force. 






The XOorld's Science and Indention 


311 


From the magnetic poles of the earth, 
lines of magnetic force curve and twist out 
so that the whole globe is covered with 
them. Midway between the poles this mag¬ 
netic force is weak, near the poles it is 
strong, so that the nearer a ship sails to a 
magnetic pole the steadier the compass be¬ 
comes. 

But there are other influences which af¬ 
fect the compass in a ship, and the most 
important one, outside of the variations of 
the world’s lines of force, is the iron and 
steel which go into the making of a ship. 
ISTo material has been found which will 
insulate the magnets in a compass, and the 
immense amount of metal in a ship serves 
as a large magnet to disturb the needle or 
magnetized steel wires in a compass. Many 
methods have been tried to correct the er¬ 
rors caused by iron and steel in a vessel, 
but the careful captain trusts to nothing 
but eternal vigilance and constant testing. 

The little pocket compass, with its tremb¬ 
ling needle shivering on its pivot, would 
not be able to meet all of the requirements 
for a ship’s compass. In fact, the ordinary 
compass used in the wheel house of a ves¬ 
sel has no needle at all, for the magnetic 
steel bars which are used are concealed in 
the “card” that seems to swing from one 
side to the other with every movement of 
the ship. 

As a matter of fact, the card is station¬ 
ary. It is the vessel which moves, and an 
optical illusion gives motion to the card. 
A standard compass, such as is used on 
ocean vessels, is a complicated piece of sen¬ 
sitive mechanism compared to the little 
pocket compass which hoys delight to carry. 

The case which holds the compass is the 
binnacle, and it is fastened securely to the 
deck of the vessel or the floor of the wheel 


house. It is provided with a lamp which 
is so arranged that it throws its light on 
the card in the compass, and nowhere else. 
The compass proper swings on two rings. 
The arms of the outside ring have knife 
edges, which rest on the binnacle. On this 
ring the arms of the inside ring are sus¬ 
pended, so that the compass is always held 
level, no matter how much the vessel rolls 
and pitches, for the two rings make a sort 
of universal joint. 

The inner ring holds the copper howl in 
which is the card. The card rests on a 
brass spindle which supports it on its up¬ 
per end. The card consists of a metal rim, 
somewhat dished, on which the points and 
degrees are marked. Several brass tubes, 
four generally, extend across the space 
within the rim, and these tubes are exactly 
parallel with a line drawn from the point 
“1ST,” which indicates north, and “S,” 
which indicates south. Between the two 
central tubes, and exactly in the center of 
the space, is a brass bulb in the bottom of 
which is a hollowed-out sapphire or some 
other equally hard stone, which rests on the 
point of the brass spindle. In the brass 
tubes that extend from one side of the rim 
to the other, are little steel wires which are 
the bar magnets, the soul of the compass. 
The copper bowl that contains the card, 
spindle and steel magnets, is filled with a 
liquid composed of distilled water and alco¬ 
hol, and the top is covered with a piece of 
clear glass, so that the copper bulb is her¬ 
metically sealed. 

The card thus not only rests on the brass 
spindle, but also partially floats on the 
liquid. This reduces the weight on the 
spindle to a minimum, holds the card 
steady, and serves to compensate for the 
“dip” when the vessel sails nearer the mag- 


312 


The 'tOorld’s Science and Indention 


netic poles. The “lubber’s point” is a mark 
made in the compass, which is in line with 
the keel of the vessel, and this point indi¬ 
cates the direction which the vessel is sail¬ 
ing. The man at the wheel is ordered to 
keep the ship on a certain course, say due 
“north.” With his eye on the card, he 
brings the lubber’s point and the point 
marked “N” on the card together, and 
when, by reason of the wind, wave, or tide, 
the lubber’s point moves to one side or the 
other of “N,” he gives the wheel a turn 
or two and brings the points together again. 

^ 

THE NAUTICAL ALMANAC AND 
ITS IMPORTANCE 

An essential adjunct to the various in¬ 
struments used by navigators for the safe 
handling of ships at sea, is a volume called 
the Nautical Almanac or the American 
Astronomical Ephemeris. To a layman 
this is merely a dull and complicated 
collection of mathematical tables, but to 
the navigator it is a handbook of the high¬ 
est value. 

The business of the Nautical Almanac 
is to predict, one or more years in advance, 
astronomical phenomena, the actual occur¬ 
rence of which is recorded at the observa¬ 
tory, for the use of seamen while on the 
otherwise pathless sea. The compass alone 
is not a sufficient guide for the navigator. 
It simply informs him in an imperfect and 
uncertain manner of the direction of the 
cardinal points, but does not give him the 
slightest information respecting his actual 
position. That can be found out only by 
consulting the heavenly bodies, and that 
the observation may be practical, the posi¬ 
tion of the heavenly bodies at that exact 


time must be known with a high degree of 
accuracy. Those positions are given in the 
Nautical Almanac, which is thus an abso¬ 
lute necessity for seamen. 

The determination of longitudes at sea 
by the method known as the “lunar obser¬ 
vations,” the only method employed in the 
common practice of navigators where 
chronometers are wanting, or are untrust¬ 
worthy, or require verification, depends 
essentially upon the accuracy of the moon’s 
predicted jfiace. 

The superintendent of the Nautical Al¬ 
manac is Professor Simon Newcomb, one 
of the most eminent scientists and astron¬ 
omers in the world. He is assisted by va¬ 
rious other computers, mathematicians and 
astronomers. Professor Newcomb outlined 
the development of the Nautical Almanac 
from the beginning of scientific navigation 
in an interesting interview. 

“Although the theories of Ptolemy were 
founded on a false system,” said Professor 
Newcomb, “they sufficed to predict the posi¬ 
tion of the sun, moon and planets with 
enough accuracy for the calculations of 
astrologers. 

“The great Kepler was obliged to print 
an astrological almanac in virtue of his 
position as astronomer at the court of the 
king of Austria, but notwithstanding the 
popular belief that astronomy had its origin 
in astrology, the writings of astronomers 
proper in all ages show that they never had 
any belief in astrology. Kepler himself 
submitted to the humiliation of preparing 
this almanac only through pressure of pov¬ 
erty. Subsequent ephemerides, giving the 
longitudes of the planets, the position of 
the sun, the time of its rising and setting, 
the eclipses, etc., were issued by Kepler 
and his successors from time to time at 


The 'World's Science and Indention 


313 


irregular intervals. The earliest regular 
ephemerides, so far as I am aware, was the 
French Nautical Almanac, first issued in 
1679 by Picard. It has been continued 
without interruption to the present time. 
The first issue of the British Nautical Al¬ 
manac appeared in 1766, and the United 
States Government undertook the work for 
the benefit of our seamen in 1849 under 
the superintendence of the late Rear-Ad¬ 
miral Davis. 

“There are signal advantages to be de¬ 
rived from the Nautical Almanac which 
concern the navigator, surveyor, astrono¬ 
mer, and geographer. One of them relates 
to the tides. The conduct of a general sys¬ 
tem of tidal observations, their deduction 
and their scientific discussion, by which 
are evolved the rules for the prediction of 
the tides, are all the property of the hydro- 
graphical and astronomical departments of 
the coast survey. But it is the province 
of the Nautical Almanac to present the 
results of these various labors in a manner 
suited to answer the practical demands of 
navigation and engineering. We were for¬ 
merly indebted to observations and deduc¬ 
tions made in France and Great Britain 
for the principal part of our knowledge of 
these interesting and important phenomena. 
The tide tables of the American Statistical 
Almanac and Repository, as well as those 
of the numerous other popular almanacs 
published in this country, which consist 
almost exclusively of the times of high and 
low water, are derived directly from the 
tide tables of the British Almanac, com¬ 
puted, of course, without any reference to 
our own coast and its peculiarities. 

“But it will be readily perceived that if 
the results obtained by La Place on the 
east side of the channel are not applicable 


to the British shores and harbors, still less 
are those derived from observations made 
on the east side of the Atlantic likely to 
represent the real phenomena on the Ameri¬ 
can coasts. In order to be able to give 
rules practically useful to the pilot, engi¬ 
neer and seaman for applying to the ordi¬ 
nary tides corrections depending on the 
moon’s varying distance and declination, 
it is necessary to know to what meridian 
passage, or southing of the moon, the tide 
is due; or what is the distance from the 
land of the general tide-wave that causes 
the local tide which the observer is actually 
registering; or, in short, what is the age 
of the tide when it arrives at any particular 
part of our coast. That knowledge is the 
result of the careful study of a large num¬ 
ber of observations made at various points. 
The age of the tide at London differs from 
that at Key West, and that at Key West, 
again, from that of New York or Hampton 
Roads. 

“The Rautical Almanac, published an¬ 
nually, each number of which consists of 
between 500 and 600 pages, embraces all 
the elements necessary for determining at 
any time the absolute and relative places 
of the sun, moon and seven principal plan¬ 
ets, and of many of the largest and most 
useful of- the fixed stars, together with sev¬ 
eral different series of phenomena for the 
determination of longitudes, such as occul- 
tations of fixed stars and planets by the 
moon, the distances of the moon from the 
fixed stars and planets, the combined tran¬ 
sits of the moon and certain fixed stars, 
eclipses and configurations of Jupiter’s 
satellites, etc. To these are added the 
places of the minor planets and their ele¬ 
ments, with rules and tables for practical 
use in nautical astronomy and land observa- 


314 


The tOorld's Science and Indention 


tions, new rules and methods whenever in¬ 
vented, tables of tides, and a chapter ex¬ 
plaining the plan of work and the mode of 
applying its various parts in practice, in 
which is included some elementary scien¬ 
tific instruction. 

“These details are the results of numer¬ 
ous laborious and complicated calculations. 
Strict and uniform accuracy is an indis¬ 
pensable requisite. In the case of the 
mariner, errors expose life and property to 
danger, and in that of the astronomer on 
the land they cause a waste of time and 
labor, and not seldom the irretrievable loss 
of valuable opportunities. Hone of the 
precautions, therefore, that experience has 
pointed out for the attainment of correct¬ 
ness and for security against mistake, is 
neglected. 

“The Hautieal Almanac is stamped by 
this circumstance with a peculiar character. 
Unfailing precision and exactness are the 
absolute conditions of its usefulness. But 
every person of experience knows that 
neither such extensive computations nor the 
printing of so many figures can he con¬ 
ducted with entire freedom from error, and 
to remedy this defect, inherent in such pro¬ 
ductions, the errors detected are printed 
and the corrections applied in subsequent 
volumes, probably before the first comes 
into general use. 

“The calculations of the Nautical Al¬ 
manac in reference to the sun, moon, and 
principal planets are, in the case of each 
one of them, based upon our own knowl¬ 
edge of their motions and the laws by 
which they are controlled, derived from the 
general theories of celestial mechanics, and 
from observations which, while they test the 
truth of the general theory, lead to the dis¬ 
covery of new facts and data, to the de¬ 


tection of other laws, and to the inference 
of new generalizations. 

“The observations employed comprise all 
the calculations of good authority which, 
from age to age, have accumulated in the 
rich treasury of astronomical science, end¬ 
ing with the latest publications of existing 
observatories and going back to the begin¬ 
ning of authentic history. In order suit¬ 
ably to convey our knowledge of the laws 
governing the motions of the heavenly 
bodies, and regulating their more or less 
rapid change of place, and to put this 
knowledge in a form adapted to the wants 
and uses of the computer, numerical tables 
have to be prepared, of the sun and the 
planets separately, which constitute the 
abbreviated expressions of these laws. 

“The numerical tables greatly facilitate 
the labor of computations. They are the 
computer’s tools of trade. To construct the 
tables; to make, compile and arrange the 
observations; to discuss them; to discover 
and investigate the theories and laws, and to 
invent that kind of logic, the higher mathe¬ 
matics, by which alone such investigations 
can be profitably pursued and their results 
succinctly defined, have been the occupa¬ 
tions in every enlightened age, of the most 
illustrious genius and the most exalted 
talents. And a correct and well-conducted 
astronomical ephemeris, which comes up to 
the latest standard of modern improvement 
and discovery, is to be regarded as the full 
exponent of all this human thought and 
labor. 

“The primary motive for computing and 
publishing the Nautical Almanac was to 
promulgate the lunar method for determin¬ 
ing longitude at sea, and to furnish the 
requisite elements and precepts for the com¬ 
putation of this problem. This was as 


The *€&) or Id's Science and Indention 


315 


early as the year 1767. Its appearance 
created a new era in navigation, to which 
it is now acknowledged to have rendered 
more essential service than anything else 
ever undertaken. 

“On the one hand it is a text-hook of the 
navigator. It informs him of his place 
on the ocean, where there are no other 
guides than the sun and stars. It is his 
intellectual rudder and compass; without 
it no shipmaster leaves the shores of the 
United States. When he loses sight of the 
last lighthouse or headland he turns to that 
for his further direction. On the other 
hand it is the vade mecum of the astrono¬ 
mer, whether stationary or traveling. He 
learns from it in the fixed observatory how 
his instrument must be set that he may see 
any particular body, and what is the pre¬ 
cise moment for observation; and in the 
movable observatory he turns to its pages 
to ascertain how, on any given day, he can 
best determine his latitude and longitude, 
the astronomical bearings of his stations, 
and the rate and error of his chronometer. 
Thus, as the tables of the almanac owe 
their origin to the labors of the observa¬ 
tories, so they repay the obligation by af¬ 
fording the most ready and complete facili¬ 
ties by which those labors are at the present 
time safely and expeditiously conducted.” 

jt & yt 

THERMOMETERS AND THE 
MEASURES OF TEMPERATURE 

The average thermometer is as unreliable 
as an April day. Its column of mercury 
may indicate the proper degree of tempera¬ 
ture, and it may be 10 degrees off. This is 
because the average thermometer is a cheap 
thermometer; it is one of a batch made as 
cheaply as possible, to be sold at a low fig¬ 


ure. A man who owned what he thought 
was a first-class thermometer because it was 
set in a ground glass frame, made a rash 
bet with a neighbor who had a good-looking 
thermometer hanging outside his window. 

Tie bet that a comparison with a “stand¬ 
ard” thermometer would show that his tem¬ 
perature indicator was correct within half a 
degree. The test was made and he was sur¬ 
prised to find that his 
pet thermometer had 
been telling lies every 
day for over a year. 

It was six degrees high. 


“That’s a 
thermometer,” 


m- 


gives 


summer 
said the 

dealer in scientific 
struments. “It 
you good grounds for 
bragging that the tem¬ 
perature on a hot day 
is 100 in the shade.” 

Then he loosened the 
metal scale, slipped it 
down six points and 
said: 

“How it is more near¬ 
ly correct. It’s close 
enough for you, but it 
would scarcely do for 
precise work where 
readings of one-liun- 
dredth of a degree are made.” 

In making a mercurial thermometer of 
the better grade a piece of hard glass tub¬ 
ing is selected. The bore is criticallv ex- 
amined, for it must be narrow, and uni¬ 
form in diameter from one end to the 
other. The bore may be perfectly round 
or elliptical, but whatever its shape it must 
not vary in its size. 

The uniformity is ascertained by meas- 



Thermometer with 
Fahrenheit and 
Centigrade scales. 


















































































316 


The 'GOorld's Science and Indention 


uring a short column of mercury at differ¬ 
ent points in the tube. If the glass tube is 
acceptable the bulb, which serves as a 
reservoir for the mercury, is blown in one 
end. The bulb varies in form, size and 
thickness according to the purpose for 
which the thermometer is intended. It 
may be spherical, pear-shaped, oval, cylin¬ 
drical or tubular. It sometimes is made 
apart from the stem and afterward is 
joined to it. 

This method is preferred for making 
thermometers in which the nicest precision 
is required, for then the bulb having the 
right capacity can be selected. 

The glass-blower who makes a specialty 
of thermometer bulbs pays close attention 
to the thickness of the walls of a bulb. If 
the glass is too thin the bulb will yield to 
atmospheric pressure and raise the zero 
point; if too thick, the bulb will not be 
sensitive enough to. variations in tempera¬ 
ture and the thermometer will be of little 
value. 

When the bulb is properly blown and 
fixed to the end of the glass stem, a second 
bulb is blown a short distance from the 
other end. This second bulb comes into 
use when the mercury is put into the stem 
and bulb of the thermometer. This is done 
at the time the second bulb is made, for be¬ 
fore the glass is half cooled, the open end is 
plunged into the mercury, which gradually 
rises in the tube. The tube is allowed to 
cool, and again is heated, more mercury is 
“sucked in,” and so, by judicious heating 
and cooling, the lower bulb is filled. 

A wire handle then is bent around the 
tube to hold it while it is heated over a 
suitable furnace until the mercury boils, 
and boiling expels the air in the tube. The 
open end of the tube is kept cooler than the 


stem and lower bulb, and while the mer¬ 
cury is boiling, some sealing wax is placed 
over the open end. This seals the tube and 
prevents the air from entering. 

When the partly made thermometer is 
cooled, the quicksilver fills the tube and 
bulb below the upper bulb. The lower bulb 
is then heated until the mercury expands 
and runs into the upper bulb, and just as 
the column of mercury begins to go back 
in cooling the glassblower hermetically 
seals the tube just below the upper bulb, 
which is then drawn off. This leaves the 
mercury in a vacuum in the tube, and the 
thermometer is ready to be graduated. 

This is not done immediately, however. 
It is stored for some time and heated for 
several days to 50 or 100 degrees above the 
temperature it is intended to indicate. 
There is a good reason for this, because if 
a thermometer is graduated soon after it 
is made the “zero” point rises in a short 
time, and is incorrect from \ to 3 or more 
degrees. This is due to the imperfect 
elasticity of glass. 

Glass when heated expands, but does not 
return to its former dimensions for some 
time after it is cold. In a few months 
after it has been filled a thermometer bulb 
shrinks. This shrinkage reduces its origi¬ 
nal capacity and, of course, squeezes the 
mercury up into the stem, causing the zero ' 
point—the basis of the graduation—to 
rise, and thus throwing the entire ther¬ 
mometer out of “true,” as a mechanic 
would put it. For this reason the gradua¬ 
tion is deferred until the glass has settled 
into a normal condition. When this period 
of probation is at an end the thermometer 
is ready to have its degrees marked on it. 

Two points are fixed. The lower usually 
is taken first. It indicates the freezing 


The 'C&Jorld.'s Science and Indention 


317 


point of water, and on the Fakrenheit scale, 
the one commonly used in the United 
States, is 32 degrees above zero. The 
higher point indicates the boiling point of 
water, and on the Fahrenheit scale is 212 
degrees above zero. Water the world over 
freezes at the same temperature, hence it 
gives an accurate and easy standard for set¬ 
ting a mark from which to graduate ther¬ 
mometers. Water at the same altitude 
always boils practically at the same tem¬ 
perature, so that w r ater, under two differ¬ 
ent conditions, can set the two marks on a 
thermometer. The freezing point is found 
by placing the thermometer vertically in 
finely pounded melting ice, contained in 
a vessel which permits the water to drain 
away. The whole of the mercurial column 
is plunged into the ice and kept there for 
half an hour. Then it is lifted just high 
enough to show the top of the mercury, and 
its position is marked, and that mark rep¬ 
resents 32 on the scale. The temperature 
of boiling water is the higher fixed point. 
The thermometer is immersed in the steam 
of water boiling freely, and when the mer¬ 
cury refuses to rise higher the point is 
marked, and this point is 212 on the scale. 

The space between the lower or freezing 
point and the upper or boiling point is di¬ 
vided into 180 degrees, and this division is 
carried below the freezing point 32 degrees 
to mark the zero point. 

The centigrade scale is used largely in 
Europe and by chemists and scientists in 
America. In this scale the freezing point 
is zero and the boiling point is marked 100. 
The space between is divided into 100 de¬ 
grees. In the notation employed for ther¬ 
mometer readings “C” is the abbreviation 
used for centigrade and “Fahr” for Fahren¬ 
heit. Reaumur thermometers, used in Ger¬ 


many, Russia, Holland and other parts of 
Europe, are graduated from 0, freezing 
point, to 80, boiling point. The centigrade 
system of graduation is becoming more 
popular every year. The countries which 
use it most are those which employ the 
metric system of weights and measures. 
Until we adopt the latter, we shall prob¬ 
ably continue to measure our temperature 
by the less logical Fahrenheit scale. 

Some thermometers intended for use in 
very cold countries have determined on 
their scales a point much lower than any 
marked on ordinary thermometers. It is 
the freezing point of mercury, and mercury 
freezes at 40 degrees below zero. This low 
point is determined as follows: 

From seventeen to twenty pounds of mer¬ 
cury are used for the freezing mixture, and 
it is first cooled down to about 10 degrees 
below zero. Carbon dioxide is a gas which 
is capable of being liquefied under great 
pressure. When this liquid is permitted to 
expand freely into gas again it forms arti¬ 
ficial snow, intensely cold. To freeze the 
mercury, liquid carbon dioxide is used. 
The gas is allowed to escape for about a 
minute, during which time about 550 
grains of solid carbon dioxide are deposited 
in the form of snow. This is laid on the 
surface of the mercury, together with some 
ether. When it is all mixed together, the 
liberated gas and ether vapor, escaping 
through the mercury, cool it down and 
cause it to solidify on the surface, which is 
then stirred in. This causes the mercury to 
become pasty, and then the thermometer is 
plunged into the frozen quicksilver, and 
thus the point of freezing mercury is de¬ 
termined. For low temperatures alcohol is 
most suitable, as it does not become solid 
until —130.5 degrees is reached. 


31S 


The XOor Id's Science and Indention 


ROUEN’S AIR FERRY, ODDEST 
OF BRIDGES 

Rivers have played an important part 
in the development of civilization. They 
have been the highways of communication 
by which mankind has explored the world, 


extended settlement and transported prod¬ 
ucts, long before railways began in part to 
supplant them in importance. At the 
mouths of the rivers grew the ports where 
commerce interchanged between sea and 
land, and so the world’s greatest cities in 
large degree have been dependent upon 


these jDaths of nature for their prosperity. 

Not to be hemmed in and limited by the 
rivers which served them so well, men early 
had to devise some means of crossing them 
regularly, rapidly and safely. So the very 
beginnings of civil engineering may be 
found in this necessity of establishing some 

way of crossing 
rivers. Among the 
means which the en¬ 
gineer has hitherto 
employed to cross 
rivers and channels 
are boats or ordinary 
ferries, swing, draw, 
bascule and ordinary 
bridges, tunnels un¬ 
der the beds of chan¬ 
nels and traveling 
carriers. 

The “Pont Trans- 
bordeur,” or over¬ 
head ferry, which 
has been built and is 
now in successful op- 
e r a t i o n over the 
River Seine, at 
Rouen, Prance, rep¬ 
resents the solution 
in a novel way of one 
of the most interest¬ 
ing problems in en¬ 
gineering. There is 
nothing like this 
overhead ferry in 
any other country in the world. 

The swing, draw and bascule bridges 
can be safely used only over locks, inland 
canals or rivers, where a vessel can be un¬ 
der perfect control in all kinds of weather. 
Ordinary bridges are more satisfactory 
than the others, but if they are to cross a 





































































The XOorld’s Science and Indention 


319 


river leading to an important liarbor they 
should be of a height to permit a ship with 
the tallest mast to pass under. Some masts 
are 200 feet above the water. Inclines or 
elevators must be used to reach the bridge 
level, and the reason that there are so few 
bridges like the Forth Bridge in Scotland 
and the Brooklyn Bridge is their great cost. 
The objection to tunnels is the great cost 
and risk in building. Many large tunnels 
under water have been abandoned, and even 
when built they are not greatly appreciated 
by the general public. 

The overhead ferry system remedies all 
these drawbacks. The advantages of the 
system are: The channel to be crossed is 
left entirely clear at all hours, without re¬ 
quiring vessels to make any special signals 
or modify their rate of speed any more than 

thev would in the case of a cross-channel 

*/ 

ferry. No increase of distance or ascent 
or descent is forced on the traffic in order 
to cross from one shore to the other. 

The essential part of the system may be 
described as a horizontal railway supported 
by a bridge spanning the channel and built 
up at such a height as will allow the tallest 
masted vessels frequenting the channel to 
pass beneath. 

The platform of the bridge carries two 
lines of rails, over which a carriage on 
small wheels rolls, the number of wheels 
varying with the weight to be carried. The 
rollers are connected with a movable frame 
under the line of rails, which may freely 
move in a longitudinal direction quite close 
to the platform and from one end to the 
other of same. Thus is provided a rudi¬ 
mentary vehicle which can cross the chan¬ 
nel without interfering in any way with the 
opening which is to remain clear. 

In order to obviate any swinging motion 


which might result from the pressure of the 
wind or the forward motion of the carrier 
itself, the rods by which the latter is sus¬ 
pended are arranged in triangles, both in the 
longitudinal and transversal directions. 
There is thus a little railway for crossing 
the river, with this difference, that the body 
of the vehicle, instead of being above the 
rails and wheels as usual, is some 140 or 1G0 
feet below these. All day and all night this 
peculiar car travels back and forth across 
the Seine, proving its efficiency by handling 
a large traffic without delay or accident. 

The Rouen bridge ferry offers an inter¬ 
esting contrast to the tower bridge of Lon¬ 
don, the elevator bridge of Chicago, and 
the great Brooklyn bridge, all of which are 
pictured in this volume. 

Siberia is traversed by a great number of 
large rivers, and travel through the sparsely 
settled country has not been sufficient to 
warrant the construction of costly bridges, 
nor yet to maintain expensive power fer¬ 
ries. These conditions have established a 
novel and cheap form of ferry which is 
commonly found in that great northern 
land. The ferry boat to be utilized is an¬ 
chored in the middle of the river by a cable 
about three times as long as the width of the 
stream from bank to bank. The boat, of 
course, swings with the current down 
stream from the place of anchorage. By 
merely steering with tbe rudder, the in¬ 
genious boatmen make use of the current 
itself to drive their craft to one shore or 
the other, back and forth at will, on the 
arc of a great circle. A landing at either 
side is prepared, and they are ready for 
business, with true economy of power. For 
several months in the year these rivers are 
closed by ice, when sleds supplant the 
ferries, which await the return of summer. 



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BOOK III 


Marvelous Peculiarities and Noteworthy Facts 

of all Nations and Countries 
of the World 


SETTLEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS OF NATIONALITIES 

IN THE UNITED STATES 


“.From whence came we?” may not be 
so interesting to us as, “whither do we go ?” 
hut it offers some curious facts as to “who 
are we ?” 

At the close of the Revolutionary War, 
there were probably but little more than 


three million persons composing the new 
nation. It is estimated that from the 
Declaration of Independence until the 
census in 1820, there were not more than 
250,000 immigrants, although there were 
enrolled at that time a total population of 



THE AMERICAN LIBERTY BELL. LEAVING PHILADELPHIA FOR A GREAT EXPOSITION 










322 


JVotetvorthy Facts of All JVations 


9,638,453. From that census up to 1902, 
there came into the United States a little 
more than 21,000,000 immigrants, from 
nearly a hundred different nations, thus, 
with the natural increase, bringing the 
population up to nearly eighty millions in 
1902. 

The colored race in the United States, 
being free from addition by immigration, 
except in the time previous to 1800, shows 
a remarkable ratio in the increase by birth, 
notwithstanding the fact that their death 
rate is estimated to be much greater than 
that of the w r hite people. 

In 1790 there were 757,208 colored per¬ 
sons in the United States; in 1840, 2,873,- 
648; in 1890, 7,470,040, and in 1902, an 
estimated number of about 9,000,000. They 
were first brought as slaves, 20 in number, 
to Jamestown, Virginia, in 1619. In 1624 
there were but 24 in the colonies; in 1648 
there were 300. Then their service as to¬ 
bacco raisers caused them to be imported in 
great numbers. 

Although the Spaniards made permanent 
settlements at St. Augustine in 1565, at 
Santa Fe in 1581, and at New Orleans in 
1763, they never increased in numbers and 
so have made little impression on the gen¬ 
eral civilization of the country. 

The English began their settlement at 
Jamestown, Virginia, in 1607, but during 
the rule of Cromwell, the cavaliers or ad¬ 
herents of the Stuarts, came over in such 
numbers that their character was given to 
the social and political nature of the whole 
population. The descendants of these peo¬ 
ple moved west and their spirit dominated 
the western belt, covering Kentucky and 
Tennessee. 

Under the persecutions of the Stuarts, 

the Puritans to the number of about 21,000 


came to America, spreading from the first 
settlement made by them at Plymouth, in 
1620, among numerous branches. The 
descendants of these likewise moved west, 
and it is estimated that at least 13,000,000 
residents of the north trace their ancestry 
to those sources. 

The French came from Canada to the 
Mississippi Valley and finally made a per¬ 
manent settlement at Saint Louis in 1764. 
They had come already, in 1718, in con¬ 
siderable numbers from the French West 
Indies to New Orleans. They have had 
no perceptible migrations, but their influ¬ 
ence along the track of their first settle¬ 
ments has been widely felt. 

The English Catholics came to St. 
Mary’s in Maryland, in 1634, and their 
line of migration can be distinctly traced 
along the Ohio Valley, but they chiefly 
populated the surrounding region. 

The English Quakers came to Philadel¬ 
phia in 1683 and their influence was for 
nearly two centuries dominant throughout 
Pennsvlvania. 

c/ 

The English debtors and paupers who 
were taken to Savannah in 1733 went west¬ 
ward and settled the interior portions of 
Georgia and Alabama, the line extending 
on through into Arkansas and Missouri. 

The Dutch settled the present site of 
New York City in 1613. Not having a 
migrating character, they remained to be¬ 
come the chief social and commercial fac¬ 
tors of the metropolis. Three presidents of 
the United States are of that ancestry. 
Some of the poorer classes moved westward 
into Pennsylvania where they still retain 
many of their old customs. 

The Germans made their first settlement 
at Germantown, near Philadelphia, in 
1683. The ground was bought from Will- 


JVotebvorthy Facts of All Stations 


323 


iam Penn by Jacob Telner of Crefeld, a 
town on the lower Rhine near the boundary 
line of Holland. They were members of 
the sect known as Mennonites. Since then 
the immigration from Germany has exceed¬ 
ed that of any other nation. 

The Hebrews came first to Hew York in 
1654, from Brazil, twenty-seven in number. 
Their baggage was seized on landing to pay 
their passage, and this not being sufficient, 
two of their number were seized and im¬ 
prisoned till the remainder was paid. On 
July 7, 1733, while Governor Oglethorpe 
and his colonists were assembled at a public 
dinner on the present site of Savannah, 
forty Hebrews from London sailed up the 
river, landed there and proceeded to make 
themselves at home. It created a sensation, 
both among the colonists and the London 
owners of the land, but Oglethorpe was 
their friend and they remained to become 
the most influential citizens of the South 
Atlantic seaboard. 

In 1638 the Swedes formed a settlement 
on the Delaware River, but were compelled 
to give up their charter to the land, between 
the encroachments of the Dutch and the 
claims of the Quakers. 

Italians, Chinese and other immigrants 
who did not come to make this country 
their home, nowhere have become fixtures 
as citizens or influential factors in civiliza¬ 
tion, except in isolated instances. 

The Norwegians were among the latest 
of the permanent additions to the popula¬ 
tion of the country. 

The Albany Patriot of October 24, 1825, 
contained the following news item: “On 
Saturday, as we are informed, the Nor¬ 
wegian emigrants that lately arrived in a 
small vessel at New York, passed through 
this city, on their way to their place of 


destination. They appear to be quite 
pleased with what they see in this country, 
if we may judge from their good humored 
countenances. Success attend their efforts 
in this asylum of the oppressed.” 

These fifty persons were the first Nor¬ 
wegians to settle in the United States, and 
their destination was Murray, now Ken¬ 
dall, in Orleans County, New York. Their 
line of migration was southwest, reaching 
as far as Central Illinois, with a few fami¬ 
lies in Kansas and Missouri. In later years 
they have settled in the states of tlie upper 
Mississippi valley. 

The Irish immigration began with the 
revolution and was without record, previous 
to the census of 1820. It was confined al¬ 
most wholly to the cities, of which New 
York was the center. No other nationality 
has had such a large share of influence on 
the politics of the Nation. 

According to the census of 1900, the 
principal foreign-born population of the 
United States was as follows: Germans, 
2,600,000; Irish, 1,780,000; British, 
1,245,000; Scandinavians, 1,040,000; Rus¬ 
sians and Poles, 700,000, and other miscel¬ 
laneous nationalities to the total of 10,- 
160,000. 

^ .jt 

GREATEST FACTS IN THE 
HISTORY OF THE 

UNITED STATES 

Types of civilization in first settlements: 

The French at St. Louis, Feb. 15, 1764, 
at New Orleans in 1718. 

The Spaniards at St. Augustine, in 1565, 
and at New Orleans in 1763. 

The English cavaliers at Jamestown in 
the settlement made in 1607. 

The English Puritans at Plymouth in 
1620. 



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flotetvorthy Pacts o_f All Stations 


3 l z5 


The English Catholics at St. Mary’s in 
1634. 

The English Quakers at Philadelphia in 
1683. 


Missouri Compromise of 1850. 
Civil War, 1861 to 1865. 
Emancipation Proclamation, 


1863. 


Jan. 


1 , 



•‘LIBERTY ENLIGHTENING THE WORLD.” 

'he Bartholdi Statue in New York Harbor, which greecs Immigrants arriving in the United States from Europe. 


English debtors and paupers, Savannah, 
in 1733. 

The Swedes at Wilmington in 1638. 

The Dutch at New York in 1613. 

The Germans at Germantown in 1683. 

Declaration of Independence, July 4, 
1776. 

Articles of Confederation adopted 1777. 

Treaty of Peace between Great Britain 
and United States confirmed by Congress 
January, 1784. 

*J * 

Adoption of Constitution of United 
States in 1787. 

Organization of Northwest 
Territory in 1787. 

Louisiana Purchase in 1803. 

War with Great Britain de¬ 
clared June, 1812. 

Purchase of Florida in 1819. 

Missouri Compromise in 
1820. 

Annexation of Texas in 1845. 

War with Mexico, 1846. 

Settlement of Bou n d a r y 
Question in Northwest, 1846. 

Acquisition of New Mexico 
and California in 1848. 

Discovery of gold in Cali¬ 
fornia in 1S49. 


Reconstruction Act, March 2, 1867. 
Purchase of Alaska in 1867. 

Annexation of Hawaii, July, 1898. 
Spanish-American War in 1898. 

Cession of Philippines and Porto Rico 
in 1898. 

Philippine War begun Jan., 1899. 

J* v* 

HOW IMMIGRANTS COME TO 
AMERICA 

America, almost from the first days of 
the discovery of the continent, has been 
recognized as the place of liberty 
for the oppressed of all other 
countries. The magic word lib¬ 
erty has appealed to millions of 
people the world over, who have 
sought our shores as immigrants 
to find a new home in a land of 
freedom. Eor many years few 
limitations were placed upon in¬ 
coming strangers from foreign 
lands. But as their numbers 
increased and our public domain 
of unsettled lands diminished, 
it was realized that the wiser 
course was to limit the numbers 
and to improve the quality of im- 































32G 


J'folebuorthy Facts of Alt Stations 


migration where possible. Chinese immi¬ 
gration was altogether forbidden, and cer¬ 
tain restrictions'were adopted to safeguard 
the nation from improper European immi¬ 
grants. 

It must he admitted, however, that in 
spite of legislation forbidding the importa¬ 
tion of laborers under contract and the ex¬ 
action of certain standards of health, intel¬ 
ligence, and money from the immigrants 
seeking admission, the conditions have not 
greatly improved. The influx of immi¬ 
grants from Hungary, Italy and Russia of 
late years, has been enormous, while there 
has been a gradual reduction in the num¬ 
bers from Germany, Scandinavia and the 
British Isles, or the more desirable elements 
of population. . Of course, it is to be ex¬ 
pected that Hungarians, Italians and Rus¬ 
sian Jews will develop into good American 
citizens at least in the second generation 
here, if not in the first. But they come 
to this country with but faint realization 
of the ideals and aspirations of Americans 
and little prepared for the liberty which 
rules here. They do not assimilate with the 
American and the Northern European ele¬ 
ments of our population, nor do they scat¬ 
ter into the country, but, forming their 
own communities in our great cities, they 
help to add to the puzzling problems which 
lace our students of municipal life. 

The greatest number of immigrants 
reaching the shores of America enters by 
way of the port of New York. The first 
conspicuous object which greets them and 
for which they have been looking all the 
way across the Atlantic, for it is famed 
throughout Europe, is the great Bartholdi 
statue of “Liberty Enlightening the 
World,” that splendid emblematic figure 
which rises from a little island in New York 


harbor to welcome the stranger. Most of 
the immigrants know something of the sig¬ 
nificance of the statue and it rarely fails 
to impress them. 

This famous statue was designed by Bar¬ 
tholdi, a great French sculptor, and was 
given to the people of the United States 
by the people of France. The site on Bed- 
lo’s Island was set aside for it by the 
United States government, and the pedes¬ 
tal was erected by funds given by contrib¬ 
utors from all oyer the United States. The 
statue is made of thin sheets of copper 
beaten into shape and fastened about an 
iron skeleton. The figure of the statue 
itself is 110} feet high and weighs 100,000 
pounds. The uplifted torch extends this 
height twenty-six feet more, and adding to 
this the pedestal, the tip of the torch is ele¬ 
vated 220 feet from the ground. The 
pedestal is of stone, eighty-two feet high. 
Some idea of the enormous proportions of 
the statue may be given from the fact that 
the forefinger is eight feet long and four 
feet in circumference at the second joint. 
The head is fourteen feet high, and forty 
persons can stand in it. The observation 
balcony around the torch, just below the 
flame, is a favorite viewpoint for travelers 
who wish to see the whole of New York 
City, with large portions of Long Island, 
the New Jersey coast, and New York har¬ 
bor spread out before them in one splendid 
panorama. 

Closely associated with the idea of lib¬ 
erty itself, is that splendid relic now con¬ 
sidered our chief emblem of independence, 
the old Liberty Bell of Pennsylvania. The 
order for the bell was given in 1751. The 
State House of Pennsylvania, in Phila¬ 
delphia, work on which had been suspended 
for a number of years, was then approach- 


327 


JVoteKvorthy Facts of All JVattons 



ing completion. A committee was ap¬ 
pointed to have a new bell cast for the build¬ 
ing, and the contract was awarded to a 
London manufacturer, the specification 
being that the bell should weigh 2,000 
pounds and cost £100. 

In August, 1752, the bell arrived, but 
though in apparent good order, it was 
cracked by a stroke of the clapper while 
being tested. The bell was recast, and the 
new bell was found to be defective also. 
Once again there was a recasting of the 
metal, with the alloy of copper in a new 
proportion, and this third effort was a suc¬ 
cess. 

It was on Monday, the 8th of July, 177G 
(not the 4th), that the bell rang out the 
memorable message of liberty and signaled 
the promulgation of the Declaration of In¬ 
dependence. It seemed strikingly prophetic 
that the bell should have been cast with 
the motto, “Proclaim liberty throughout all 
the land, unto all the inhabitants thereof.” 
For fifty years the bell continued to be 
rung on every festival and anniversary, 
until it eventually cracked in July, 1835, 
when it was tolling for the death of Chief 
Justice John Marshall. 

Since that time the bell has been one of 
the chief attractions to Americans visiting 
Philadelphia, and its place in the State 
House has been a shrine for patriots. Of 
late years the bell has been a conspicuous 
attraction at the various great expositions 
held in the United States. Wherever it 
has been taken, to Chicago, Omaha, Nash¬ 
ville, Buffalo, Charleston or elsewhere, its 
journey has been a triumphal progress, and 
thousands of interested citizens have turned 
out along the way to watch its train in 
passing. Significant as it is, as a memo¬ 
rial of those colonial days when our fore- 












32.8 


JVote\a)orthy Pacts of All stations 


fathers were struggling for independence, 
this Liberty Bell and the Statue of Liberty 
seem linked together through the century 
by a common significance. 

j* 

IMMIGRATION STATISTICS 

The latest statistics of immigrants into 
the United States from all the world since 
18G7 are given herewith. It is interest¬ 
ing to note the periods of fluctuation that 
mark the successive years. The increase 
from the end of the Civil War to the panic 
of 1873 was large and almost uninter¬ 
rupted. Then came a rapid decrease, and 
until the return of striking prosperity in 
1880, the numbers were comparatively 
small. The next few years showed enor¬ 
mous immigration, with 1882 as the high¬ 
est water-mark. Again, however, there was 
a steady decrease for a few years, although 
the tide turned in 1887. When our last 
panic came, in 1893, it cut down immigra¬ 
tion very rapidly, and since that time, coin¬ 
cident with a more exacting administration 
of the immigration laws, the numbers have 
never again approached their highest point, 
although since 1898 there has been an an¬ 
nual increase. The figures for the years 
indicated follow herewith. It should be 
understood that the calculations are made 
at the close of each fiscal vear, which ends 
with June 30. 


1867 . 298,967 

1868 . 282,189 

1869 . 352,569 

1870 . 387,203 

1871 . 321,350 

1872 . 404,806 

1873 . 459,803 

1874 . 313,339 

1875 . 227,498 

1876 . 169,986 

1877 . 141,857 


1878 . 138,469 

1879 . 177,826 

1880 . 457,257 

1881 . 669,431 

1882 . 788,992 

1883 . 603,322 

1884 . 518,592 

1885 . 395,346 

18S6. 334,203 

1887 . 490,109 

1888 . 546,8S9 

1889 . 444,427 

1890 . 455,302 

1891 . 360,319 

1892 . 623,084 

1893 . 502,917 

1894 . 285,631 

1895 . 258,536 

1896 . 343,267 

1897 . 230,832 

1898 . 229,299 

1899 . 311,715 

1900 . 448,572 

1901 . 487,918 


& & 

OUR AMERICAN ARCHIVES AND 
NATIONAL INSTITUTIONS 

That which might be known as the 
archive of American relics is the Smith¬ 
sonian Institution or National Museum at 
Washington. It attained its present form 
when, in 1881, the building now occupied 
was completed for the national relics that 
had been transferred from the Centennial 
Exposition and the old buildings of the 
Smithsonian Institution. Although the 
relics of the Museum and the Institution 
are housed together, and are under the same 
management, they are separate organiza¬ 
tions. So, with the ten million dollars 
given to the government by Andrew Car¬ 
negie for the establishment of a university 
of post-graduate scientific investigation, the 
three will be made to work together in har¬ 
mony, which, with the nearness of the great 





































otebuorthy Facts of Alt JSfattons 


329 


Congressional Library, and the many bu¬ 
reaus of the government, such as the Fish 
Commission, Geological, Coast, and Geo¬ 
detic surveys, the Naval Observatory, and 
the Weather, Botanical, Biological and En¬ 
tomological Bureaus, will together make the 
greatest post-graduate university in the 
world. 

<£ <£ 

POPULATION AREAS OF THE 
UNITED STATES 

America’s “seat of empire” is found in 
the prairie region of the Central West, of 
which Chicago is the 
commercial metropolis. 

The flat or undulat¬ 
ing prairie, in its nat¬ 
ural state almost bare 
of trees, but covered 
with luxuriant grasses, 
now constitutes the top¬ 
ographic division of the 
United States which 
contains the greatest 
population. The prairie 
as the home of Amer¬ 
ican citizens has out¬ 
stripped all compet¬ 
itors. Neither the pop¬ 
ulous New England hills nor the great At¬ 
lantic coast plain, with its large cities and 
many thriving towns, nor yet the vast in¬ 
terior timbered region with all its wealth 
and opportunity* has kept pace with the 
beautiful prairie of the West. 

According to the geographers of the cen¬ 
sus bureau, continental United States is 
divided into nineteen regions, each having 
somewhat uniform physiographic features. 
The population of these regions and their 
percentage of the whole population of the 
United States is as follows: 


Population. Pet. 

Prairie region.13,300,970 17.5 

New England hills (in¬ 
cludes New York City 
and a strip of eastern 
New York State, also 


the Adirondacks). 

10,260,153 

13.5 

Lake region. 

9,571,215 

12.6 

Interior timbered region. 

8,129,760 

10.7 

Piedmont region. 

6,809,103 

9.0 

Coastal plain (east of 



Mississippi river).... 

6,427,635 

8.4 

Allegheny plateau. 

6,070,246 

8.0 

Appalachian valley. 

4,499,072 

5.9 


Coastal plain (west 

of 


Mississippi river). 

. . . 1,974,677 

2.6 

Coast lowlands. 

. .. 1,865,952 

2.4 

Mississippi alluvial 

re- 


gion. 

. . . 1,227,094 

1.6 

Ozark hills. 

. . . 1,203,880 

1.6 

Coast ranges. 

. . . 1,079,992 

1.4 

Great plains. 

. . . 1,052,719 

1.4 

Pacific valley. 

. . . 995,363 

1.3 

Rocky mountain. 

... 592,972 

0.8 

Great basin. 

.. . 375,345 

0.5 

Columbian mesas.. . . 

. . . 356,758 

0.5 

Plateau region. 

. . . 201,669 

0.3 


It is the theory of scientific statisticians 
that geographic differences exert a profound 























330 


JVotetvorthy Facts of Alt Rations 



the United States into natural rather than 
into political regions, it certainly is a note¬ 
worthy fact that at the beginning of the 
new century the prairie region stands first 
in the list. 

More than one-sixth of the whole pop¬ 
ulation of the continental United States 
lives upon the prairie. The people of the 
prairie equal one-third of the population 
of France. They are as many as the peo¬ 
ple of Germany, leaving out Prussia and 
Bavaria. They equal one-half of the popu¬ 
lation of England and Wales. They almost 
exactly duplicate, in number, the 
entire population of Mexico, and 
are but a little short of the total 
. number in Spain. They outnum¬ 
ber the combined jiopulations of Bel¬ 
gium and Holland. 

Strictly speaking, Chicago is not 
itself in the prairie region. Accord¬ 
ing to the geographers of the cen¬ 
sus, the great western metropolis 
stands within the lake region, a few 
miles from the line where the 
mighty prairies begin their stretch 
toward the west and south. This 
lake region is third in the list of 
great topographical divisions of the 
United States, and the two areas 
which lie on either side of Chicago 

O 

contain together a population of 
nearly 23,000,000, or 30 per cent 
of the entire population of the 
United States. If to these two be 
added the interior timbered region 
lying near to Chicago on the south¬ 
east, and embracing most of In¬ 
diana, Ohio and Kentucky, and 
small parts of Illinois, Tennessee 
and Missouri, it will be found that 
the three regions adjacent and 


influence upon the people subject to them. 
They contend, therefore, that a division of 
the country into well-marked natural re¬ 
gions affords a better basis for classifica¬ 
tion of the population of the United States 
than the political lines often arbitrarily 
run. Nature, not man, fits a country for 
population, and the population will be 
great or small according to the advantages 
or disadvantages which nature herself has 
prescribed. Geology, topography, altitude, 
rainfall, temperature and soil—these are 
tiro determining factors. Thus dividing 


TAXIDERMIST AT WORK. 














331 



JVotetvorthy Facts of All Stations 


tributary to Chicago comprise more than 
two-fifths of the people of the United States. 

It is worthy of note that the second most 
populous topographical region, the New 
England hills, is the section which gave 
blood and bone and sinew and spirit to the 
prairie and the other 
areas of the farther 
West. The “star of 
empire” has taken its 
way from these hills 
to the timbered coun¬ 
try beyond the moun¬ 
tains, to the borders of 
the great lakes, to the 
mighty prairie. There 
is a homogeneousness be¬ 
tween the people of all 
four of these natural di¬ 
visions of the continent 
which cannot be found 
between any other pop¬ 
ulous areas; and these 
four together furnish 
homes for 54 per cent 
of the people of the 
United States. 

je S j * 

FACTS ABOUT OUR 
POSTAL SERVICE 

Uncle Sam has many 
functions to perform in 
his capacity of govern¬ 
ing a great country. 

With his army, he is 
a policeman; with his 
treasury department, he 
is a banker; with his agricultural depart¬ 
ment, he is a farmer; and with his mail 
service, he is a postman, to say nothing of 
a great many other functions of governing 


which might be named. In his capacity 
as a postman, Uncle Sam’s mail routes now 
include the delivery of letters to the Phil¬ 
ippines, to the West Indies, and to Alaska, 
as well as all over the United States. Per¬ 
haps most difficult of all these mail routes, 


AT WORK IN THE CENSUS BUREAU. 

although not the longest, is that by which 
the miners and whalers in northernmost 
Alaska have their mail brought to them in 
winter. The Hudson’s Bay Company for 






















332 


Jfotetvorthy Facts of A// JV at ions 


more than 100 years has been maintaining 
communication through the trackless wastes 
of western and northern British America, 
from trading post to trading post, all the 
way from Hudson’s Bay to the Mackenzie 
Biver, and far up into the Arctic Circle. 
But not until the discovery of gold in the 
hidden treasure houses of Alaska and the 
Canadian northwest, at Dawson City and 
Nome and points even more remote, did 
Uncle Sam’s postmen have to assume such 
labor. 

It was early in the spring of 1901 that 
the first carriers were sent to the farthest 
northern part of Alaska with the United 
States mail. Two men assumed the dan¬ 
gers of the journey a thousand miles over 
the ice fields, Francis II. Gambell and W. 
S. Flanagan. Their course was from St. 
Michaels to Kotzebue, returning by Cape 
Prince of Wales, Port Clarence, Teller, 
Koine, Golovin Bay and Norton Bay. 
Tliev took with them but one sled, built of 
light birch and drawn by six Alaskan dogs. 
Their load included the mail, deer-skin 
sleeping-sacks, a shot-gun, snow-shoes, cook¬ 
ing utensils, a stove and other supplies, and 
their food itself, a total load of more than 
350 pounds, which would, of course, be les¬ 
sened day by day. 

They started on a bright day with the 
thermometer four degrees below zero, but 
were not lucky enough to find it so warm all 
the way. Sometimes it was sixty degrees 
below zero, with a blizzard blowing, in 
which event they had to seek such shelter 
as they could get under the snow or other¬ 
wise. Sometimes they had to flounder 
through soft snow and pack down a trail 
witli their snow-shoes, so that the dogs and 
sled would not sink down into it. At other 
times they had a glazed surface of ice or 


snow-crust and under these conditions trav¬ 
eling was easier. 

Although Alaska is by no means a settled 
country, still it is not as lonesome as it 
was a few years ago, before the rush to the 
gold fields began. So sometimes the weary, 
half-frozen postmen would come to a little 
hut half buried in the snow, inhabited by 
Eskimos in some cases and at other times 
entirely deserted. Whatever the shelter, it 
was welcome. Frozen ptarmigan could be 
bought from the Eskimos for dog food, and 
the warmth of the hut was always grateful. 
Sometimes it was absolutely impossible to 
have a warm meal, even in one of the de¬ 
serted huts. Mr. Gambell tells of one even¬ 
ing when he fed the dogs on frozen salmon 
and frozen bacon and crawled into his 
sleeping sack, dressed as he had been on 
the trail, to eat his supper with his hood 
and mittens on. His tea got cold before he 
could drink it, the beans seemed never to 
have been warmed up, the fork froze to his 
lips, and the biscuits and doughnuts were 
so hard that he first cut them up with his 
ax, so that he might be able to eat them. 
But in the end his appetite was satisfied 
and he drew r the fur hood of the warm 
sleeping-sack over him and retired to rest. 

At one of the native villages where they 
were hospitably received and given shelter 
by the Eskimos, they found the air in the 
hut so empty of oxygen that a coal-oil stove 
would not burn. The room was heated 
with seal-oil lamps, and the heat from the 
bodies of the human beings and dogs. Be¬ 
fore going to bed, the master of the house 
closed up the only opening. There were 
fourteen people and two young dogs in that 
one small room, while the odor from the 
seal-oil added to the stifling closeness of the 
air. A few days later the postmen reached 


333 


JVotetvorfhy Facts of All JVation* 


Nome, which was the last station on their 
great circuit, and there they found what 
seemed genuine civilization again, with 
town life going on after the American fash¬ 
ion, in spite of the remoteness of the place. 
The mails were coming in by way of Daw¬ 
son City once a week, being carried 2,000 
miles by dog-team, and only two months old 
from home. These are the most remote and 
the most difficult mail routes which Undo 
Sam’s postmen have to travel, and they 
offer another indication of the remarkable 
ramifications of the services which a great 
government performs for its citizens. 


The United States postal service is the 
greatest of its kind in the world. It spends 
more money, employs more men, and inter¬ 
ests more people than any other institution 
ever established. In round numbers there 
are 75,000 postoffices and 250,000employes. 
It handles annually ten billion pieces of 
mail matter, of which three billion are let¬ 
ters. We spend on the service as much 
every five hours now as in an entire year of 
Washington’s administration. 

Nearly 25,000 letters a day go astray 
from careless addressing, and the valuables 
in them amount to more than a million dol- 



BALOWSN-ZtEClER 

POLAR EXPEDITION 


tromsoemw. 


BALDWIN-ZECLXK 

POLAR EXPEDITION 





Wf ;v| 

H 


m 


' Vi^'V-v 








m uS 






HI 


CASES OF HIGHLY CONDENSED PROVISIONS, READY FOR SHIPMENT TO THE FAR NORTH, 









334 


ffoleicuorthy Facts of All JVations 


lars a year. The auditing department is the 
largest accounting office in the world. Every 
cent is there accounted for and it requires 
more than five hundred clerks to do it. 

This is regarded as the most efficient gov¬ 
ernment service of such proportions in the 

\ 

world and would be profitable except for the 
thousands of tons of mail matter handled 
as second-class mail matter at one cent a 
pound. This includes all classes of serial 
publications, but by a ruling of the assist¬ 
ant postmaster general a vast quantity of 
this matter has been excluded, such as 
paper-covered books and so-called newspa¬ 
pers and magazines that secure their circu¬ 
lation, not by merit, but by the premiums 
given. The carriers and clerks of the post- 
office have longer hours of labor and more 
exacting work than any other extensive 
branch of the service. 

& & 3 

PEARY AND THE NORTH POLE 

The conquest of the far north has been 

the object of the energies of explorers for 

many a year, and more than one of the 

greatest names in geography have gained 

their fame in this field of discovery. In late 

vears there has been no cessation of the ef- 
«/ 

fort to reach the North Pole, and no year 
passes without the departure of some con¬ 
spicuous expedition on that quest. Frank¬ 
lin, Kane and Greelev have been followed 
by Andree, Nansen and Peary, whose 
names are to-day those best known in Arc¬ 
tic exploration, the first for his disastrous 
balloon journey from which no one has re¬ 
turned; the second for his achievement of 
the farthest north ; and the third, our own 
American explorer, for his persistence in 
his campaign against the pole. 

Year after year, Lieutenant Robert E. 


Peary has renewed his assaults upon the 
land of ice and snow, each time accomplish¬ 
ing more in the discovery of important 
geographical and scientific facts, and each 
time coming nearer to the goal of his am¬ 
bition. In this year of 1902 Lieutenant 
Peary is making his last attempt to reach 
the North Pole, for his wife has his prom¬ 
ise that he will not go again. Already he 
has led four expeditions and has made seven 
voyages into the Arctic Seas. ITe has had 
his share of suffering and reverses, but un¬ 
like most polar explorers, who lose their 
enthusiasm after a voyage or two, he per¬ 
sists in the cause to which he has given the 
best years of his life. 

A glimpse at the early history of Peary 
will help to indicate the character of the 
man who has fought so courageously for this 
prize. lie was born in Pennsylvania in 
1850, but passed his boyhood and youth 
in Maine, developing a love of outdoor life. 
He was educated at Bowdoin College, 
where he ranked high as a scholar and as 
an athlete. When he was twenty-three 
years old, he entered the service of the 
United States Government in the Coast and 
Geodetic Survey at Washington, and after 
two years passed examination and was ap¬ 
pointed a civil engineer in the Navy De¬ 
partment. In the first year of his service 
he planned and built a new pier at Key 
West, Florida, which the contractors had 
given up as impossible of construction at 
the estimated cost, at a saving of nearly 
$30,000 below the estimate. Next he whs 
sent to Nicaragua as one of the chiefs of 
the canal survey and it was after that, when 
he returned to Washington in 1885, that 
the idea of Arctic exploration occurred to 
him. 

He made his first journey to Greenland 


335 


JVotetuorthy Facts of All JVations 


in 1886, and then spent two years again on 
the survey of the Nicaragua Canal. In 
1891 he prepared to discover the northern 
limits of Greenland, and obtaining some 
contributions from societies and friends, he 
added all his own savings and set sail north¬ 
ward. At the very beginning of the jour¬ 
ney, his leg was broken by an accident on 
shipboard, but he refused to return home, 
and spending the winter in Greenland, the 
next spring he set off with a single com¬ 
panion. In forty days they covered over 600 
miles, reaching on the 4th of July the 
northern end of Greenland, which no man 
ever had seen before. 

By his indomitable energy Lieutenant 
Peary obtained the funds, equipment, and 
an additional leave of absence for another 
journey. His chief source of income was 
his remarkable lecture tour, which earned 
him $13,000 in three months. In 1893 
this expedition sailed, Mrs. Peary accom¬ 
panying her husband to the far north. It 
was at these Greenland winter quarters that 
little Anighito, the “snow baby,” was born 
to Lieutenant and Mrs. Peary. The next 
summer’s journey into Greenland brought 
so many perils, hardships and disappoint¬ 
ments that the explorer thought his Arctic 
work was finished. He soon discovered, 
however, that he could not be contented in 
comfort at home, while his plans for reach¬ 
ing the Pole were still untested. In 1896 
and 1897 he made shorter voyages into the 
Arctic regions, and finally completed his 
elans for the extreme test. 

x 

By this time his untiring energy had 
won him a host of rich and influential 
friends at home, and they were making the 
preliminaries easy for him. Supplies, 
money and vessels were no longer out of 
reach, and in the summer of 1899 Peary 


sailed to the north for the seventh time, 
where he has been ever since. The inter¬ 
vening winters have been devoted to pre¬ 
paring the way for his dash to the Pole. 
He has established supply stations of pro¬ 
visions at intervals all the way along Smith 
Sound, Kennedy Channel and Robeson 
Channel, to Cape Hecla, the place of de¬ 
parture across the ice of Lincoln Sea to¬ 
ward the Pole. Cape Sabine, where Peary 
camped for the winter of 1901 and 1902, 
is famed in Arctic exploration as the place 
where nearly all the members of the Gree¬ 
ley expedition perished by starvation and 
cold twenty years before. 

The camp was within a mile of that disas¬ 
trous camp from which the few survivors 
were rescued by Admiral Schley, then cap¬ 
tain, as a result of his own indomitable 
bravery and energy. 

The prospect of success before Lieuten¬ 
ant Peary comes from the fact that he has 
gained the most exhaustive experience that 
anyone has to-day in the field of Arctic ex¬ 
ploration. In the Arctic he lives as an Es¬ 
kimo and speaks as an Eskimo, knowing 
as well as they how to drive dog teams, 
throw harpoons, and subsist upon frozen 
walrus and seal meat. Taught by the ex¬ 
perience of the past, he established these 
supply stations so that when he should 
leave the last one of them behind, to begin 
his hasty journey to the Pole, he would 
be but 500 miles distant from that goal. 
The announced plans for this dash indi¬ 
cated that the explorer would take with him 
a large number of dogs, a party of Eskimos, 
and as a companion, Matt Henson, his 
faithful body servant, who has been his 
companion for years. 

It was supposed that the distance to be 
passed between Cape Hecla and the Pole 


336 


JVotetvort/?y Facts of All Stations 


would be found an untrodden waste of 
shifting ice with many channels of open 
water. As Peary advanced, he was to send 
back his Eskimos from time to time, until 
he, Matt Henson and one Eskimo were 
alone with the sledges and the dogs. Thus 
they would rush northward with the knowl¬ 
edge that they must reach the Pole and get 
back to solid land within three months, 
before the snow and ice of the Arctic 
Ocean should soften too much under the 
summer sun. As their food should give 
out, they would feed the weaker dogs to 
the other members of the team, so that be¬ 
fore they would return they might have but 
one dog left to be their own final food sup¬ 
ply* 

Hot until September, 1902, can word be 
received as to the success or failure of this 
important undertaking. The ship which 
is to bring the word back, will sail north¬ 
ward with Mrs. Peary to meet the explorer 
at Cape Sabine, and not until then will 


the world know whether the Pole has been 
reached at last. 

The people who know Peary best are 
the ones who have the greatest confidence 
that he will succeed. He was not con¬ 
quered by a broken leg, the amputation of 
seven frozen toes, and the sinking of one 
of his ships with all on board, nor the suc¬ 
cession of freezings, semi-starvation, and 
hardships that have faced him in the far 
north. He is untiring in his energy and 
endurance, and explaining his own pur¬ 
pose in these journeys, declared that he 
was after the Pole “because it is the Pole, 
because it has a value as a test of intelli¬ 
gence, persistence, endurance, determined 
will, and perhaps, courage, characteristic of 
the highest type of manhood; because I 
am confident that it can be reached, and 
because I regard it as a great prize which 
it is peculiarly fit and appropriate that an 
American should win.” 



THE GREAT PEARY METEORITE, WEIGHT 100 TONS. 



JVoletvorthy Facts of All JVfations 


337 


THE REGION OF THE YUKON 


“Never buy a pig in a poke/’ is the wise 
advice of our forefathers, and yet that is 
what the United States did when it gave, in 
1867, seven and a half millions in gold and 
useless war-vessels to Russia for the terri¬ 
tory known as Alaska. Neither party to 
the transaction had the least .idea what the 
territory was worth. Yet the advice of the 
old saying was this time at fault, for Alaska 
has already returned more than the amount 
of its purchase price in the fur trade alone, 
with its other vast resources almost un¬ 
touched. 

The Yukon River is two-thirds the length 


of the Mississippi, and drains a region a 
little more than one-third the size of the 
Mississippi Valley. In winter the water 
freezes to an average depth of five feet, but 
on the south side of the Yukon Basin, 
vegetation grows luxuriantly in the sum¬ 
mer and cereals of the hardier kind may be 
made to yield bountiful harvests. 

The discovery of gold has caused the 
heretofore unknown regions to be widely 
explored and there is every reason to be¬ 
lieve that Alaska may support as prosper¬ 
ous a population as any of the Rocky Moun¬ 
tain States. Territorial laws have been 



GOLD PROSPECTING IN THE YUKON COUNTRY. 







338 JVotebvorthy Facts of All JVations 


extended over every settlement, schools and 

churches have followed, until frontier and 

Arctic hardships have almost wholly given 

wav to the comforts of civilization. 

«/ 

«5t & & 

GREAT FUR-TRADING 

COMPANIES OF CANADA 

Far away from the strife of contending 
political parties, and little visited by out¬ 
side affairs in the winter, sleeps under its 
coat of snow the vast kingdom of the fur- 
traders. Overhead is the dazzling bright¬ 


ness of a northern sky, which at night is 
covered to the very zenith with dancing 
auroras. In summer, for two, three, or 
more months, the streams are unbound, a 
luxuriant vegetation bursts forth, and the 
summer green is as intense as the wintry 
whiteness has been. 

Here the fur-trader must remain king. 
Mink and beaver, marten and otter, wolves, 
foxes and hears are his subjects, and, as 
in the case of all autocrats, the subjects 
exist for the profit of the ruler. 

Perhaps one-quarter of North America 
will always remain the 
fur - traders’ preserve. 
If a line be drawn from 
Moose Factorv, at the 
foot of Hudson’s Bay, 
to Norway House, at 
the northern end of 
Lake Winnipeg, thence 
to Fort Resolution on 
the Great Slave Lake, 
and westward to the 
Stikeen River on the 
Pacific Ocean, the 
boundary of a region 
will be marked, to the 
north of which is the 
fur-traders’ kingdom, 
which likewise includes 
the whole Labrador pen¬ 
insula east of Hudson’s 
Bay. It is true this fur- 
traders’ line has for two 
centuries been moving 
northward. Time was 
when the region of the 
Great Lakes, from On¬ 
tario to Superior and 
Michigan, was the home 
of the trader. It was 


TRAPPERS AT WORK IN THE FAR NORTH. 









flotebuorlhy Facts of All Rations 


339 


for the fur of this large area that the early 
governors of New France and New York 
plotted and fought. So, later on, Rupert’s 
Land, as the Arctic region of the north was 
called, was kept by the Hudson’s Bay Com¬ 
pany closed under fur-trading conditions. 

Through the opening up of this region by 
the Dominion of Canada, the fur-line was 
moved north four or five hundred miles. 
Perhaps from the physical condition of the 
country, as unsuited to agriculture and pos¬ 
sessed of a severe climate, the region north 
of the line traced above may always re¬ 
main undisturbed to the fur-trader. Of 
this, however, no one can speak certainly, 
for the same declaration was made of New 
York, then of Canada, and later still of Ru¬ 
pert’s Land. 

There is a strange fascination about the 
life of the fur-trader. Placed in charge of 
an inland fort, surrounded and ministered 
to bv an inferior race, and the leader of a 

v> • 

small band of employes, his decisions must; 
be final, and his word taken as law. As 
a monarch of his solitude he has great re¬ 
sponsibility. His supply of goods must be 
obtained. There are places in the Yukon 
region where, hardly more than a decade 
ago, nine years were required from the time 
goods left London, until news of their re¬ 
ceipt reached the shippers in London. It 
required wisdom and foresight to manage 
a post so remote. 

In the busy season scores of Indians, 
squaws, and children may be seen in groups 
seated on the ground in the midst of the 
fort, their encampment being a group of 
tents, bark or skin, outside the stockade. 

Washington Irving, in 1818, described, 
in “Astoria,” the picturesque and somewhat 
hilarious life of the fur-trader in the Nor’- 
wester capital of Montreal. Factors, trad¬ 


ers, and voyageurs reveled in their liberty 
till the advance of the season compelled 
the voyage to be again undertaken. They 
sang at Ste. Anne, as they entered the Ot¬ 
tawa River, “their parting hymn,” prayers 
were said to the patron saint of the voy¬ 
ageurs, the priest’s blessing was received, 
and they hied away to face the rapid, de¬ 
charge, or portage of their difficult route. 
When Fort William, on Thunder Bay, 
Lake Superior, was reached, they turned 
over their merchandise to new relays of 
men. 

Scattered throughout the whole fur-trad¬ 
er’s territory will be found the half-breed 
of French-Canadian or Orkney origin. 
Some beautiful lake or sheltered bend in 
the river, or the vicinity of a trader’s post, 
has been selected by him as his home, and 
partly as an agriculturist or gardener, but 
far more a hunter or trapper, he rears 
his dusky race. Sometimes, when the en¬ 
gage had served his score or two of years 
for the company, he retired with his Indian 
spouse and swarthy children to float down 
the streams to the older settlements, to what 
has been called “the paradise of Red 
River,” and there, building his cabin on 
land allotted by the fur company, spent 
his remaining days. 

Whatever may be said of its influence 
on the white man, the fur-trade has been a 
chief means in cementing the alliance be¬ 
tween the white and red man. The half- 
breeds are a connecting link between the 
superior and the inferior race. 

For many years it was the inflexible reg¬ 
ulation of the Hudson’s Bay Company to 
allow no half-breed to become an officer, but 
the rule could not be maintained, and on 
account of the Hudson’s Bay Company 
having always assisted in the education and 


340 


ff ote^vorthy Facts of All flattens 


Christianization of the native people, many 
of them have risen to high places in the 
fur-trade, as well as in other spheres of 
life. 

3 3 3 

THE WALLED CITY 

OE THE NORTH 

“Quel bee!” (what a promontory) cried 


a Norman captain as he stood on the deck 
of his vessel and looked at the great wall of 
rock which lined the bank of the St. Law¬ 
rence. 


The Latin nations of Europe have always 
been very fond of giving nick-names to 
places newly discovered, especially if de¬ 
rived from some first impression of the 
scene, so “Quel bee,” became Quebec, and 
has so remained ever since. Quebec, be¬ 
cause of its isolated position, has kept its 
ways with but little regard to the changes 


of modern civilization. It is the American 
Gibraltar, and, perhaps, could never have 
been taken by Wolfe if Montcalm had not 
heroically scorned to fight behind stone 



ICE JAM ON THE ST. LAWRENCE RIVER AT MONTREAL. 













JVctetvcrthy Facts of All JWations 341 



CANADIAN BOATMEN IN THE RAPIDS OF THE ST. LAWRENCE RIVER. 


walls. Montcalm is buried in the Ursu- 
line Church founded in 1G39. 

It is noted for the ancient beauty and 
venerable architecture of its chapels and 
churches. Here French and English in 
peculiar harmony, considering racial preju¬ 
dices and differences in customs, labor and 
live side by side. Modern conveniences and 
scientific improvements make slow progress 
here and it is of all American cities the 
most like those of Mediaeval Europe. The 
religious customs of the people are every¬ 
where most in evidence and are the first to 
impress the visitor who is accustomed to the 
free and easy cosmopolitan ways of life in 
the United States. 

£ 

PILGRIMS AND SHRINES IN 
CANADA 

The shrine at Varennes is distinguished 
by the possession of a miracle-working pic¬ 
ture of Ste. Anne, that attracts great crowds 
of pilgrims. Varennes has been a place of 
pious resort since 1692, and a beautiful 
church stands there, from which every year 


a solemn and stately procession, bearing the 
precious picture, sets forth, and, passing¬ 
ly) and down the village street, makes glad 
the hearts of thousands assembled to do it 
honor. One other subsidiary place of 
pilgrimage is at the lovely little hamlet of 
FAnge Gardien, just below the Falls of 
Montmorenci, where there is a consecrated 
shrine of Notre Dame de Lourdes, having 
a statue of Our Lady, before which a per¬ 
petually burning light serves to symbolize 
her unwearying intercession on behalf of 
those who put their trust in her. 

But however deeply these shrines may 
be venerated, and however successful may 
be the prayers properly presented at them, 
they pale in interest before that of Ste. 
Anne de Beaupre, the oldest and most re¬ 
nowned of them all, known par excellence 
as la Grande Sainte Anne, because of the 
surpassing number and brilliance of the 
miracles that have been wrought thereat, or 
as la Bonne Sainte Anne, in token of the 
high place it holds in the affections of the 
people. 

Ste. Anne de Beaupre is most pictur- 














342 


ffotebuorthy Facts of Alt ffations 


esquely situated on the northern hank of the 
St. Lawrence, a little more than twenty 
miles below Quebec. It does not seem to 
be very clear just how Petit Cap, that being 
the primitive name of the locality, came to 
be indicated as the spot that Ste. Anne 
would delight to honor by her special bless¬ 
ing. According to one legend, in the early 
days of the Canadian colony some Breton 
sailors, being overtaken by a terrible storm 
whilst ascending the river, made a vow to 
Ste. Anne that, if she would rescue them 
from their present peril, they would erect 
a chapel in her honor on the first spot where 
they touched land. Scarcely had they made 
their vow when the wind fell, the waves 
sank to rest, the heavens shone blue above 
them, and presently they were safe on shore 
at Petit Cap. In fulfillment of their 
promise, they built a little wooden chapel, 
which, being too close to the river-bank, 
speedily fell a victim to the floods, and was 
thereupon replaced by a more substantial 
and more wisely situated edifice of stone. 

While the foundation was being laid, a 
dweller in la Cote de Beaupre, named Louis 
Guimont, for many years a sufferer from a 
disease in the loins that bent him double, 
inspired by a religious fervor that enabled 
him to rise superior to his sufferings, man¬ 
aged to place with his own hands three 
large stones upon the growing walls; and 
lo! the third stone had scarcely been ad¬ 
justed to its own niche, when there passed 
through the pain-racked toiler a strange 
feeling of exaltation and Strength; and 
standing erect for the first time in many 
years he shouted aloud in wonder and joy 
at the miracle that had been wrought. The 
report of this marvel quickly spread. All 
the little v 7 orld of that primitive com¬ 
munity fell to talking about it, and among 


those to whom it brought a mighty hope 
was Marie-Esther B a mage, the wife of Elie 
Godin. She, poor soul, had been bowled 
down for a long time under an affliction 
that compelled her to drag herself painfully 
along by dint of crutches, and seemed be¬ 
yond the power of human aid to alleviate. 
Hearing from her husband of how Louis 
Guimont had been blessed, she determined 
to seek relief from the same source. Forth¬ 
with she repaired to the holy spot and in¬ 
voked Ste. Anne’s intercession on her be¬ 
half. Her prayer was granted. Her in¬ 
firmities departed from her, and she went 
back to her home rejoicing. 

These miracles were followed by many 
others, not less remarkable, whose reputa¬ 
tion, spreading abroad, ere long made the 
little stone chapel the most celebrated place 
of pilgrimage in Canada. 

Twelve years after the erection of the 

church it became the treasurv of one of the 

*/ 

most precious relics the Catholic Church 
in Canada possesses; namely, a part of the 
bone of one finger of Sainte Anne herself. 
Sent in 1668 to Bishop Laval by the 
Chapter at Carcassone, it was confided to 
the care of Henri Houvel, one of the Jesuit 
missionaries in Hew France, and first 
solemnly exhibited to the adoring congre¬ 
gations in the Chapel of Ste. Anne de 
Beaupre on the 12th March, 1670. The 
history of this inestimable treasure is thus 
told by Abbe Casgrain: 

“During the reign of Marcus Aurelius 
the infidels invaded the Holy Land and de¬ 
stroyed all the monuments, public or 
private, together with the coffins thev en- 
tombed. One coffin, however, escaped this 
sacrilegious treatment. The infidel icono¬ 
clasts could neither break it open nor harm 
it; and in their rage they cast it into the 


fl otetvorthy Facts of Alt flattens 


843 


' sea. But, strange to say, although of a 
prodigious weight, the coffin, instead of 
sinking to the bottom, floated lightly upon 
the waves until it found a resting-place in 
the sands near the town of Apt, in Prov¬ 
ence. Here it lay hidden for a long time. 
One day some fishermen from the town 
caught in their net a fish so large that they 
had to disembark in order to drag it to land. 
When they had, after tremendous efforts, 
got the monster on shore, he took to leaping 
and throwing himself about with such 
energy and purpose as to dig a deep hole 
in the beach, and thereby bring to light the 
buried coffin. Forthwith the people gath¬ 
ered and sought to open it, but again it 
defied all efforts, and accordingly was, by 
the bishop’s direction, deposited in a crypt 
which was then walled up, a burning lamp 
having first been placed inside. 

“The centuries slipped away unevent¬ 
fully until Charlemagne came to Apt as 
conqueror of Provence. lie took up his 
quarters with the Baron Cazeneuve, who 
had a son deaf and dumb from his birth. 
Charlemagne, no less renowned for his 
Christian faith than for his martial 
prowess, ordered a purification of the 
church, which had, through the neglect of 
the people, become the abode of the owls 
and the bats. On the day appointed, all 
Provence assembled for the ceremony. In 
the very midst of the solemnities the deaf- 
mute, forcing his way through the throng, 
indicated to Charlemagne, by eager gesticu¬ 
lations, that he should cause a certain 
ancient wall to be torn down. Charlemagne 
not only gave orders accordingly, but with 
his kingly hands assisted in the work. The 
long-forgotten crypt was opened, and there, 
still burning brightly, stood the lamp lit 
many centuries before. The first to enter 


the crypt was young Cazeneuve, and 
scarcely had he set foot within it, when he 
cried with a loud voice that filled the whole 
neighborhood: ‘In this sacred place re¬ 
poses the body of the thriceglorious Anne, 
mother of the Virgin Mary.’ The king, 
accompanied by the archbishop, then went 
down into the crypt, and after having made 
obeisance, opened the coffin without any 
difficulty, finding therein a perfect body 
with this inscription: ‘This is the body of 
Sainte Anne, mother of the Virgin Mary.’ ” 
.< 

NORTH AMERICAN TOTEMISM 

What is a Totem ? Broadly, the badge 
of a clan or tribe, but something signifying 
a great deal more than mere political or 
social alliance. It is not only a tribal em¬ 
blem, but also a family signal; not merely 
a symbol of nationality, but also an expres¬ 
sion of religion ; not simply a bond of union 
among primitive peoples, but also a regu¬ 
lator of the marriage laws and of other 
social institutions. A totem is a “class of 
material objects which a savage regards 
with superstitious respect, believing that 
there exists between him and every member 
of the class an intimate and altogether 
special relation.” 

The use of totems seems to have been 
first noticed among the North American 
Indians, and the word itself is an Indian 
one. In the Ojibway tribe there are no 
fewer than twenty-three different totems, 
or clan divisions. Nine of these are quad¬ 
rupeds, marking out the wolf, the bear, the 
beaver and other clans; eight are birds, five 
are fishes, and one is the snake. In other 
words, the members of the tribe who carry 
these devices by so doing mark themselves 
as belonging to a distinct division of it, to 
be for all time and for certain practical 


344 


ffotebvorthy Facts of All ffations 


purposes distinguished and separated from 
the other divisions. 

It is easy enough with totems of this 
character to imagine a basis of worship as 
the origin of the tribal badge, but it is not 
easy to see the meaning in other cases. For 
instance, the totems of some of the other 
Indian tribes are such things as corn, 
potato, tobacco-plant, and reed-grass; as 
medicine, tent, lodge, bonnet, leggings, and 
knife; as sun, earth, sand, salt, sea, snow, 
ice, water, and rain; as thunder, wind, and 
even as “many seasons.” 

ISText to the North American Indians, the 
aboriginal tribes of Australia present the 


most developed form of totemism of any 
peoples of our time. Among the Austral¬ 
ians is to be found the same use of totems 
as among the Indians, and chiefly taken 
from the animal kingdom. 

In Central America it is found among 
some of the tribes of Panama ; and in South 
America it is found in Colombia, Venez¬ 


uela, Guiana and Patagonia; and traces 
also have been supposed among the aborig¬ 
ines (not the Incas) of Peru. In Aus¬ 
tralia it is universal,—we speak, of course, 
always of aboriginal peoples,—and in 
Africa it appears to be general in the south 
and west, and on the equator. It is found 
alike in Bengal and in Siberia, in Poly¬ 
nesia and in China. 

In Samoa it is said that if a Turtle-man 
ate of a turtle he grew very ill, and the 
voice of the turtle was heard in his inside, 
saying: “He ate me. I am killing him.” 
If a Prickly-sea-urchin-man consumed one 
of these sliell-fish, a prickly sea-urchin grew 

in his body and killed 
him. If a Mullet-man 
ate a mullet, he squint¬ 
ed. If a Cockle-man car¬ 
ried away a cockle, it 
appeared on some part 
of his person; and if 
he ate it, it grew on 
his nose. If a Banana- 
man used a banana leaf 
for a cap, he became 
bald. If a Butterfly- 
man caught a butterfly, 
it struck him dead. If 
a Fowl-man ate a fowl, 
delirium and d e a t h 
resulted. And so on, 
all going to show that 
among some totem peo¬ 
ples, if not among all, the totem has some¬ 
thing of the quality of a fetich, as well as 
the significance of a family emblem. 

Totemism has reached the most extensive 
development and use among the aborigines 
of Alaska and British Columbia. There 
they live in totem houses and every act is 
regulated by totem superstitions. 



TOTEM-POLES IN AN ALASKAN VILLAGE. 











ffotetoorthy Facts of All ffations 


345 



BERMUDA, THE ISLAND OF LILIES AND ONIONS 


Easter lilies and succulent onions and 
potatoes together reach perfection in the 
Bermudas. Many thousand boxes of lilies, 
ready for Easter services in the cities, reach 
New York in the early spring and in the 
early autumn. Many hundred thousands 
of bulbs reach the same port for the green¬ 
houses of the cities in winter. 

Almost the entire export product of the 
soil in the Bermudas is lilies, onions and 
potatoes. In November and December the 
lily bulbs are planted in long rows, close to¬ 


gether, and they grow slowly all winter. 
Early in March the shipment begins and 
during the month steamer after steamer is 
loaded with these delightful creations of 
nature. The stalks are cut low, retaining 
the buds and blossoms, and they are packed 
in light wooden boxes. They are sent to 
Hamilton, the chief town of the islands, 
whence the vessel takes them to New York 
in a voyage of about three days. 

If a deep row of lilies about the altar oi 
a church appears beautiful, it can be real- 


BERMUDA LILIES—PART OF A FIELD OP THIRTY ACRES. 

















346 


JVfotebvorthy Facts of All ffations 


ized how superb is a vast field of these 
flowers set, as it were, in a frame of dark 
cedar trees. The lover of the delicate and 
beautiful can not look on such a glorious 
picture without a thrill of emotion. 

The earliest potatoes to reach the cities of 
the United States come from the Bermudas, 
and with the three products, lilies, onions 
and potatoes, the scant forty square miles 
of territory in this group of nearly 400 
islands is thus the year around almost 
wholly occupied. 

The first discoverer, in 1522, was a 
Spaniard named Bermudez, whence the 
name. George Somers, an Englishman, 
was wrecked there in 1609 and there has 
been an unsuccessful effort made by Eng¬ 
lish geographers to cause the group to be 
generally known as Somers Isles. 

& S 

NEGRO LIFE IN THE BAHAMAS 

The reliance on the powers of the bush 
doctor or “obeah-man” is almost universal 
among the black people in the Bahamas, 
who greatly prefer him to the authorized 
practitioner. In some cases the remedies 
prescribed are simple, if not efficacious. A 
dose of sea-water is considered beneficial 
for a broken arm, and to hold salt in both 
hands is reckoned a certain remedy for 
various of the ills to which flesh is liable, 
and is also held to be of use in warding off 
ghostly enemies in the shape of evil spirits. 
Singularly enough, the same shield is used 
against the powers of darkness by peasants 
in the west of Ireland. 

It is common when the biffeh doctor is 
consulted, for him to pronounce that tho 
patient is suffering from an ailment caused 
by the presence of a beetle or a spider in 
one of the limbs. The doctor proceeds to 


extract the intruder, by sucking the afflicted 
limb, producing the creature from his 
mouth at the end of the operation, in proof 
of its efficacy. Sj)Ools of cotton, buttons, 
nails, and so forth are sometimes “extract¬ 
ed” in a similar fashion. 

In his character as wizard, the obeah- 
man is in request to guard the crops of 
pineapples or oranges from the hands of the 
spoiler, the ships from storms and ship¬ 
wreck, and the crew from death and dis¬ 
aster. Not a schooner leaves the port but 
has a bit of obeah attached for good luck to 
the mast, while beneath their shirts a string 
of charmed twine preserves the men from 
danger by land or water. Vacant houses 
are also protected from intruders during the 
owner’s absence by the obeah-man. To ef¬ 
fect this police duty, a bar is rolled up con¬ 
taining a few rusty old nails and some 
pieces of rushes, and laid on the threshold 
of the cabin; on seeing this mysterious ball, 
no negro dares to enter the house unlaw¬ 


fully. A rudely carved head, fastened on 
a tree, is a secure guardian for a cocoanut v 
or orange grove, while a horn with a cork 
on it stuck full of pins and a bottle of water 
underneath, is a favorite protection against 
thieves or spirits. It would be a bold evil 
spirit who would enter the field so guarded; 
he knows right well that the pins would 
prick him and force him to enter the bottle 
of water; no negro would dream of intrud¬ 
ing within an enclosure where such a bottle 
was displayed. When the obeah-man’s 
charges are high, or faith is weak, occasion¬ 
ally the owner of a farm throws himself on 

the good feeling of depredators. Visitors 

<>v «>» 

may sometimes see a placard fixed to a post 
in a field of maize on which is painted the 


polite request, “If you steal the corn, do 
please leave the blades.” 



347 


JVotebvorthy Facts of All JV at ions 


Though the obeah-man is usually re¬ 
sorted to by owners who may have been 
robbed of their goods, any one in authority 
may be appealed to on an emergency when 
no clue can be had to the delinquent. The 
following paper was one day sent to the 
governor’s secretary: 

“Mr. Secretary: Will you please have 
the person arrested who 
stole my clothes ? This 
is the prayer of your 
humble servant, J ohn 
Smith.” 

When free from phys¬ 
ical pain and not im¬ 
mediately pressed by his 
creditors, of whom he 
has in general many, 
the darkey is full of 
enjoyment of life, and 
there is much in life 
for him to enjoy. What 
would be the object 
of wasting existence in 
wearisome toil or mon¬ 
otonous drudgery, in a 
delicious climate where 
a cotton garment is 
ample for comfort, and 
sufficient money can 
be obtained by a few 
weeks’ “sponging” to 
supply frock-coat, chim¬ 
ney pot hat and um¬ 
brella for a man on 
high days and holi¬ 
days; while a week or 
two spent in digging 
holes in which to plant maize—a labor that 
the little Congo gardeners decline to per¬ 
form, on the grounds of its being especially 
the work of “femilly wimmany”—or in 


weeding the pine-fields, will procure for the 
women the wherewithal to purchase ostrich- 
feathers, white or colored satin boots, 
muslins and laces for festive occasions, 
amongst which funerals and attendance at 
divine service are not the least popular. 

At a church a little distance out of Kings- 
ton in Jamaica, another island of the West 


Indies, the clergyman proposed to shorten 
the afternoon service so as to enable the 
congregation to take advantage of a street 
railway car that passed the church in re- 



GATHERING BANANAS IN JAMAICA. 




348 


J'fotebuorlhy Facts of All JVations 


turning to the city. On hearing of the 
threatened change a black man remon¬ 
strated with the rector. “Indeed, sir,” he 
urged, “our ladies will nebber tink it worth 
while to dress merely to sit in church for 
one hour!” It must he observed that in the 
West Indies negresses are almost invariably 
spoken of as “ladies.” At first it sounds 
peculiar to hear, “Missus, dere’s a lady at 
de back door wants you to gib her a pair of 
old boots,” or “Dat lady hah basket of eggs 
to sell,” hut one quickly gets used to it. 

In speaking of “going for a few weeks’ 
sponging” it must not he supposed that un¬ 
sophisticated darkies resort to the civilized 
method of extortion known in colloquial 
United States as “sponging.” In the Ba¬ 
hamas the term is applied to a cruise under¬ 
taken for the purpose of fishing up sponges 
from the hanks of coral sand which extend 
for great distances in the archipelago. The 
water on these hanks averages only three, 
fathoms. On this submarine Sahara, the 
black, leathery, roundish lumps which, 
after undergoing much tribulation, eventu¬ 
ally develop into the inviting-looking ad¬ 
junct to the morning hath, have settled 
down, after their brief hut erratic youth, to 
sedate repose in the crystal waters, till 
snatched from their retreat by the penetrat¬ 
ing hook of the sponger. 

Very unsightly and evil-smelling objects 
the sponges are when first torn from their 
native element, a sulphur stream or steep¬ 
ing flax being hardly more obnoxious to the 
olfactory nerve. Sponging has all the at¬ 
tractions of a gambling adventure. Should 
the cruise he successful, the profits are 
large and enough money may he made in a 
short time to ensure the enjoyment of 
months of idleness. And idleness is a real 
luxury when a man can recline under the 


shade of his own guava or orange tree, and 
have the latest new T s from the passing 
neighbors as they saunter along, their 
fanners (round flat baskets of palm leaves) 
piled with glowing tomatoes, large green 
avocado pears, or red and yellow peppers, 
for sale in town—or else chew sugarcane or 
smoke a pipe as the spirit moves him, tak¬ 
ing no thought for the morrow, which is 
pretty sure to he sunny and balmy as today. 

Dwellers in the dark and sombre north 
can hardly realize the charm and joyous¬ 
ness that seem to radiate from earth and air 
in the lotus-eating southern climes. The 
mere sense of existence becomes in itself a 
happiness; one can understand what 
animals probably feel in pleasant pastures 
on brilliant days. Then, as the sun sinks 
slowly downwards, the golden heaven glows 
over a rejoicing earth, flashing every mo¬ 
ment into richer beauty beneath the de¬ 
parting rays, while rosy beams of light 
streaming upwards like so many auroras are 
a singular and very beautiful effect often 
to he seen in a Bahama sunset. When the 
sun has set new beauties appear, every bush 
and tussock becoming alive with thousands 
of fireflies; and when a silvery green moon 
rises in the calm deep sapphire sky, it is 
difficult to decide whether night or day be 
the more full of loveliness. 

& < 3 * 

CUBA’S FIRST PRESIDENT 

Cuba has gone far enough on its w T ay 
toward independence to elect and inaug¬ 
urate the first president of the Island Re¬ 
public. The Cuban who will enter history 
with this noteworthy distinction is General 
Tomas Estrada Palma, whose name has 
been prominent in all the Cubans’ strug- 


JVote'cvorthy Facts of All JVations 


349 


gles for freedom for many years. Of 
course, there have been provisional officials 
of Cuba during the periods of insurrection, 
but these organizations were only tem¬ 
porary, and were not calculated for any 
time except the period of warfare against 
Spain. Gomez, Maceo, Cisneros and Garcia 
are proud names in the history of the 
Cuban struggle for liberty, but the name 
of Palma must stand with them as that of 
a great man and a noble patriot. 

General Palma was born in Cuba and 
was educated to be a lawyer. When the 
Ten Years’ War against Spain broke out, 
his father, who was a rich planter in the 
t province of Santiago, suffered many abuses 
and penalties for his support of the Cuban 
cause. Ilis property was destroyed or con¬ 
fiscated by the Spanish, and his wife was 
killed. Young Palma went into the 
patriotic army and soon rose to a high rank 
* in the insurgent forces. He was finally 
chosen president of the provisional govern¬ 
ment of the island. He was captured after 
nine years of fighting and was taken as a 
prisoner to Spain. lie remained in cap¬ 
tivity, because he refused to swear al¬ 
legiance to Spain as the price of freedom, 
but after the end of the' insurrection, he 
was released and came to the United States. 
For a time General Palma lived in Hon¬ 
duras, where he held important positions 
under the government, and married the 
daughter of the president of that Central 
American Republic. Returning to the 
United States he made his home in the vil¬ 
lage of Central Valley, Hew York, where 
he kept a school for Cuban boys whose 
parents desired them to have a genuine 
American education. At the time he was 
elected president, General Palma had not 
been in Cuba for twenty years. 


At the outbreak of the Cuban Insurrec¬ 
tion, which ended in the freedom of the isl¬ 
and, General Palma became the head of 
the Cuban Junta in Hew York, and di¬ 
rected the organized support and assistance 
to his struggling countrymen. His ener¬ 
getic service against Spain brought him the 
worthy reward of being the first president 
of the Cuban Republic. General Palma is 



TOMAS ESTRADA PALMA, CUBA’S FIRST 
PRESIDENT. 

sixty-six years old, a man of education and 
thoughtfulness, conservative in his judg¬ 
ments, and admired alike by Cubans and 
Americans. His expressions after his elec¬ 
tion were such as to increase the confidence 
in which he was generally held. He de¬ 
fined his policy toward the United States as 
follows: 

“The principal object of the Cuban Re- 





350 


ffotetovorthy Facts of All JWations 


public should be first to secure the most 
friendly relations with the American people 
who helped us in our hour of need. We 
will always bear in mind the work of the 
United States in helping us to obtain our 
independence from the Spanish rule. At 
the same time we should try to secure from 
the Washington government all advantages 
possible for our products by reasonable re¬ 
duction of the important duties, especially 
on sugar and tobacco, as this is the only 
way for Cuba to escape the absolute ruin 
of these two industries which are the bases 
of its actual wealth.” 

The Cuban election did not develop 
much opposition to General Palma, as Gen¬ 
eral Maso, the opposing candidate, had with¬ 
drawn. There were, however, some partisan 


expressions of dissatisfaction. It was 
charged by his political enemies that Gen¬ 
eral Palma was the American candidate. 
It is impossible to believe, however, that he 
would at any time hold the interests of his 
own country as second to those of the great 
republic of the north. It may be assumed 
that he will be as patriotic a president of 
Cuba as he has been a citizen in working 
for the island’s interests. At the same time 
he has the most friendly feeling toward the 
United States, from his knowledge of 
American conditions, gained by nearly 
twenty years’ residence in this country. 
The vice-president of the Cuban Republic, 
elected at the same time with him, is Doctor 
Luis Estenez, once secretary of justice in 
General Wood’s cabinet. 



A COUNTRY HOMESTEAD IN CUBA. 








351 


JVotetvorthy Facts of All JVations 


SANTO DOMINGO—THE BONES 
OE COLUMBUS 

Christopher Columbus, the discoverer of 
America, was born in Genoa, Italy, about 
the year 1435, A. D., and died at Vallado¬ 
lid, Spain, in profound obscurity, May 20, 
1506. Ilis body was deposited in a vault 
in the Convent Church of the Franciscans, 
where it remained for some time; but after¬ 
wards, according to a request made in his 
will, his remains were 
removed to the city of 
Santo Domingo in his 
“beloved Hispaniola,” 
and placed in a small, 
enclosed vault in the 
cathedral. Just to the 
right of this vault were 
deposited the remains 
of Don Diego, the son 
of Columbus, who died 
at Montalban, in 1526; 
and long afterwards the 
bones of Don Luis, the 
grandson of Columbus, 
were brought to the 
same place. Thus there 
were three crypts in the 
Cathedral of Santo Do¬ 
mingo, one containing 
the remains of Christopher Columbus, 
one those of Diego, and the third those of 
Luis. 

With regard to all these remains, the ob¬ 
scurity seems to have been profound until 
the year 1783. It was known to students of 
local history, that the remains of Chris¬ 
topher Columbus were somewhere in the 
building; but even the traditions as to his 
son and grandson were lost, or at least very 
vague. In that year, while making some 
slight repairs and alterations, a crypt was 


unexpectedly found, and in it a small 
metallic case, without any inscription,' 
which was at once accepted as contain¬ 
ing the remains of Christopher Columbus. 

In the year 1796 the war between France 
and Spain was brought to a close, and the 
Spaniards were compelled to cede to the 
French all the Spanish part of the island of 
Santo Domingo; but by the courtesy of the 
French officials they were allowed to con¬ 


THE CUBAN FARMER. 

vey the supposed remains of Columbus to 
Havana, and the exhumation was solemnlv 
made on the 20th day of December, 1795. 

On the 14th of May, 1877, the crypt con¬ 
taining the remains of Don Luis was ac¬ 
cidentally discovered. This discovery 
caused much excitement, and revived an 
old tradition, that the bones removed in 
1795 were not .those of Christopher Colum¬ 
bus. The authorities now decided to make 
a careful investigation, which should 
verify, or else forever set at rest, the tradi- 






352 


ft otetvorthy Facts of Alt Stations 


tion. Their efforts were crowned with sue- 
cess. On the gospel side of the chapel (the 
left facing the altar) they found two 
crypts, the first one empty, because the re¬ 
mains had been carried away in 1795; the 
second one contained a small metallic case, 
with inscriptions in Spanish on both the 
outside and inside of the cover—“Most il¬ 
lustrious and renowned personage, Don 
Cristoval Colon,” and “Discoverer of 
America, First Admiral.” The chest was 
opened, only to increase the certainty; on 
the interior of the cover were found the 
words, “Most illustrious and renowned per¬ 
sonage, Don Cristoval Colon.” 

On the two sides, and on the front, were 
the letters C. C., A., meaning Christopher 
Columbus, Admiral. Upon careful exam¬ 
ination of the contents, there were found 
bones and bone-dust, very few and small, 
with a small bit of the skull, a leaden ball, 
and a small silver plate inscribed “U. 
Cristoval Colon.” 

Dr. Coppee says in his article on this 
subject in Stoddart’s Review, from which 
this is mainly taken : 

“Every one who was present at once ac¬ 
cepted this ocular proof, that what was left 
of the body of the great discoverer had not 
been taken away to Havana, but was really 
there before his eyes, with an indubitable 
record of identification. It may be doubted 
whether in the wildest scenes of internecine 
strife and blood in all its history, Santo 
Domingo had ever witnessed such popular 
excitement. Time had brought them the 
knowledge of a great treasure. Te Deums 
were sung. The Legislature at once made 
an appropriation from ‘the extraordinary 
funds’ of ten thousand dollars as a contri¬ 
bution to a fitting monument. The arch¬ 
bishop, Roque Cocchin, kept his secretaries 


busy in sending the news of the discovery 
everywhere. 

“When the news reached the Spanish 
capital, it struck everybody, court and peo¬ 
ple alike, with painful surprise. The honor 
of Spain was supposed to be impugned. It 
was not only humiliating in itself, but it 
argued great carelessness in the Spanish 
officials, at the time of the translation, that 
for more than seventy years they should 
have fixed upon Spain the delusion that the 
precious remains of the great discoverer 
were resting in the Cathedral of Havana, 
and that generations of reverential visitors 
to ‘the pilgrim shrine’ had been wasting 
their sentiment on a mistaken object. 

“The letter of the archbishop, with the 
accompanying proofs, was placed, by order 
of the king, in the hands of the most ap¬ 
propriate body, La Real Academia de la 
Ilistoria. A special committee was aj> 
pointed to take the matter in hand. Of 
course they reported adversely, charging 
the Santo Domingans with schemes and 
fraud, and absurd credulity. 

“The controversy that ensued brought 
out a work of three hundred and thirty- 
seven pages from the hand of the arch¬ 
bishop. In this valuable w r ork he goes over 
much historical matter not before generally 
known. An unprejudiced perusal dissi¬ 
pates every shadow of art or deception. 
Few things are so clearly proven, as that 
the remains of the great discoverer are still 
preserved in the Cathedral Church of Santo 
Domingo, the spot which he selected as his 
burial-place. It has been proposed to erect 
a lofty column over the sacred dust, which 
shall tell the passing ships of every nation 
of ‘the gratitude of mankind to Christopher 
Columbus.’ ” 


JVotebvort/?y Facts of All JVations 


353 


VOODOO WORSHIP IN HAITI 

Voodooism is tlie “black art” of uncivil¬ 
ized negroes. Some of its more harmless 
forms exist wherever there are large com* 
munities of black people, and many of its 
charms and incantations are used even 
among the superstitious whites. 

Back in the dark forests of savage Haiti, 
it reached its greatest power a few years 
ago, and a small contribution to a bush 
doctor would cause the restoration of any¬ 
thing stolen by a negro anywhere on the 
island. The doctor would not seek the cul¬ 
prit but would merely let it be known that 
a charm had been sold to the man who had 
been robbed. 

The stories of the voodoo rites are inde¬ 


scribably horrible, and it has never yet been 
satisfactorily proven that they are all true. 
This much is known. Their special cere¬ 
monies and incantations take place in some 
secluded part of the forest where rocks or 
ravines make a natural barrier to ob¬ 
servers. The devotees gather in a small 
circle around a basket containing the divine 
snake, which imparts any desired wisdom 
or knowledge to the priest or priestess in 
charge. Dancing about this circle by moon¬ 
light until exhausted, the votaries sit down 
and wait silently till the priest or priestess, 
who continues the dance, falls into convul¬ 
sions, ending in a trance, during which the 
snake reveals the truth of any secret de¬ 
sired. After this the debauch of worship 



THE HORRIBLE CEREMONIES OF VOODOOISM. 




354 


ffotetvorthy Facts of All ffations 


begins and with it the orgies of blood and 
cannibalism, if such be true, as several al¬ 
leged witnesses have asserted. 

Other forms of Voodoo worship are car¬ 
ried on in the towns by the witch doctors, 
and the superstitious, though not indulging 
in any of the worship, supply themselves 
with charms and observe the various means 
of warding off the work of evil spirits. 

The word Voodoo comes from the word 
Vaudois, the name given to the followers 
of Peter Valdo, who founded the sect Val- 
denses or Waldenses of Piedmont. The 
historical massacre of these Christians in 
1655 is remembered in Milton’s sonnet, 
“Avenge, O Lord, Thy slaughtered saints, 
whose bones 

. Lie scattered on the Alpine mountains 
cold.” 

The most horrible stories of cannibalism 
were told of these Christians and the 
French emigrants to Haiti gave the 
name Vaudois to the cannibalistic rites of 
the negroes. In Switzerland Voudai is the 
name given to a wild and monster hunts¬ 
man, who is a sorcerer, voudai signifying 
sorcerer. In some parts of Haiti and 
Louisiana, Voodoo is the name of a Satanic 
personage who is given homage in a form 
of devil worship, and he in return gives 
special powers to those who sell themselves 
to his service. 

It may be interesting to mention that 
from a source pretending to much more 
depth of learning comes the assertion that 
this widespread practice and worship de¬ 
rives its name from the Ewe language 
spoken on the west coast of Africa, in which 
vo means “fear of” and du means “a god.” 

It is claimed that large numbers of the 
Ewe Africans were sold to the slave traders 
by a conquering king and carried to Haiti. 
The reason given to explain why the rest of 


West Indies were so long free from Voocloo- 
ism is that the English and Dutch took 
their slaves from the Gold Coast of Africa, 
where Voodoo worship was unknown. Also 
the introduction of Voodooism into Louis¬ 
iana is accounted for from the importation 
by the French and Spaniards of slaves from 
Haiti. 

The present condition of Voodooism in 
the West Indies is such that, if practiced 
at all in any of its barbarous rites, it is done 
with the utmost secrecy and official investi¬ 
gation has been unable to unearth it. 

£ £ 3 

THE COCOANUT AND ITS USES. 

Someone has aptly called the cocoanut 
palm the giraffe of trees, and beyond ques¬ 
tion there is a suggestion of that animal in 
the slender, curving trunk, with its feather- 
duster-like top of clustering branches and 
nuts. Found all the way around the world, 
in the tropical island and coast regions of 
Asia, Africa, South America, Australia, 
the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans, it 
is a wonderful tree of very great value. 

In its natural state, the nut furnishes 
refreshing and nourishing food and drink. 
From the fiber of the thick, outer husk, 
cordage and cocoanut matting are made. 
The outer shell of the nut itself, and the 
wood are used for fuel in native dwelling's, 
for which the leaves furnish a thatch, and 
the matting for walls, partitions and car¬ 
pets. Thus every part of the remarkable 
tree is utilized. 

The most valuable commercial products 
come from the meat of the nut. In some 
countries it is ground and pressed to extract 
the oil, and elsewhere the nut meats are per¬ 
mitted to dry in the sun, and then, as 
“copra,” are shipped to Europe or America 

to be made into soap, cosmetics and toilet 
preparations. 


JVoteKvorthy Facts of All JV at ions 


355 


PORTO RICO AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS 


The United States ended its war with 
Spain, with the Island of Porto Rico and 
the little islands adjacent to it undeniably 
American possessions. There was no sug¬ 
gestion on the part of the people of Porto 
Rico that they should be left to form a re¬ 
public of their own, as was planned for 
Cuba, nor did they oppose American rule as 
the Filipinos were do¬ 
ing. It has been neces¬ 
sary, therefore, only for 
the United States to 
establish a local island 
government unde r 
American guidance, and 
this has been done. The 
island, with its popula¬ 
tion approaching 1,- 
000,000, is the most 
thickly settled of the 
larger islands of the 
West Indies. It was 
discovered by Colum¬ 
bus on his second voy¬ 
age in 1193, and its 
largest city, Ponce, 
bears the name of one 
of its first governors, 

Ponce de Leon, the 
famous Spanish ex¬ 
plorer, discoverer and undefeated conqueror. 

When General Miles landed on the island 
with the American forces in 1898, he was 
welcomed joyfully by the people, who were 
glad to know that they were about to pass 
under the rule of the great American re¬ 
public. Since that time there have been 
some political differences as to the policies 
of this government in its control of Porto 


Rico but these difficulties have been elim¬ 
inated and the people today are prosperous 
and contented. The island is exceptionally 
salubrious and it has never been afflicted 
with epidemics such as have been common 
in Cuba. It has another point of excep¬ 
tional interest in the fact that it is the 
“whitest” of the Antilles. It is the onlv 

v 


one of the West Indian islands in which the 
negroes are outnumbered by the whites, who 
comprise nearly 600,000 of the total popu¬ 
lation. 

The resources are by no means fully de¬ 
veloped, although the production of coffee, 
sugar, and tobacco is a considerable in¬ 
dustry. Besides these staples, the island 
abounds in other tropical products, some of 



HUSKING COCOANUTS ON A WEST INDIAN PLANTATION. 


356 


ffotebvorthy Facts of All Rations 


which but wait the investments of Amer¬ 
ican capital and American energy to be¬ 
come highly profitable. Under American 
rule education is being fostered and the 
cleanliness of the island is being main¬ 
tained to the manifest advantage of health 
conditions. San Juan, the capital, on the 
north coast of the island, is a clean and 
picturesque West Indian city, particularly 
interesting to American visitors for the his¬ 
toric associations that center around its old 
Spanish fortifications and public buildings. 
It was founded in 1511 by Ponce de Leon. 
With its richness of resources, its beautv 
of scenery, and its charm of climate, Porto 
Rico is sure to become a favored island 
among the newly acquired possessions of 
the United States. 

The Spaniard for many centuries had 
everything' his own way in Porto Rico and 
therefore in every respect the Americans 
found it to be thoroughly Spanish- The 
streets of the towns are often so narrow that 
two wagons pass with difficulty and the 



VIEW OF HARBOR AND TOWN OF CHARLOTTE 
AMALIA, ST. THOMAS. 



WOMEN CARRYING BANANAS FROM THE FIELDS. 

sidewalks are sometimes too narrow for 
two persons to walk comfortably abreast. 
The gloom is increased by the balconies that 
project from the second stories, where on 
evenings the families sit and talk across to 
one another. Ponce, with its close adjoin¬ 
ing villages, has 50,000 inhabitants, al¬ 
though there are not more than one-third 
that number in the town proper. The sea¬ 
port of Ponce is two miles away at La 
Playa which has about 4,000 inhabitants. 
Mayaguez has 12,000 inhabitants and is 
the place where Columbus first landed on 
the island. They have a monument to com¬ 
memorate the fact. 

The introduction of American capital 
and American methods is rapidly develop¬ 
ing the tropical resources of the island and 
changing the customs of the people. Rail¬ 
ways are being improved and extended, 
new steamship lines are plying between 
Kew York and San Juan, new hotels and 
stores are being established. But nothing 
can change the beauty of the island. 








jV otekvorthy Facts of Alt ffations 


357 


SAINT HELENA, THE ISLAND 
OF EXILES 

A little more than a third of the way 
from Africa to South America is an island 
containing 47 square miles which first be¬ 
came famous as the last prison of Napoleon 
and has again been brought into note as the 
place of exile for prisoners from the Boer 
war in the Transvaal. This isolated island 
was discovered on St. Helena’s day, 1501, 
by the Portuguese. The discovery was kept 
secret and it w T as taken possession of by the 
Dutch, who abandoned it in 1651 to estab¬ 
lish their colony at Good Hope. It was 
then occupied by the English, and was 
taken and retaken several times by Dutch 
and English till 1672, when the English 
became its permanent possessors by fortify¬ 
ing it. 

At a distance it looks like a pyramid ris¬ 
ing from the sea, but on a near approach it 
is seen to be surrounded by rock bluffs ris- 
ing in sheer precipices from the sea to the 

height of a thousand feet. In the center 
© 


Mount Diana is 2,700 feet above the sea. 
Being of volcanic origin, there are hut few 
valleys where vegetation is luxuriant. As 
the island cannot more than supply the 
simple wants of the few inhabitants, its 
only commerce is in supplying vegetables 
to passing ships. It is an ideal place for 
the complete isolation of political exiles. 

& jt 

DANISH WEST INDIES 

St. Thomas is six miles from St. John 
and fortv miles from St. Croix. Their 

v 

combined area is less than 140 square miles. 
Of the 35,000 inhabitants, about one in 
seven is white. Sugar and rum are the 
chief exports, although tropical fruits and 
vegetables grow luxuriantly. The value 
therefore of the Danish Islands to any 
country lies almost wholly in the fine, land¬ 
locked, deep-water harbor of St. Thomas, 
commanding the geographical and strategic 
position on the highway between the two 
Americas. From November to May the 



CASTLE OF CHAPULTEPEC, CITY OF MEXICO. 

A famous historic edifice, and summer home of the President of the Mexican Republic. 














358 


JVotetvorthy Pacts of All ffations 


climate is delightful, though for the rest of 
the year the weather is hot, but the nights 
are cool and refreshing. There is over the 
island a great mixture of customs, since the 
white people are intermixed nationalities 
of Danish, English, French and Spanish. 

S 

WHERE MEXICAN RULERS 
DWELL 

“The hill of the grasshopper,” as the 
w r ord Chapultepec meant in its original 
Aztec significance, has long been a shrine of 


Mexican history. Here Montezuma, the 
great ruler, had his palace, and here after 
the Spanish conquest dwelt Cortez, the con¬ 
queror. The successive Spanish viceroys 
occupied the palace on this hill, and when 
finally Mexico gained its independence, the 
successive dictators and presidents dwelt in 
the same place. When Maximilian came 
with his bride, Carlotta, to assume im¬ 
perial authority over Mexico at the behest 
of Hapoleon III., this was his home, and 
from it the young empress departed on her 
fruitless journey to Europe to obtain sup¬ 
port from her royal rel¬ 
atives there. In later 
times, the castle has 
been the summer home 
of President Diaz, 
whose official residence 
the rest of the year has 
been in the government 
building in the city of 
Mexico. 

Chapultepec lies but 
a few miles from the 
Mexican capital, wfith 
which it is connected by 
a beautiful boulevard 
called the Paseo de la 
Reforma. The present 
structure is more than a 
hundred years old and 
its splendid salons and 
corridors, i t s arched 
verandas which overlook 
the tree tops and the 
great city on the plain 
below, and the beautiful 
park which surrounds 
it, make it an enchant- 
i n g residence. The 
American army cap- 



GIANT CACTUS OF THE PRICKLY PEAR VARIETY, MEXICO. 
















JV oteKvorthy Facts of All JVations 


359 


tured this hill and castle during the 
Mexican War, after a spirited engage¬ 
ment and a brave defense from the occu¬ 
pants. The portion of the castle in the fore¬ 
ground is that occupied as the official resi¬ 
dence of the president. The remainder of 
the structure is the School of Cadets, where 

young Mexicans are trained to be officers in 

» 

the army, after the manner of our own 
West Point. It was these young soldiers 
who defended their school and the castle 
against the American army, and a beautiful 
monument now stands in the park below it, 
commemorating the bravery of those who 
died in the action. Near by, in the outlying- 
part of the great park, are the ruins of the 
ancient Mexican mill which gave its name 
to the battle of Molino del Rey. In the 
foreground of the picture may be seen the 
arches of the ancient stone aqueduct which 
for hundreds of years supplied water to the 
householders of the City of Mexico. Sup¬ 
planted by a modern water works system, 
as it is, with the rebuilding of Mexico into 
a modern city, the ancient aqueduct still 
forms a picturesque feature of the land¬ 
scape. 

MINES OF RICHES IN MEXICO 

The Real del Monte mine was doubtless 
worked by natives long before the time of 
Cortez and Montezuma. From time im¬ 
memorial it was the law of Mexico that a 
mine belonged to the one who worked it. 
Whenever he abandoned it any one else 
might take it. Thus the Real del Monte 
mine has been worked by many owners, the 
most noted of whom was Count Terreros. 
lie took advantage of the law that a mine 
owner can own but the first five hun¬ 
dred feet in depth till he has exhausted that, 


when he may begin on the second five hun¬ 
dred. Not far from Real del Monte was 
the Santa Brigida mine and he decided to 
cut into the second five hundred feet of that 
rich mine by tunneling from the bottom of 
the shaft of the Real del Monte. On the 
way he struck one rich vein after another 
until in the eleven years which it took him 
to complete the tunnel, he became the rich¬ 
est man in all Spain. 

To show his gratitude he gave the king 
a million dollars in silver and presented the 
Spanish navy in the year 17G2 with two 
ships of war fully manned and equipped. 
His other benefactions amounted to many 
millions of dollars, and not long before his 
death he was remembered by the king with 
the title of Count. 

The descendants of Terreros worked this 
mine till the revolt of Hidalgo swept the 
country bare, and it was abandoned till an 
English company, knowing how rich it had 
been, put $20,000,000 of machinery and 
labor into it with a loss in twenty-five years 
of $3,000,000, when they abandoned it, and 
now the whole thing may be had for a song. 

In 1775, Father Flores, a Dominican 
priest, who in his zeal had pushed far into 
the frontier of San Luis, was at last com¬ 
pelled to abandon his work because of utter 
unproductiveness, hopelessness and non-sup¬ 
port. Gathering his most precious personal 
possessions in a bundle, he set forth to re¬ 
turn to more civilized regions. The first 
night, with great difficulty he built a fire 
out of the green or water-soaked wood, but 
at last it was made glowing hot and he 
slept by it all night, wrapped in his blanket. 
A fierce wind storm came near morning and 
blew away every particle of the fire, and 
when he arose there was gloomy prospect 
that he could make another. But on the 


360 


flotetovorlhy Fads of A// JWations 


bare earth where the fire had been, there 
were some shining white particles of metal. 
He examined them and found the out-crop¬ 
pings of a vein of silver. Then he remem¬ 
bered the dream of his boyhood, which had 
brought him there, in which an angel ap¬ 
peared and told him that he would be 
buried in a silver vault under a great 
church which he would erect in the far 
wilderness of Mexico. 

Without disclosing his secret, he worked 
the mine alone for five years and the ore 


brought him $3,000,000. With this he 
opened it up on an extensive plan and be¬ 
fore his death he had paid the royal fifth 
to the king of Spain amounting to more 
than $20,000,000. The rest of his fortune 
he spent in settling emigrants upon well- 
equipped tracts of land, and in due time 
he rested according to his dream in the 
silver vault underneath the great stone 
church he had built. But today his mine 
is only a cave for the little animals that 
remain in the surrounding fields and woods. 

There are hundreds of mines in the un¬ 
known mountain regions which are worked 


by natives or priests who are contented with 
a bare sufficiency for support. Many of 
these are believed to contain fabulous riches 
equal to those whose one-fifth once made 
Spain the richest government and nation 
in the w T orld. 

The Santa Eulalia mines in Chihuahua 
are still rich producers, and the church still 
receives one sixty-fourth from the oldest of 
them as the result of a curious compact. In 
1706 several desperadoes, confined in the 
prison, killed the guards and escaped to the 
mountains, where they defied 
every effort at capture. As 
their crimes were particularly 
atrocious, the vigilance of the 
authorities never relaxed and a 
large reward was offered to the 
Indians for the robbers’ scalps. 

Such honors were about even, 
for the desperadoes fortified 
themselves in a cavern having 
secret outlets deep in the almost 
inaccessible mountains, and 
made the region uninhabitable. 

One day a few years later, an 
Indian came to the padre of the 
village bearing a letter which 
stated that the desperadoes desired for¬ 
giveness of church and state, not only 
because they now desired to live right 
the rest of their lives, but because the saints 
had prospered them so that they could make 
the padre and the governor rich beyond 
their wildest dreams. 

The absolution and the pardon were soon 
secured, for* which a vast amount of silver 
ore was turned over and a pact made that 
one sixty-fourth of the entire output of the 
mine should be set apart for the building 
of a firreat cathedral. In a few years the 
Cathedral of the City of Chihuahua was 



MAGUEY PLANT, FROM WHICH PULQUE IS EXTRACTED. 






Jfoiebvorlhy Facts of Alt JSfations 


361 


begun and completed and equipped at a 
cost of $2,000,000. The yield was above 
$2,000,000 a year for nearly a century. 
Then the Apaches overran the country and 
the mines were abandoned for many years. 
At this time efforts are being made to re¬ 
cover the lost wealth of the mines. 

*s* g 3 

PULQUE, THE NATIONAL 

DRINK OF MEXICO 

The Spanish conquistadores, when they 
landed in Mexico under the leadership of 
Cortez in 1519, found the natives cultivat¬ 
ing the maguey for the sake of the liquor 
extracted from it. There are said to be 
more than thirty varieties of the maguey in 
Mexico, and from most of them pulque 
(pronounced pool-kay) and other beverages 
may be made. About two-thirds of - the 
number yield “agua miel” or honey-water, 
and from about one-fifth of the varieties of 
the plant the best liquor, called “pulque 
fino,” is produced. 

The maffuev is to the native Mexican 

O v 

what the cocoanut tree is to the South Sea 
Islanders. It yields food, drink, clothing, 
shelter, and useful things of all sorts. The 
fibers of the leaf are used as thread and 
twine, and by breaking off one of the sharp 
thorns in which the leaves terminate, and 
rolling and twisting together the fibers at¬ 
tached to it, you have a needle and thread 
ready for use. Ropes made of the fibers 
are strong and lasting, though they are not 
quite so good as homespun ones. The pulp 
of the leaves furnishes a writing material 
like that prepared from the Egyptian 
papyrus. The earliest Mexican manu¬ 
scripts, adorned with drawings and illumi¬ 
nations, were written upon maguey paper. 
The large, strong, glossy leaves of the plant 


are also used to roof the houses of the poor, 
and from a leaf folded down its length 
spouts to conduct away the rain from the 
roofs are made. 

The maguey is a plant of a striking and 
handsome appearance, and a great plain 
covered with row upon row of magueys at 
regular intervals, stretching uninterrupt¬ 
edly till the horizon or the boundary moun¬ 
tain range is reached, is a sight that cannot 
fail to impress the spectator. The leaves 
are eight or nine feet long, a foot wide and 
eight inches thick near the root. After sev¬ 
eral years there springs from the heart of 
the plant a great central shaft, upwards of 
twenty feet in height, and bearing many 
yellowish green flowers. But this exhausts 
the strength of the plant, and it soon after¬ 
ward dies. As the maguey flowers but 
once in its life, and that only after many 
years of preparation, it is commonly known 
in the United States as the century plant, 
the notion being that it blooms only once 
in a hundred years. 

The maguey on a pulque estate are 
planted in lines, with intervals of three 
yards between them. In suitable soil they 
require no attention until the period of 
productiveness is reached. This is by no 
means to be regularly calculated on; but 
it is believed that ten years may be taken 
as about an average time. By long and 
careful observation the natives have learned 
to know almost the exact time at which the 
great central flower-stem is about to appear. 
Just before this happens they cut into the 
plant and extract its heart, leaving only a 
thick outside rind serving as the wall of a 
reservoir, about two feet deep and eighteen 
inches across. Into this receptacle the sap 
intended by nature to supply nourishment 
for the tall flowering stem continually 


362 


flotebvorthy Facts of All flattens 


oozes. In order to enable the native pulque- 
gatherer to approach conveniently near to 
the reservoir to draw off its contents, the 
leaves on one side of the plant are cut off. 
To extract the sap the Indian employs a 
long gourd, to one end of which a horn tube 
has been fitted, while at its other end is an 
aperture. The sap is drawn up into the 
gourd by suction, and is poured into a skin 
carried by a burro. When first extracted, 
the sap is called agua miel, or honey-water; 
it is either clear and straw-colored, or 
whitish and slightly sticky, according to the 
variety of maguey that produced it. It is 
almost without smell, and very sweet to the 
taste. 

Pulque is produced by fermentation from 
the agua miel, and is a milky-white liquid, 
having just the appearance of soapy water; 
it is sweetish in taste, and contains about 
six per cent of alcohol. But its smell is 
peculiarly sour and rancid, and this, more 
than anything else, turns the stomach of 
the man that is learning to drink it. It is 
manufactured thus: Part of the honey- 
water is taken to a building, and is allowed 
to ferment for ten or fifteen days, so as to 
form madre pulque, “mother of pulque.” 
Small portions of this mother-liquid are 
placed in the skins and vessels intended for 
the reception of the sap just drawn from the 
plant. As soon as the fresh sap comes in 
contact with the mother-liquid fermentation 
rapidly sets in, and in a day or two we have 
pulque, ready for drinking, and in the best 
possible condition. 

The pulque is drawn off and taken to 
market; fresh agua miel is put into the vat, 
and the process thus goes on without inter¬ 
ruption, so long as the plantation has 
maguevs supplying sap. The amount of 
agua miel yielded by a good plant varies 


from eight to fifteen pints a day, and this 
quantity is yielded for two or three months. 

When a maguey plantation changes 
hands, its value is estimated by the number 
of maguey de corte, or plants ready to cut. 
These are usuallv taken, one with another, 
at five dollars apiece, though the actual 
value of a good plant is double this sum. 
But allowance has to be made for the loss 
of many plants, for if the heart of the plant 
is cut out too early, or the incision is not 
made until too late, the result is alike fatal. 
The plant dies, and yields none of the valu¬ 
able sap. A good pulque plantation is an 
excellent thing to own, for the plant is 
strong, and not easily affected by heat or 
cokh Besides this it needs little moisture, 
and reproduces itself very readily by means 
of suckers from the old root, which withers 
down after all the sap had been drawn off 
from it. The pulque commands an almost 
immediate sale, for, so far as can be seen, 
it is impossible to produce too much of it. 

With all these merits and advantages 
pulque culture has but two drawbacks; one 
is that several years must elapse before a 
new plantation begins to yield liquor to the 
thirsty and an income to the proprietor; the 
other is the considerable uncertainty as to 
the time at which the plant will flower; it 
may reach its maturity in eight years, or 
it may take eighteen. But a maguey estate 
once in full operation assures its proprietor 
of a steady income, for fresh plants are con¬ 
stantly becoming productive. 

As pulque is much better when fresh, 
and rapidly deteriorates by keeping, the 
supply is renewed daily. From the plains 
of Apam, where most of the pulque con¬ 
sumed in the City of Mexico is produced, 
there is a daily train called “the pulque 
train,” which is laden solely with the fav- 


JVoteUforthy Facts of All ffations 


363 


orite drink, and is one of the largest sources 
of income of the Mexican Railway. The 
daily consumption in the City of Mexico 
alone is said to be a quarter of a million 
pints, and there are 822 shops devoted to 
the sale of the national drink in that city. 
The maguey estates in the State of Puebla 
are valued at $2,000,000 ; those in the State 
of Tlascala at twice as much, and those in 
the State of Hidalgo at four times this sum. 
The small towns and villages throughout 
Mexico receive their supply of pulque from 
the neighboring haciendas, or plantations, 
from which it is brought to market in bar¬ 
rels or sheep-skins. 

Pulque, as one gets it at the city 
pulqueria or village tavern, is a sour-smell¬ 
ing liquid, with a curious rancid flavor, 
which excites repulsion at first. The prac¬ 
tice of carrying it in the skins of sheep or 
hogs increases the strong odor, which is 
sometimes nearly as unpleasant as that of 
putrescent meat. However, though a 
strange drink, it is wholesome, and is be¬ 
lieved by its admirers to conduce to good 
digestion, sleep and an easy conscience. It 
must be drunk in large quantities to pro¬ 
duce intoxication; further, as it is always 
consumed while fermentation is still going 
on, it is pleasantly cool. The native Mex¬ 
ican is extravagantly fond of his national 
drink, as is shown by the oft-quoted: 

Know ye not pulque ? 

That liquor divine! 

Angels in heaven 
Prefer it to wine. 

& j* 

MYSTERIOUS COPAN, A CITY OF 
THE DEAD IN HONDURAS 

Centuries before Cortez overthrew Mon¬ 
tezuma, there was a mighty Maya race in 


Yucatan which reared some of the most 
extensive and costly temples ever made in 
the New World. Their civilization was 
much greater than that of the Aztec or 
Mexican. 

In 1576 Diego Garcia sent a letter to 
Philip II. of Spain in which he said of 
Copan, “I have beheld ruins and vestiges 
of a great population and of superb edifices 
of such skill and splendor that it appears 
they could never have been built by the 
natives of that province.” He added that 
he was unable to obtain from the natives 
or from any other source any legends or 
traditions that afforded any satisfactory 
origin for the remarkable buildings. 

For three centuries this place was visited 
by sightseers of various nationalities, but 
it was only in the- last decade that serious 
and extensive excavations were made. 
Enough has already been unearthed to show 
that no other city ever had such a vast 
amount of sculptured ornamentations. One 
stairway thirty feet in width ascending to 
the top of a pyramid 130 feet in height w r as 
carved every step with hieroglyphics and 
ornamented the entire way with images, 
some of them in groups of colossal size. 

That Copan was once one of the most 
magnificent cities the world has ever seen 
can no longer be questioned, and that it was 
occupied for many ages is proven by the 
many styles of extensive repair, one upon 
the other, which have been unearthed. Once 
the tropical and semi-civilized regions 
of Yucatan and Honduras were the scene 
of a gorgeous civilization, rivaling that of 
Babylon and Rome in their greatest 
splendor. In southern Mexico, at Mitla, are 
other noteworthy ruins, far antedating any 
historic records as to when and by whom 
they were constructed. 


364 


ft otetoorthy Fads of All Stations 


QUITO, THE STRANGEST 

CITY IN THE WORLD 

The capital of the Republic of the 
Equator, or Ecuador, occupies, among the 
capitals of the world, the position that some 
animals and flowers do in their respective 
kingdoms. It is a peculiarity, an anomaly, 
a paradox, if not a monstrosity. Just as 
some shrubs have leaves that simulate flow¬ 
ers, so Quito has some conditions which 
simulate the conditions of metropolitan ex¬ 
istence, but the general effect is bizarre and 
strange. 

Quito is a town of several thousands of 
inhabitants. No one quite knows whether 
there are forty or eighty'thousand. Quito- 
nians say that there are eighty thousand 
inhabitants; strangers doubt if there are so 
many as half that number. The first 
peculiarity is that there are no chimneys to 
the houses, and consequently no smoke 
rises. Charcoal onlv is burned there, and 
thus the town is relieved from that oppres¬ 
sive and noxious cloud that makes some 
cities occasionally intolerable. A second 
peculiarity is that while the streets are well 
paved with cobblestones in the roadway, 
you may pass days in the town and never 
see a wheeled vehicle at all. There are 
some carriages at Quito, but they are rarely 
used; when one of them rattles along, every 
one will turn to look at it, as at some 
curiosity. 

A third peculiarity is that while the 
bulk of the population is Indian in its char¬ 
acter, dressed in ponchos and short linen 
trousers, you will see a considerable num- 
ber of people, white men, walking about in 
frock coats and wearing tall hats. These, 
you will find, are the enlightened and cul¬ 
tivated white men, natives of Spanish 


origin, who fancy that they form the nation 
of Ecuadorians—the Indians, of course, do 
not count. Every white man who can pos¬ 
sibly manage it, wears, in Quito, a frock 
coat and a tall hat, to emphasize his im¬ 
portance and highly civilized condition. 
This dress justifies him in calling himself 
“Doctor,” and others in so styling him. 
Another peculiarity about Quito is that 
there is no hotel there. There is, indeed, 
a restaurant which calls itself an hotel. 
There are establishments where rooms can 
be hired for lodgings; but hotel, properly 
speaking, there is none. 

The means of access to Quito are also re¬ 
markable. In the midst of a wide upland 
moor, some hundred miles away to the 
south, a paved road suddenly starts, and 
extends, with more or less interruption, to 
Quito, which it enters from the south. 
Along a portion of this road, twice a week, 
a broken-down old omnibus, drawn by six 
mules, with their backs and necks in various 
degrees of hideous rawness, urged on by the 
shrieks and shrill whistling of three drivers, 
rolls slowly into Quito. This is the only 
public conveyance in the interior. One or 
two bullock-carts may be met upon the road. 
All other communication with the outside 
world is on horse or mule back. Such are 
-the facilities of intercourse with this city of 
Indians, tall hats, and less agreeable things. 

Quito can only be reached by a journey, 
mainly on mule back, which, including 
ordinary stoppages, may occupy ten days, 
over one of the most difficult roads in the 
world. Starting from Guayaquil, a steamer 
takes you seventy miles up the fine stream 
of the Guayas to Babakoyo, alias Bodegas. 
There the mules must be packed, and thence 
you ride for eight hours along a road which, 
in the dry weather, may be called good, to 


365 


ffotetvorthy Facts 

the foot of the Andes. Then comes a climb 
of 10,000 feet, part of it along rocky tracks 
to which the name of road can hardly he 
given. Then there is a descent of 2,000 
feet to the valley of the Chimbo. From 
(Tuaranda there is an ascent of about 5,000 
feet, and the shoulder of Chimborazo must 
he crossed. To cross Chimborazo, either 
you must go up to such a height that you 
run a considerable risk of suffering from 
mountain sickness, or 
you may go by a slight¬ 
ly lower road, and run 
a considerable chance 
of being suffocated in 
mud, which is often up 
to your horse’s girths. 

From Chimborazo to 
Ambato the great bleak 
moors have to be passed. 

From Ambato the coach 
to Quito may be taken. 

It will be imagined 
that in traveling over 
such elevations some of 
the roads will be very 
bad. During the jour¬ 
ney one has, in fact, 
to go over every sort, 
from the finest paved 
causeway (almost unused) to entire ab¬ 
sence of anv track whatever. Sometimes 

t/ 

the path leads over miles of rocks, which 
one could hardly imagine one could crawl 
along, yet which the mules manage to sur- 
mount. Sometimes it is through miles of 
mud, and through sloughs, where many 
poor beasts of burden are lying dead. 
Sometimes the slope is so steep that one 
wonders how to remain on the animal’s 
back. Sometimes the road is converted into 
a torrent by the rain, or into a deadly slide 


of All JWations 

where there is no sure footing; sometimes 
it has given way, leaving but a few inches 
for passage. Sometimes a landslide blocks 
the way, save for a few inches on the preci¬ 
pice’s edge. Sometimes one must wander 
over the boggy mountainside, as the road 
has simply become an obstacle to progress. 

In the mountains the road, be it said, is 
at least a mere path cut from their sides, 
until Chimborazo has been reached and the 


long Interandine Valley attained, which is 
the chiefly populated portion of Ecuador. 
The scenery is entrancing, or rather would 
be so if two things permitted the soul to 
be entranced. One obstacle is the enormous 
amount of clouds, which, though sometimes 
a beauty, often mar the scene, so dense and 
continuous are they. The other obstacle is 
caused by the necessity of careful attention 
to the road and horse, and of hastening for¬ 
ward as quickly as possible. Rest-houses 
are rare, sometimes mere Indian hovels, 



ALBATROSS COLONY ON THE COAST OF CHILE. 

The guano used for fertilizing American farms comes from the rocky islets where 

myriads of these birds dwell. 






366 


JVotetoorthy Facts of All Rations 


always foully filthy to a degree beyond pow¬ 
ers of decent description. The rain is often 
torrential. When the road is dry, many 
of the difficulties and dangers disappear. 
But the cold winds on Chimborazo are often 
very formidable, and one must not stay 
long to admire his beauty. Apart from the 
glorious exuberance of the precipitous hill¬ 
side forests on the maritime face of the 
Andes, and of the splendid sweep of the 
vast cereal-hearing valleys and slopes on the 
eastern aspect, there is much of surpassing 
loveliness; and, although in the rest-houses 
unspeakable filth and squalor prevail, there 
is interest and pleasure in the journey. 

The climate is very equable. It rains 
for three hundred days in the year, and 
ordinarily in the afternoon. It is warmer 
out of doors than inside the house. A vis¬ 
itor is always requested to keep on his hat 
when he calls, as the rooms are so cold, and 
many people sit in their overcoats. The 
town is 9,300 feet above the sea, and to 
breathe is often a matter of great difficulty 
for the unacclimated. No stranger coming 
to Quito but wonders how he will ever get 
away again, and it is not likely that any 
person would wish to revisit this City of 
the Incas. Amongst the other deficiencies 
of this strange place is the entire absence 
of any cultivated society, with the exception 
of a few families. There are, on the other 
hand, some noisy military bands, and some 
of the tunes they play are lively. There is 
an observatory; but the astronomer has 
never vet taken the trouble to ascertain the 
true longitude of the place. 

There are no greater thieves in the world 
than the Quitonians. If you pay a visit, 
your host unlocks his drawing-room door 
for you; the room is never left open. And 
each person leaving his room locks it be¬ 


hind him. Pilfering is a fine art in Quito. 
The article to be appropriated is moved 
from place to place till it vanishes entirely. 
The houses are built round courtyards and 
the reception rooms are very fine; the car¬ 
pets, mostly manufactured locally, are 
superb. The address of the whites is most 
courteous; hands are shaken on leave-tak¬ 
ing at least three times, and the hat is taken 
off on going down the staircase to the court¬ 
yard. 

The post arrives regularly. You will 
not be troubled with business, as no one 
ever thinks of keeping an engagement, and 
you will feel a great and lasting relief when 
you have literally shaken the dust of the 
place from off your feet. 

LIMA, THE CITY OF MUD 

Where else in the world will you find a 
city built of mud 300 years old ? Lima, 
the capital of Peru, has more than 100,000 
people, and it is built of mud. It is about 
six miles around it and two miles from one 
side of it to the other. It has a network 
of narrow streets, which cross one another 
at right angles, with spaces clipped out here 
and there for parks and plazas. The houses 
are all of one or two stories, flush with the 
sidewalks, and in the business sections cage¬ 
like balconies hang out from the second 
stories, so that you are shielded from the 
sun as you pass through the city. 

Lima looks wonderfully substantial, and 
you would imagine it to be made of massive 
stone, which here and there is wonderfully 
carved. Some of the walls look like mar¬ 
ble, others imitate granite, and houses of 
all the colors of the rainbow line the streets 
like substantial walls. About the chief 


JVotetoorthy Facts o/* All JSlations 


367 


square there are enclosed balconies from 
the second story walled with glass, and un¬ 
der these are what look like massive stone 
pillars forming an arcade or cloister around 
two sides of the square in front of the stores. 
These pillars are of mud, the polished walls 
of the houses are made of sun-dried brick 
coated with plaster of paris, and the second 
stories are a combination of mud and bam¬ 
boo cane. Think of a great city built of 
mud and fishing poles! That is Lima. 
There are some of the finest churches here 
on the continent, made of mud. The great 
cathedral of Lima, which cost millions, is 
a mud structure. 

The street scenes of Lima are interesting. 
Let us stop under the arcade, which runs 
about the plaza, and watch the crowds. 
Here are some of the best shops of the city. 
They are full of fine goods, and here be¬ 
tween four and five o’clock every afternoon 
the people come to buy and transact busi¬ 
ness. These hours are the gayest of the 
dav, and the crowd is now as thick as that 
of lower Broadway in Hew York at noon. 
It is a far different crowd, however. Ho 
one hurries. The men saunter along or 
stand on the street, and chat with their 
friends. We see little knots of men every 
few yards, and the messengers, the mer¬ 
chants and clerks seem to have time and 
to spare. Hearly every one is well dressed. 

The voune; women of Lima are a class 
nearer perfection in beauty of form than 
any others in South America. They are 
straight and shapely, and their soft, round, 
beautiful faces, with their luxuriant black 
hair combed high up from the foreheads, 
are lighted up with eyes which fairly shine 
with the souls of their owners. All of the 
ladies of Lima dress in black when they go 
out to walk. They do not wear bonnets, but 


wrap fine shawls of black goods about their 
heads, pinning them fast on their backs, so 
that the face alone shows. 

They are very devout. Every other one 
we meet carries a prayerbook, and you can 
seldom enter a church without finding a 
score or so on their knees. Ho woman can 
go into a church wearing a hat or a bonnet, 
and those who attempt to do so are touched 
with a long stick by the sexton and told to 
take their hats off. One of the queer sights 
of Lima is a church congregation. The 
men sit bv themselves, and the women and 
girls, all wearing these black cloths on their 
heads, make you think of a congregation of 
nuns who are dead to the world. At their 
own homes, however, they are vivacious and 
charming, and dress much like their sisters 
of the rest of Christendom. 

& £ & 

BOLIVIA, THE BACKWARD 
REPUBLIC 

Bolivia is promised a boom. Most back¬ 
ward of South American countries though 
it has been of late years, Horth American 
enterprise has centered its attention upon 
the land of the Incas, and the rapid devel¬ 
opment of its agricultural, mineral and 
commercial interests is prophesied. Source 
of great riches as they were to Spain a few 
centuries ago, Bolivia and Peru have been 
left far behind in the march of progress in 
the last hundred years. The mines of gold 
and silver from which were loaded the gal¬ 
leons which sailed away to Spain, were vir¬ 
tually abandoned. The thrall of manana 
fell over natives and Spanish colonists 
alike, and all advance seemed at an end. 
Within the last year or two, American cap¬ 
italists have been turning their attention to 


368 


flfoteievorthy Facts of All Rations 


this country that was still living in the past, 
in the belief that its natural resources justi¬ 
fied energetic development. And so they 
have obtained concessions from the Bolivian 
government by which they have large 
privileges in financial, mining, railway, 
agricultural and industrial enterprises, and 
it is believed that a new day is dawning for 
this “land of the llama.” So we may ex- 



MOUNTAIN CLIMBING. 

pect to see the peculiar grass boats of Lake 
Titicaca superseded by American-built 
steamers, and the toilsome stage journey 
over the high roads of the Andes abolished 
in favor of an American railway train 
which shall penetrate the range by passes 
and tunnels. The rich forests of rubber, 
the gold and copper mines of the Incas, and 
the other natural wealth of this country will 


be levied upon to pay a tribute to Yankee 
energy and business sagacity. 

CLIMBING THE HIGHEST 

AMERICAN MOUNTAIN 

Aconcagua is the highest mountain in 
South America, and consequently in the 
Western Hemisphere, for we have no peak 
in ISTorth America that equals it. The great 
mountain which rears its summit 22,422 
feet into the air, or more than four miles, 
is in the Andes range, about 100 miles from 
the Pacific Ocean, almost due east of Val¬ 
paraiso, on the boundary between Chile and 
the Argentine Republic. 

Few mountain-climbers have had the 
hardihood to attempt this peak, owing to 
the difficulties of the ascent. You pant like 
a dying consumptive; then the dust, which 
smothers everything, gets into your throat 
and chokes you; you cough exhaustingly 
and pant worse than ever. Every effort, 
however slight, entails a fresh effort of will, 
and your only desire in the world is to give 
up the whole thing and get down. At times 
the view is indescribably splendid, but as 
a rule dust-storms blot out the sky. Rain 
never falls at these heights. 

Starting from their camp at 8 a. m., the 
geologists of the first expedition that suc¬ 
ceeded in reaching the top, and an Italian 
porter, gained the summit in nine hours. 
Owing to the violence and persistence of 
the wind, snow only lies in great patches on 
the peak. Avoiding these, they- struggled 
up through deep masses of rotten, rocky 
material, slipping back two feet for every 
three they stepped. During the latter por¬ 
tion of the ascent they were forced to stop 
every four or five yards for two or three 




ffotetvorthy Facts of All JVations 


369 


minutes, stooping forward to recover 
breatli. They remained an hour on the 
summit, which they measured and found 
to be a small plateau seventy yards square. 
The view was magnificent, and the Pacific, 
one hundred miles away, resembled a vast, 
unruffled pond. In the afternoon, when the 
sun shone in the west, the ocean appeared 
like an immense conflagration or tract of 


fire. The clouds, however, only parted oc¬ 
casionally, and a sort of haziness prevailed 
throughout the day. Respiration was ex¬ 
ceedingly difficult, and finally a gale arose, 
which prevented a longer stay. On the east 
side the mountain falls away in a stupend¬ 
ous precipice of 10,000 feet, with hanging 
glaciers that feed a considerable glacier 
below. 

It will be seen from what has been said 
that the difficulties to be encountered 
through bad weather, exposure to severe 
cold, and above all the dreaded “puna” or 
mountain sickness, are of no ordinary char¬ 
acter. To these must be added, at lower 


levels, the dangers from mountain torrents 
and avalanches. Also, all suffer more or less 
from fever, and most of the mountain 
streams are poisonous, owing to the pres¬ 
ence of some mineral in the water. With 
such difficulties and innumerable lesser 
ones, it requires courage and endurance of 
the highest order to reach the tops of the 
great cloud-piercing peaks. 


Aconcagua can be seen from Valparaiso, 
rising over the horizon far above the black 
ridge of the Andes. 

<£ £ 

PROSPERITY IN THE 

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC 

Argentina and La Plata are the silver 
republic and the silver river, according to 
the derivation of the words, but neither of 
them is silver except in the imagination of 
the discoverer. The Silver River is the hue 
of yellow mud and the chief products of the 
country have long been cattle, wool and 
wheat. For many years there was such a 



SHEEP SHEARERS TRAVELING ON THE SOUTH AMERICAN PAMPAS. 









370 


JSfotekoorthy Facts of All Stations 


surplus of horses that a good one could be 
bought for less than a dollar, and it was 
no uncommon thing to see a ragged vaga¬ 
bond on a horse holding out his hat to 
passers by and saying, “Alms, please, for 
the love of God.” “If wishes were horses, 
beggars would ride,” is the old saying that 
was long fulfilled in Argentina. 

The soil being very loose in the country 
about Buenos Ayres there is always either 
insurpassable mud or almost unendurable 
clouds of dust. Besides this, ants are al¬ 
most intolerable pests. They increase with 
incredible rapidity, and often the mud 
houses they build are large and strong 
enough to support three or four horses 
abreast. Buenos Ayres is nearly as large 
as any other two South American cities, 
having 750,000 inhabitants, one-half of 
whom are foreign. It is built on level land, 
and the houses, mostly of one story, have 
continuous low, flat roofs. There is a 
line of horse cars along every street, and 
these are well patronized, for few persons 


will walk farther than one of the long 
blocks. 

Out on the vast pampas or plains, many 
of the great ranches, where there were for¬ 
merly five or six thousand head of cattle 
or horses, are now converted into wheat 
fields, some of them several miles square. 
Within ten years of the time when wheat 
Avas imported into Argentina, nearly a mil¬ 
lion tons were annually exported. 

Foreigners are known among the natives 
as Gringoes, and it is said that they re¬ 
ceived this name from a party of young 
Englishmen, the first in the country, \\Iio 
often sang together the old song, “Green 
grow the rushes O.” Henceforth, all for¬ 
eigners were knoAvn as “green grows” or 
gringoes. 

The rage for speculation in Argentina 
since 1885 has resulted in building up the 
country at an incredible rate, and it resem¬ 
bles in many places the aspects of some of 
the “boom” districts of Kansas and Okla¬ 
homa. 














371 


JVotebvorthy Facts of All Stations 


PARAGUAY AND ITS 

HISTORY OF VIOLENCE 

The little state of Paraguay, consider¬ 
ably smaller than the area of Indiana and 
Illinois, wedged in between Brazil and Ar¬ 
gentina, has suffered more disastrous calam¬ 
ities from political mismanagement than 
any other state of South America. 

Three-fourths of the natives were killed 
in the Spanish conquest, which far sur¬ 
passed in brutality all the feats of Cortez 
and Pizarro. The mild-mannered Fran¬ 
ciscans then obtained concessions, covering 
most of the territory, and after somewhat 
pacifying the intimidated natives were 
superseded by the more energetic Jesuits, 
who at once achieved remarkable success in 
converting and controlling the people. So 
great became the power of the Jesuits that 
no one could enter the country without their 
permission, not even the soldiers or envoys 
of the king. Their absolute control con¬ 
tinued until 1768, when they were expelled 
by the fire and sword of rebellion, so that 
hardly anything was left but dead men and 
ruins. 

In 1811 it became a republic and for 
sixty years was ruled by dictators who were 
unlimited despots. The story of their 
atrocious tyranny reads as if taken from the 
lives of Bluebeards and the rulers of ancient 
Delhi. 

In 1865, Brazil, Argentina and Uruguay 
united in war against Marshal Lopez, then 
dictator of Paraguay, and in five years the 
population was reduced to one-fourth, and 
less than one-tenth of the perishable prop¬ 
erty of the country remained. This was 
one of the most obstinately fought wars in 
historv. It was said that one might ride 
all day through formerly populous districts 


and not see half a dozen able bodied men. 
There remained almost none but women 
and children. 

Fewer than a hundred officers of any 
grade, civil or military, remained with 
whom the conquerors could make a treaty. 
These appointed a triumvirate, to whom 
was given the task of reorganizing the deso¬ 
late and prostrate nation. They adopted a 
constitution in 1870, and since then Para¬ 
guay has been peaceful and progressive. 

& & «a* 

INDIA RUBBER IN THE 

BRAZILIAN FORESTS 

It was from South America that india 
rubber was first introduced into Europe 
by the French scientist, La Condamine, 
who reported that the Peruvian Indians 
made use of it for many purposes. This 
was in 1736, hut it was not until 1770 that 
an English artist discovered its efficacy for 
effacing pencil marks, hence its name of 
rubber. It is distinguished from gutta¬ 
percha by its greater elasticity, a property 
which the latter loses when kept in a cool 
temperature, for which reason it is used in 
the insulation of sub-marine cables. 

The rubber of the Amazonian forests 
commands the highest price, that from the 
upper Amazon having a slight advantage in 
this respect over that of the lower valley, 
because from the greater distance it has to 
travel, it reaches the port of shipment in 
a drier condition. The tree producing it, 
known by various names among the natives 
of different parts of the country, was named 
Ilevea Guyanensis by Aublet, a French 
botanist, who studied it in French Guiana. 
It is an inconspicuous tree, with trifoliate 
leaves, growing to a height of over 60 feet, 


JWotetvorthy Facts of All JVations 


o < 


79 


and is compared in general appearance to 
an English ash. It flourishes best on islands 
or ground that is periodically inundated, 
and requires the shade of other trees, as 
well as a still atmosphere, in order to give 
an abundant supply of the milky juice 
which hardens into gum. 

It requires fifteen years to mature, and 
is not cultivated artificially, hut the supply 
is practically inexhaustible, as it is repro¬ 


duced by nature even after the temporary 
exhaustion of a district. This has occurred 
in the case of Cameta on the Tocantins, for 
forty years resorted to by thousands in 
search of fortune. There are many regions 
still untapped, and the known area of pro¬ 
duction, which probably will be largely ex¬ 
tended, exceeds 1,000,000 square miles. 
The most prolific districts are on the lower 
islands of the main stream, and on its 
southern tributaries, on one of which there 
are 100 trees which yield 100 tons of rub¬ 


ber per annum. The manufacture of water¬ 
proof clothing from india rubber was in¬ 
troduced into France at the end of the 
eighteenth century, after which it was de¬ 
veloped on a very extensive scale by the 
firm of Macintosh, of Manchester, which 
has left its name to this class of goods. 

At this time the uses of rubber have so 
multiplied that a mere catalogue of them 
would fill pages. It is so common that we 
think little of it, but if the supply were 
to cease suddenly we would realize in full 
measure the importance which it has 
gained in our everyday life. Only to men¬ 
tion erasers, rubber bands, waterproof 
garments, rubber bags, medical and 
surgical supplies, rubber stamps, flexible 
tubing, springs and cushions and engine 
packing, suggests in slight degree the 
manifold applications to which the prepar¬ 
ations of rubber from the South American 
forests are put. 



FLOWER FARM IN THE SCILLY ISLANDS. 

This group of islands lies just off the extreme southwestern point of England. The climate is mild and manv 

flowers are raised for the perfume manufacturers. ’ * 












JVoteboorthy Facts of Alt Stations 


373 


LONDON, THE WORLD’S METROPOLIS 


Of all the world, London is the greatest 
city. Other cities have their distinctions 
of beauty, of gaiety, of art, of music, hut 
none rivals London in population or in the 
magnitude of its financial, commercial and 
industrial interests. All the world recog¬ 
nizes London as the international capital 
of commerce. And yet by no stretch of the 
imagination can London be termed beauti¬ 
ful. Overhung by the pall of smoke from 
its myriad chimneys, or shrouded in fog 
from its surrounding waters, monotonous 
of architecture, dull of color, it still pos¬ 
sesses attractions all its own for every 
stranger, and stimulates in its own people 
the profound and loyal conviction that it 
is the queen of all cities. 


And there is reason in all this. In Lon¬ 
don have been fought out numberless strug¬ 
gles for liberty that have produced results 
which all the world shares. London was 
the ancient city of the Britons when the 
Romans came nineteen hundred years aan, 
and nineteen centuries of history and 
romance have heaped upon it a dignity that 
compels admiration. Merely to name West¬ 
minster Abbey, the Tower of London, St. 
Paul’s Cathedral, London Bridge, and the 
Thames, suggests enough of interest to 
justify a journey around the world. Tra¬ 
falgar Square with its monument in honor 
of Lord Nelson, its colossal lions designed 
by Landseer, its fountains and magnifi¬ 
cent National Gallery, and its great hotels 



TRAFALGAR SQUARE AND NELSON MONUMENT, LONDON, 
















374 


J'Jotetvorlhy 1Facts of All JSfatioru 


adjacent, is a center from which radiate a 
dozen famous streets on which every build¬ 
ing occupies a historic site. This may be 
taken as the most typical center of London’s 
social, official and political life. 

Far from Trafalgar Square is another 
center of activity which is even more in¬ 
fluential upon the affairs of the people of 
the world. It is the irregular area upon 
which the great financial institutions of 
London face. The Bank of England, the 
Mansion House, the Royal Exchange, and 
other institutions only second in importance 
to these, are neighbors here. The Bank of 
England itself, low, massive, and unpre¬ 
tentious in appearance, keeps from $75,- 
000,000 to $100,000,000 in its vaults, and 
“the little old lady of Threadneedle street” 
is the most influential of all financial 


CHEAPSIDE, LONDON. 
Showing Bow Church in the Distance. 




WESTMINSTER ABBEY. 

factors in the world of English commerce. 
Cheapside, a typical London street, filled 
with handsome shops, leads from the bank 
to St. Paul’s cathedral. Half way between 
is Bow Church, and according to London 
rule, everybody born within sound of its 
bells is a “cockney.” 

It is not far from the Bank to the Tower 
of London, by way of winding, narrow 
streets, for this is the oldest part of the 
metropolis. But within sight of the Tower 
and almost connecting with it is the newest 
of bridges across the Thames, the great 
Tower Bridge itself. This remarkable 
structure is unique in bridge architecture, 
and it never fails to arouse the utmost in¬ 
terest. Two great towers surmount the 
piers of the bridge, and are connected with 
the shore by permanent roadways, sup- 



























ffotetvorlhy Facts of Alt JWations 


375 


ported by unique curved suspension trusses. 
Between the tops of tlie towers the channel 
of the river is spanned by another perma¬ 
nent. structure, high in the air. The road¬ 
way proper of the central span of the bridge, 
is of the bascule type, hung upon great 
axles at either tower. When no vessel de¬ 
sires to pass, this roadway is continuous 
with the spans which reach the shore, and 


traffic passes directly across through the 
arches in the towers themselves. When it 
is necessary to permit the passage of a 
steamer, the two halves of this central span 
are turned on their axles until they stand 
vertically against the tower, blocking the 
arches and leaving the channel clear. Im¬ 
mense counter-weights permit this to be 
done with slight expenditure of power. 


Manifestly, vehicles must wait while the 
bridge is open for boats, but great passenger 
elevators, running in the tower at either 
side of the arches, carry pedestrians to the 
upper level, and they cross, descending on 
the other side, so that foot-travel is unin¬ 
terrupted. It will be interesting to the 
reader to note in comparison with this 
bridge, another peculiar tower structure of 


different type, which spans the Chicago 
River and is pictured elsewhere in this 
volume. 

Still another feature of London interest 
is the Crystal Palace, which stands on high 
ground at Sydenham. This was the pioneer 
of world’s fair buildings. It was erected 
in 1853 at a cost of $7,500,000, for the first 
international exposition that had ever been 



THE TOWER BRIDGE, LONDON. 

Looking through the open bridge the Tower of London itself may be seen and the Custom House is at 

the extreme left of the picture. 


















376 


fotebvorthy Facts of All flattens 


held. The central hall is 1,608 feet long. 
The immense structure is composed almost 
entirely of iron and glass, and it is still 
utilized for various expositions and amuse¬ 
ment purposes. 

A type of still another phase of the life 
of the great metropolis is shown in the illus¬ 
tration which depicts the vast Smithfield 
market and the streets adjoining it. This 
occupies the ground once used for the 


don. Tor a comparison with the market 
illustration elsewhere, observe the picture 
of South Water street, Chicago, where the 
food supplies of the great American city are 
bought and sold. 

Every city of large size has its distinct 
individuality as truly as has every man. 
The study of cities is one of the most in¬ 
teresting rewards of travel, and the selected 
views of London here included will serve to 



kV' sx '*. 







Ill 

i 


THE CRYSTAL PALACE, LONDON. 

This was built under the direction of Prince Albert, husband of Queen Victoria, in 1853, for the first 

International Exposition, the Pioneer of World’s Fairs. 


revels, miracles and tournaments of Bar¬ 
tholomew Fair, and later for the martyr¬ 
doms under Bloody Mary and Elizabeth. 
Here also Wat Tyler and Sir William Wal¬ 
lace were put to death. Nearby are the 
“Bluecoat Boys” school, Newgate, the 
famous prison, and other historic edifices. 
To-day the market, with three and a half 
acres under roof, is the chief place for the 
distribution of market supplies, fruits, 
vegetables and meats, for the city of Lon- 


typify for the reader the characteristics of 
that greatest metropolis. 

j* <£ 

THE TOWER OF LONDON 

On the left bank of the River Thames, 
just below where the Custom-House is, in 
convenient juxtaposition with the magnifi¬ 
cent docks which, with their crowded tiers 
of shipping, their innumerable flags and 










JWotebvorthy Facts o_f A ll JVaticns 


377 




THE TOWER OF LONDON. 


vast variety of languages, place modem But however this may be, the first historic 

trade and universality of interest at once record of its erection is in the reign of Wil- 

face to face with ancient isolation and liam the Conqueror, who built the White 

power,—is seen, as w T e go down in a steam- Tower to curb the rebellious Saxons, under 

the superintendence of 
his architect Gundulf, 
who, besides handling 
the measuring line, 
found time to exercise 
the duties, or at least to 
spend the emoluments, 
of the Bishopric of 
Rochester. 

In the course of time 
it offered such security 
against attack, that it 
became an object of 
great importance to the 

boat for a day’s holiday to Greenwich, a factions into which this kingdom was divid- 

square-built, low and dingy pile, which has ed. It was strengthened by walls and bas- 

no feature of attraction either from tions. Kings fled to it for safety, or intrust- 

grandeur or beauty of 

design, but which all 

turn to look at when 

thev are told it is 
«/ 

the Tower of London. 

Who originally built it 
is not known. Some, 
of course, say Julius 
Ciesar; others are more 
modest, and sav it was 
built in the time of 
Constantine the Great; 
and there are certainly 
some very strong proofs 
that on this site stood 
a fortress, a mint, or 
other building of the 
Romans in the time 
of Honorius, or three 
hundred and ninety- 
five years after Christ. 


CANTERBURY CATHEDRAL, BUILT 1070-1184. 


























378 


JVotekaorthy Facts of All J^ations 


eel it to the favored of their vassals. Armed 
men were ready to be let loose with fire and 
sword on the disobedient or discontented 
citizens of London; dungeons were added 
to the other chambers of the castle; prison¬ 
ers of consequence were committed to its 
impenetrable walls; Jews were tortured till 
they surrendered the last farthing of their 
hard-earned gains. Patriots, like the Scot¬ 
tish Wallace, or the Welsh Llewellyn, ex¬ 
piated their hatred of oppression with their 
blood in these miserable dens; and by the 
time it had arrived at its greatest strength, 
and very nearly at its present form and 
extent, in the reign of Edward III., it was 
a name which created an involuntary shud¬ 
der in the stoutest hearts. From it went 
in procession on their coronation days all 
the kings of England, from Richard II. to 
James II., a period of 300 years. The 
Tower throughout the life of the first of 
these potentates played a very conspicuous 
part. It was the scene of the grandeur and 
magnificence of his youthful days. Fes¬ 
tivals and assemblies were held in it, that 
eclipsed the magnificence of the Court of 
France. 

Tyranny, ambition, cruelty, ignorance 
and superstition, all by turns opened those 
dismal portals, which were only once again 
to turn on their hinges, when the murderer 
slipped in to do his dreadful work in secret, 
or the prisoner was openly conducted to 
death upon the scaffold. Nobles, warriors, 
heroes, statesmen, judges and scholars, even 
the beauty of women and the dignity of 
queens, could not escape the dreadful doom; 
and very frightful is it to read, in the rec¬ 
ords of that awful prison-house, the names 
of patriots and martyrs of which England 
is now so proud; and still more dreadful to 
reflect, that those great and illustrious 


names which still survive are but the scat¬ 
tered mountain-tops, as it were, on which 
the light of historv has rested. But what 
are we to think of the valleys where the 
sunshine has never shone, the unnumbered, 
unnamed, unregarded prisoners who pined 
in those gloomy vaults, and counted the 
hours in vain, shut out forever from the 
upper world, condemned without trial, and 
executed without justice ! We can talk now 
with some patience of these things, because 
they have ceased to be enacted for so long, 
because the light of the Reformation and 
the law of the constitution have made their 
way into that unhallowed building as into 
our private houses, and modern civiliza¬ 
tion has converted it into an arsenal for 
arms, and a pleasant quarter for a few sol¬ 
diers, a sight for tourists on their holidays, 
and a comfortable command for a time- 
honored general. 

S S 

INTERESTING FACTS CONCERN¬ 
ING GREAT BRITAIN 

The Established Church of England is 
Protestant Episcopal. The king is by law 
the supreme governor of the church. The 
number of Roman Catholics in England 
and Wales in 1891 was 1,500,000. The 
number of Jews in England and Ireland 
in 1891 was 93,200. 

The total area of the United Kingdom, 
exclusive of foreshores and tidal water, is 
77,109,000 acres; 13,504,000 acres are un- 
cultivatable as mountains, waters, roads, 
etc.; 3,038,000 are woods and forests; 23,- 
412,000 are grazing lands as hills and 
heather; 37,156,000 are under crop and 
grass. That is, the United Kingdom of 
England, Ireland, Scotland and Wales has 


ffotebvorthy Facts of All Rations 


379 


a cultivatable soil of little larger area than 
the state of Illinois. 

In 1900 the total imports, exclusive of 
diamonds, bullion and specie, were nearly 
$3,000,000,000. The total exports were 
about half as much. 

On Jan. 1, 1900, England and Wales to¬ 
gether had 15,044 miles of railroad, Scot¬ 
land 3,480, and Ireland 3,176. 

Jt <£ 

THE CATHEDRALS OF ENGLAND 

Cathedrals are the petrified prayers of 
architecture. They represent the highest 
ideas of man in the beauty and splendor of 
worshipful art. Such edifices have, from 
all time, been the chief evidence of the ad¬ 
vancement of the nation and age. 

Of modern nations, if not of all nations, 
England is foremost in the excellence if not 
in the massiveness of her cathedrals. So 
closely woven everywhere have been church 
and state that the history of the cathedrals 
is almost the history of the nation. 

The historian Macaulay spent every 
Eastertide in a prolonged visit to all the 
cathedrals. The historian Green says that 
the stately vault which covers the tomb of 
the Conqueror, contains in its structure the 
whole story of the conquest. It was at Ely 
in the midst of the fenlands that Hereward, 
the last native Briton, refused to surrender 
to the invading Anglo-Saxon. At Canter¬ 
bury we have the tragic romance of Thomas 
a Bechet in the time of Henry II. 

Canterbury has within it the throne of 
Augustine, and w T as begun by Lanfranc in 
1070. The mosaic pavement still remains 
upon which Bechet lay as his body was 
watched by the monhs of the abbey during 
the night after his murder. In 1538, 368 


years after Thomas a Bechet’s death, Henry 
VIII., he of the many wives, issued a writ 
of summons to the said Archbishop of Can¬ 
terbury, commanding him to appear to 
answer to the charge of treason, contumacy 
and rebellion. The summons was read be¬ 
fore the tomb, and, as the accused did not 
come forth, the trial was conducted at West¬ 
minster, where, the defendant not putting 
in an appearance, an advocate was named 
to represent him. 

The trial resulted in favor of the crown, 
with a verdict that the man be burned and 
his property confiscated by the hing. Ac¬ 
cordingly the tomb was brohen open, before 
which millions had prostrated themselves, 
including Emperor Charles V. of Spain, 
Edward I. and Richard the Lion Heart, 
and the remains were taken out and burnt. 
The shrine over him was destroyed and it 

w r as found to contain twentv-six cart loads 

*/ 

of gold and jewels, among which was the 
carbuncle, as large as a hen’s egg, con¬ 
tributed by Louis VII. of France. 

Nevertheless there is a tooth of Bechet’s 
enshrined at Verona, part of an arm at 
Florence, another at Mons, the bones of one 
of his legs at Lisbon, while personal articles 
of his are scattered all over Europe, and 
everv county in England has a church or a 
convent dedicated to him. It is of a pil¬ 
grimage to the shrine and tomb of Thomas 
a Becket. that Chaucer wrote in his Canter¬ 
bury Tales. In Trinity Chapel, the most 
sacred spot of the cathedral, is the tomb of 
the Black Prince. A long line of illustrious 
men and heroes are elsewhere entombed in 
and about the cathedral. 

Winchester Cathedral is most noted from 
an architectural point of view, for it con¬ 
tains some design or addition that shows 
the architecture of every century for nearly 


380 


/•fotebuorthy Facts o_f All Stations 


a thousand years. The most illustrious 
tomb here is that of William Rufus, who 
is buried under the central tower. The 
magnificent and massive structure of Dur¬ 
ham Cathedral is situated on a rocky emi¬ 
nence over the River Weir. Its most noted 
occupant is Venerable Bede, whose remains 
were stolen from Jarrow and deposited here 
in 1022. 

The Cathedral of Salisbury was begun 
in 1220 and has a complete written record 
of everything concerning it from the first. 
Its spire is the loftiest in England, being 
40G feet. It was completed in 40 years 
and cost more than $2,500,000. 

Westminster Abbey, though not a cathe¬ 
dral, is the most noted place of worship in 
England. It is officiallv known as the Col- 
legiate Church of St. Peter. The church 
was consecrated in 1005. William the Con¬ 
queror was crowned there in 1163. It is 
the burial place of thirteen kings of Eng¬ 
land and of five queens who were queens 
in their own right. Many of England’s 
greatest literary men from Chaucer to Ten¬ 
nyson are buried there, not to speak of the 
great statesmen, scientists and warriors. 
Nearly all of the English kings and queens 
have been crowned there and since the time 
of Edward I. have used the same chair, 
underneath which is the holy stone of 
Scone. Its various parts have been con¬ 
structed by the master architects of the 
world. In its law courts have been argued 
some of the greatest trials of England. No 
place in Great Britain has such a volumi¬ 
nous history as Westminster Abbey. Among 
the names that appear on tombs or me¬ 
morial tablets in Westminster Abbey, are 
those of Chatham, Peel, Cobden, Pitt, Isaac 
Newton, Dr. Watts, John Wesley, Major 
Andre, Livingstone and Gladstone. 


WELSH EISTEDDFODS, 

BARDS AND DRUIDS 

An Eisteddfod is an assembly of Welsh¬ 
men for the purpose of hearing speeches, 
essays, music and poetry in the Welsh 
tongue, for all of which subjects prizes are 
offered, frequently amounting to a very con¬ 
siderable sum. These meetings are known 
to have been held, as early as the sixth cen¬ 
tury, on an eminence near the now fashion¬ 
able watering place of Llandudno, although 
the first, of which there is a detailed ac¬ 
count, did not take place until 1170, when 
Rhys ap Gryffydd, Prince of Wales, held a 
congress in Cardigan Castle, on which oc¬ 
casion the prize for poetry was gained by a 
North Welshman. 

The opening of the Eisteddfod is usually 
preceded by some mysterious ceremonies 
called the Gorsedd, for which a pedigree is 
claimed dating from 1,000 years before the 
Christian era, and which can he conducted 
only by those who are initiated into the 
sacred rites. 

The place for holding the Gorsedd is 
usually an open space, in the center of 
which is a huge stone, the “Maen Llog,” 
surrounded by a circle, thirty feet in dia- 
meter, of twelve other stones, supposed to 
represent the signs of the Zodiac. On the 
outside of the eastern portion of the circle 
three other stones are placed, in such a posi¬ 
tion as regards the Gorsedd stone, that lines 
drawn from it to them will indicate the ris¬ 
ing of the sun in the summer and winter 
solstices, and the equinoxes respectively. 
The form which these lines, or pencils of 
light as they are termed, would assume in 
the mystic symbol of the bards and druids, 
and when written down appear thus, is in 
fact the druidic expression for the Creator 
of all things. To this Gorsedd stone a 


JSote^oorthy Facts of All Stations 


381 


solemn procession is formed, winch is at 
least curious and picturesque, owing to the 
peculiar dresses assumed by the different 
orders. The color of the bards is blue, to 
symbolize the blue sky, and supposed to 
indicate peace and tranquillity; the druids 
are dressed in white, significant of great 
purity; and the ovates or candidates for the 
highest orders are habited in green, to rep¬ 
resent the grass of the field, which is typical 
of growth and progress. 

Another singular custom is the carrying 
of a sword by a bard, who holds it by the 
point, to show that he is a man of peace, 
and would rather turn the weapon against 
himself than against any others. 

On arriving at the circle, a prayer, said 
to have been composed 1,300 years ago, is 
recited to the following effect: 

May Heaven grant strength, 

And to strength add understanding, 

And to understanding, knowledge, 

And to knowledge, what is just, 

And to what is just, love, 

And to love, the love of all things, 

And in the love of all things, the love of 
God. 

As soon as the prayer is finished, the 
Gorsedd is declared to be opened, and the 
business of conferring degrees on the bards 
and ovates is proceeded with. Of the three 
orders the ovate is the lowest. 

Under the old druidic dispensation, he 
was required to devote twenty years of his 
life before he could qualify as a bard, to 
gain which honor he had to study the laws 
and maxims of the institution, generally in 
verse, besides using his brains to compose 
fresh ones. At the expiration of his time 
he became a bard, which gave him the privi¬ 
lege of holding or presiding at Gorsedds, 
as well as instructing disciples, which was 


usually done in a series of pithy truisms 
called triads. Although they are full, even 
to repletion, of wisdom, they are character¬ 
ized a good deal by repetition, and were 
sometimes not a little obscure to ordinary 
mortals who had not the advantage of study¬ 
ing them for twenty years; as for instance, 
“the three dignitaries of poetry are the 
praise of goodness, the memory of what is 
remarkable, and the invigoration of the 
affections.” And again, “three things to be 
chiefly considered in poetical illustration, 
—what shall be obviously, what shall be in¬ 
stantly admired, and what shall be emi- 
nentlv characteristic.” Some of these 

c/ 

“proverbial philosophies” are rather grace¬ 
ful, as “the three primary requisites of 
poetical genius: an eye that can see nature, 
a heart that can feel nature, and a resolu¬ 
tion that dares follow nature.” Literature, 
however, was not the only thing that the 
bards had to look after, for morals also 
came within their scope, as we find that the 
three ultimate objects of bardism were “to 
form morals, secure peace, and follow 
everything that is good,”—a delightfully 
comprehensive view of the whole duty of 
man, which was still further carried out by 
“the three things forbidden to bards—im¬ 
morality, satire, and bearing of arms.” 

j* & S 

t 

THE ROUND TOWERS 

OF IRELAND 

There exists, or are known to have ex¬ 
isted, in Ireland at least 100 examples of 
the mysterious round towers. Eighteen of 
these may -be classed as still perfect, or 
nearly so. About as many more have en¬ 
tirely disappeared, but their former exist¬ 
ence is well authenticated. The rest, in- 


382 


ffotebvorthy Facts of All JVations 


eluding those of which only the foundations 
remain, exist in various stages of ruin. The 
large majority of them stand detached from 
any other building, hut some nine or ten 
were structurally connected with a church. 
Besides, these, there are, or were, two in 
Scotland, seven in the Orkney, Shetland 
and Faroe Islands, and one in the Isle of 
Man. These latter may be regarded as out¬ 
lying members of the Irish group. There 
are, moreover, a few Round Towers in 
Italy, Germany, Belgium and France, 
which present a considerable resemblance 
to the Irish type, and are believed to belong 
to the same period or, at least, to be the out¬ 
come of the same movement. 

The average height of the isolated Round 



ONE OF THE NOTED ROUND TOWERS. 
Height, 84 feet; diameter, 15 feet. 


Towers when perfect was probably about 
100 feet. The average diameter at the 
base is about 20 feet, the thickness of 
the walls at the door level about 3 feet 6 
inches, and the height of the door above 
the ground about 12 feet. The tower at 
Kilmacduagh, County Galway, is the larg¬ 
est example remaining. Though it has lost 
its conical cap and part of the upper story, 
it is still 120 feet high, with walls 4 feet 
4 inches thick, and the doorway is placed 
as much as 26 feet above the ground. The 
towers generally start from a projecting 
base consisting or one or more plinths, 
diminish slightly in circumference all the 
way up, and terminate, when perfect, in a 
conical cap. The interior is divided into 
stories from four to eight in number, ac¬ 
cording to the height of the tower. These 
stories are in general marked by offsets in 
the masonry, or by corbels, or by holes to 
receive the joists. The floors appear to 
have been usually of wood, though in at 
least three cases, at Castledermot, Meelick 
and Kinneigh, the lowest floor is of stone. 
In the top story there are generally four 
apertures, but there are examples in which 
two, five, six and eight are found. There 
is generally a single window, variously 
placed, in each of the other stories; one of 
exceptionally large size is often found 
directly over the doorway. Individual 
Round Towers exhibit many important 
peculiarities not noticed in this summary 
description. But viewed as a whole, one 
of the most remarkable points to observe is 
the strong family resemblance that charac¬ 
terizes all the isolated Round Towers. It 
is impossible to mistake a member of the 
class. 

Petrie’s conclusions as to the origin and 
use of the Round Towers were stated by 










JSfoteWorthy Facts of All Rations 


383 



ST. PATRICK’S GRAVE AT DOWNPATRICK, 
IRELAND. 


himself as follows: “That the towers are 
of Christian and ecclesiastical origin, and 
were erected at various periods between the 
fifth and thirteenth centuries. That they 
were designed to answer, at least, a two¬ 
fold use, namely, to serve as belfries, and 
as keeps or places of strength, in which the 
sacred utensils, books, relics, and other val¬ 
uables were deposited, and into which the 
ecclesiastics, to whom they belonged, could 
retire for security in cases of sudden pred¬ 
atory attack. That they were probably 
also used, when occasion required, as bea¬ 
cons and watch-towers.” 

The first conclusion, so far as it main¬ 
tains the Christian and ecclesiastical origin 
of the Bound Towers, is now generally ac¬ 
cepted. But as to the period of their erec¬ 
tion, the more cautious archaeologists are 
now agreed that evten the earliest examples 
were not built before the close of the ninth 
century. The second conclusion, that the 
towers were erected to serve both as keeps 
and belfries, is the theory now generally 
held, though some, who in other respects 


have followed Petrie, dispute their original 
use as belfries; but Petrie’s position in 
this respect has been much strengthened by 
arguments not open to him to use, while 
he assigned so early a date as the fifth and 
three succeeding centuries to the erection 
of these structures. 

As to the third conclusion, that tlie tow¬ 
ers were occasionally used as beacons and 
watch-towers, Petrie himself did not lay 
any stress on this position, and we may here 
dismiss it with a few words. There is 
reallv no direct evidence for either use. 
That in times of apprehended attack, how¬ 
ever, they were used as watch-towers is ex¬ 
tremely probable, and it may be said to fol¬ 
low from their character as keeps; hut that 
a light was kept burning at night in the top 
story to guide the traveler or pilgrim to the 
house of hospitality or prayer, which is 
what Petrie meant, -seems very unlikely. 
With a solid stone cap above, wooden floors 
beneath, and the lights available, such a use 
could hardly be safe, or effective, or con¬ 
sistent with the other purposes of the build¬ 
ing. 

£ £ 3 

CASTLES OF FRANCE. 

Castles are always romantic, for they 
bring into the imagination the story of 
feudal times, when one man’s desire was 
law within those walls, and the people 
round about were his vassals if not his 
slaves. 

Touraine was the chosen residence of 
the French kings of the Valois line, down 
to Louis XIV., and the Castle of Blois is 
both ancient and famous. For centuries 
it was the abode of the high and mighty 
ones of the earth, where were enacted 
scenes from the most revolting crimes to 








384 


JVotebvort/?y Facts of All Rations 


the most momentous events, including the 
monstrous assassination of the Guises and 
the opening events of the wondrous career 
of the Maid of Orleans. 

Chambord is one of the most magnifi¬ 
cent castles in all France. It was built by 
Francis I., after his long captivity in 
Spain, on the site of a hunting lodge of the 
Count of Blois, in the year 1525. The 
chateau contains 180 large rooms. In the 
center of the building rises a huge round 
tower, in which there are two concealed 
spiral stairways, so that persons may go up 
or down without seeing each other. 

Ambois was long the residence of French 
kings. It has two towers, each 90 feet in 
height and 42 feet in circumference. The 
walls of the castle are from ten to fifteen 
feet in thickness and underneath are sub¬ 
terranean dungeons equal to the worst 
stories of romance. These underground 
prisons are so large that at one time they 
contained 1,200 Huguenot prisoners, who 
were all beheaded in one day at the moat 
near by. They were executed because of 
a conspiracy to extricate Francis, the hus¬ 
band of Mary, Queen of Scots, from cap¬ 
tivity by the Guises. This was in 1560. 
The plot was somehow betrayed and hun¬ 
dreds were seized and thrown at night into 
the river Loire. To such an awful extent 
was the butchery of the Huguenots around 
the castle, without burial, that the chateau 
was made uninhabitable for a year. 

Chenonceau has a different storv. It 
was, like Chambord, built by Francis I., 
but at a time a little later, when he was in 
the height of his prosperity. It is to-day 
almost exactly as it Avas in his time, and 
many rooms used by illustrious persons are 
still kept as when last used by them. It 
was the home of Mary, Queen of Scots, 


Avhile in France. Her mirror is still sliOAvn 
to the visitor. Here lived for many years 
the detested Catherine de Medici, and in 
the latter part of the eighteenth century, 
while the home of Madame Dupin, it Avas 
made the refuge for eminent literary men 
such as Voltaire, Bolingbroke and Rous¬ 
seau. 

IloAvever, the castle with which is con¬ 
nected the most romantically terrible and 
gloomy stories is the Castle of Bodies. It 
Avas made the prison of state during the 
reign of Louis XI. on account of its laby¬ 
rinth of hidden underground passages and 
secret subterranean dungeons. It is noAV 
in ruins, for no one cares to live there on 
account of the memories of the victims of 
its numberless horrible crimes. Many of 
the deepest dungeons Avere merely sunken 
iron cages in which the victims of political 
or social intrigue Avere placed to perish. 

It Avas erected about the year 1025, by 
one of the Counts of Anjou. The Avhite 
toAver stands on the verge of a precipice, 
and is 120 feet high. Hear by is a lower 
toAver, Avliich led into the subterranean 
dungeons. The Duke of Milan was seized 
and secretly imprisoned here in one of the 
cages in 1500, where he li\ T ed for ten years. 
The famous historian Commines died in 
one of them, and so on through a fearful 
list. Those iron dungeons Avere used as 
late as 1789, AA 7 hen their use Avas abolished 
by an edict. 

In a Avay, as different as men’s lives are 
the histories of these strange castles. 
Chinon has no tragedy, but it is richest of 
all in important historic events. It is iioav 
in almost complete ruins. Xone but an 
humble peasant can occupy the royal apart¬ 
ments; the rest is uninhabitable. It Avas 
long the residence of the Plantagenet 


J'fotetvorlhy Facts of All JSfations 


385 


kings. Here Joan of Arc proved to the as¬ 
sembled people her divine inspiration by 
choosing the king from among his cour¬ 
tiers. The rock upon which the castle rests 
rises 300 feet above the river, and the ex¬ 
tent of the ruins shows that it was doubt¬ 
less once the greatest in France. 

The Abbey Fontevrault, though not a 
castle, ranks as one in nearly every feature. 
It was founded in 1098 as a convent for 
both monks and nuns, the only one of its 
kind thus maintained in the world, and so 
remained for nine centuries. Strange to 
say, it was often the prison for renowned 
persons who were given to the Mother Su¬ 
perior for safe keeping. Among the many 
noted persons entombed there were Henry 
II., one of the greatest kings of England, 
with his wife, Eleanor, and their son, Rich¬ 
ard Coeur de Lion. 

Hear the little village of Champtoie are 
the magnificent ruins of one of the most 
ancient castles in France. It was a feudal 
castle whose Lord Gilles de Retz, in the 
time of Charles VII., bears the history of 
having been the most frightful human mon¬ 
ster of medieval history. He was a terror 
to the whole surrounding country and was 
by the people given the name of Barbe 
Bleu, or Bluebeard, the original of the 
story of that name. The story tellers all 
put a turban on his head and make a Turk 
of him, but the true original of the story 
lived on the banks of the Loire. 

The origin of his atrocities appears to 
have been in the destruction of his physical 
constitution in early youth by extravagance 
and debauchery, which he sought to restore 
to strength by the practice of the black art. 
He had in his employ an Italian alchemist, 
who told him that his health could be re¬ 
stored only by bathing in fresh young 


human blood. The chronicles of that time 
state that more than a hundred children 
and young women had disappeared from 
the neighborhood before the truth was 
known, when the fury of the people rose 
to such a height that an insurrection was 
organized to storm the castle and destroy 
it and its lord. The Duke of Brittany in¬ 
terfered and brought him to trial. The evi¬ 
dence was conclusive. He was found guilty 
and condemned, at which he confessed the 
full list of his monstrous crimes. He was 
burnt at Hantes in 1440. The peasants to 
this day regard the ruins with horror and 
shun them in terror because of the belief 
that it is haunted by the ghosts of the vic¬ 
tims and that of the terrible Bluebeard. 

& & & 

CATACOMBS OF PARIS 

The catacombs of the French capital are 
a wonderful and a weird sight, and one 
that is open to any member of the public 
who makes a written application to the 
proper municipal officer. Their historical 
origin is interesting, and aptly exemplifies 
the changes that time brings in its train. 
From a remote past down to the seven¬ 
teenth century they were merely quarries 
whence stone was drawn, and drawn to 
keep pace with the growth of the city above 
them. 

The natural consequence of this drain 
upon the vitals of the city’s support was a 
subsidence, in 1774, which, by damaging 
property and bringing about numerous ac¬ 
cidents, informed the public that some one 
must do something or that nobody would 
be left to do anything. In 1777 a still 
stronger hint from below roused the gov¬ 
ernment to an activity which expended its 


3SG 


Jjotebuorihy Facts o_f All JVatlons 


energy in supporting with piers and but¬ 
tresses the most dangerous portions of the 
affected area. These works, continued 
from year to year, proved a fertile source 
of expense. 

In 1784 the question arose as to the dis¬ 
posal of the relics of mortality which were 
to be removed from the disused Cemetery 
of the Innocents. It was suggested that 
the quarries should be still further 
strengthened, and rendered compact by 
their adoption as catacombs. The sug¬ 
gestion met with approval, was adopted, 
and the transfer of the vast accumulation 
of bones entered upon with all due precau¬ 
tions. It was thus that the quarries be¬ 
came the garner-room of the Destroyer; it 
was thus, as the various cemeteries within 
the city ceased to yawn for their dead, that 
they were made to yield up their silent 
tenants. In 1786 the catacombs were sol¬ 
emnly consecrated. At this period the 
bones and skulls were being cast down on 
the floors of the caverns and passages in 
great heaps, without any attempt at order 
or arrangement; nor was it till the year 
1812 that the authorities commenced the 
work which has culminated in the present 
artistic presentment of that which once 
formed the framework of living thousands. 

Come! we will descend together as two 
members of the public, and see a portion 
of this underground and silent world that 
extends its ramifications beneath 200 acres 
of Paris. We are in possession of our 
“permits,” and according to direction find 
ourselves at the principal entrance on the 
right of the Place Denfert-Rochereau. 

One o’clock strikes. The door guarding 
the entrance to the ninety steps that lead 
below swings open. Its harsh grating is 
the signal for a brisk fusillade of match¬ 


firing reports. The matches are applied to 
the candles; a strong odor of tallow seethes 
through the mellow sunshine, and through 
its sickly fumes we commence to slowly ad¬ 
vance. Already the leading file has van¬ 
ished within the doorway, and as we in 
turn approach the orifice a dull roar pours 
sullenly out to meet us. Tramp, tramp, 
tramp—we have passed beneath the arch¬ 
way, we are descending the spiral of the 
stone staircase. The air is heavy with the 
clangor of ponderous footfalls, murky with 
candle smoke that veils with weird effect 
the flickering, draught-driven light. As 
far, and just so far, as we can see above and 
below us, all is in movement; dresses, 
coats, candles whirl slowly, uncertainly 
downwards. The very walls seem to writhe 
in the uncertain light, to mutter and moan 
with inarticulate voices. 

Down, down, down! All are in the rock- 
home of death. A moment’s pause, a si¬ 
lence falls on the chattering crowd. Then, 
affrighted with their second’s fear, they 
sway onwards through a rocky gallery. 
Rock on either side of them, rock above 
them; here bare and arid, there slimy with 
oozing water and foul growths. The pas¬ 
sage broadens out, it narrows, and ever and 
ever there is the black line on the roof that 
marks the road. Suddenly a black shadow 
on the left or to the right. The eye 
plunges into the depths of these side roads, 
and recoils aghast at their mysterious 
gloom. 

The lights file on. Still, forward, the 
shadows to right and left grow in size; 
some have a sentry silently guarding their 
obscurity from rash obtrusion; where 
there is no sentry there is a chain. Sud- 
denly the rocks on either hand contract, 
change color, and break out into the grue- 


387 


JVotetvortby Facts of Ail ffations 


some design of a symmetrically built wall 
of bones and skulls. From the level of our 
heads down to the level of our feet, skull 
rests upon skull, and leans back against 
the myriad bones behind. The shivering 
candlelight falls with unequal rays upon 
the formal tiers; it flashes coldly upon the 
grinning teeth, penetrates the mortarless 
crannies of the wall, and ever shows bone 
of many shapes and curves. The designs 
in skull and bone become more complicated, 
flhe walls become more 
lofty, rush from straight 
lines into curves, as¬ 
sume the form of chap¬ 
els. Around and about 
you are skulls, skulls, 
skulls. But even as 
you dream in one of 
these chapels, a faint, 
jn-olonged rustle comes 
stealing to the ear, 
and vanishes mysteri¬ 
ously as it came. The 
guide catches an inquir¬ 
ing eye, and explains 
that it is the rats 
moving. He makes the blood run cold 
with the horror of his account of those who 
have been lost in the catacombs and hunted 
to their death by the sharp-teethed rodents. 

We grow thankful that, as two of the pub¬ 
lic, we move on and on to the exit at the 
Rue Dareau, and find there life and sun¬ 
shine. 

<.* & 

FONTAINEBLEAU 

No public building in France appeals to 
the historical imagination more eloquently 
than the palace of Fontainebleau. None 
awakens so rich and varied a group of strik¬ 


ing associations; none is so thickly haunted 
with memories of the past; none is ten¬ 
anted by the ghosts of so brilliant a crowd 
of famous men and women. It is a docu¬ 
ment to which twenty kings have set their 
sigai-manuals, a chronicle in stone of the 
history of France, a dumb yet eloquent 
preacher of the mutability of human great¬ 
ness. 

Successive sovereigns from 1137 to 
1870, from Louis le Gros to Napoleon III., 


have enriched it with memorials of their 
rule. Within its precincts, by ancient cus¬ 
tom, the royal wives of monarchs have 
brought into the world the heirs to the 
throne. Upon its buildings the uncrowned 
queens of France, from Diane de Poitiers 
to Madame de Pompadour, have lavished 
their luxury, their caprice, and their ex¬ 
travagance. The ermine of Anne of 
Bretagne, the porcupine of Louis XII., the 
pierced swan of Claude of Lorraine, which 
are so conspicuous on the walls and ceil¬ 
ings of Blois, are absent from Fontaine¬ 
bleau. 

Seven centuries of changing taste have 



PALACE OF FONTAINEBLEAU. 







388 


Noteworthy Facts of All JVations 


left their mark upon its walls. It is a mo¬ 
saic of stone and colors, into which are 
dovetailed the various stages in the history 
and progress of French art. Upon its walls 
some of the greatest of French architects, 
sculptors and painters have inscribed their 
work. From Fontainebleau emanated the 
first great artistic movement in France. 

Historically and artistically, Fontaine¬ 
bleau is the jewel of French palaces, and 
the brilliance of the gem is enhanced by 
the unrivaled beauty of the setting. The 
frame is worthy of the picture. The 
forest stands alone among the forests of 
France in its diversity. Every variety of 
tree, poplars and chestnuts, maple and 
birch, oaks and junipers, flourishes in 
abundance. The wild and savage scenery 
of Salvator Rosa alternates with the calm 
and peaceful landscape of Claude Lor¬ 
raine. 

Fontainebleau in the days of Louis VII. 
was a fortified castle, a gloomy keep occu¬ 
pying the site of the present Cour Ovale, 
flanked by towers, protected by lofty walls, 
strengthened by a moat, and approached by 
a drawbridge. Few traces remain of the 
early fortress, but the existing buildings 
were erected on its foundations, and its 
form is preserved in the irregular shape of 
the courtyard. Within the baily of the 
fortress stood the chapel of St. Saturnin, 
bishop and martyr of Toulouse, finished, as 
the inscription in the subterranean crypt 
states, by Louis VII., in 1169. Thus the 
feudal stronghold of the Cour Ovale 
formed the nucleus round which gathered, 
at different epochs, the present magnificent 
and heterogeneous structure. Any one who 
passes from part to part of the great build¬ 
ing, and asks himself, “What happened 
here ?” “What king built this or that por¬ 


tion of the palace ?” “What effect did his 
life or death produce upon France?” will 
gain a truer and more real knowledge of 
the history of the country than can be de¬ 
rived from the reading of books. 

It was to Fontainebleau that Philip Au¬ 
gustus returned from the Crusades, or in 
the intervals of the war which he waged 
against Richard Ceeur de Lion. Here, in 
1191, he celebrated Christmas in the com¬ 
pany of a brilliant throng of nobles with 
splendid festivities, before he offered 
thanks for his return at the shrine of St. 
Denis. Here, six years later, he signed a 
charter which conveyed the heritage of 
Franchard to the monastery of St. Euverte 
of Orleans. The site of the lonely cave, 
hollowed in the rock, its floor worn by the 
knees of the hermits, who lived a life of 
prayer, surrounded by fierce beasts of prey 
or still more savage human beings, is now 
a cafe thronged with pleasure-seekers. 

Many scenes in the life of St. Louis are 
associated with Fontainebleau. It was 
here that, in 1228, he confirmed the privi¬ 
leges of the University of Paris. Here, 
too, in 1259, believing himself to be at the 
point of death, he called his son to his bed¬ 
side, and delivered to him one of those ex¬ 
hortations which Bossuet calls the sacred 
heirlooms of the children of St. Louis. 
“Son,” said he, “I pray thee to make thy¬ 
self beloved by the people of thy realm. 
For, verily, I had rather that a Scot should 
come out of Scotland, and rule the king¬ 
dom well and loyally, than that thou 
shouldst rule it ill and to evil report.” The 
king was restored to health, and, in grati¬ 
tude for his recovery, founded a hospital 
by the side of the castle, and within its 
walls, for the sick of the neighboring coun¬ 
try. 


Sfotetvorthy Facts of Att Stations 


389 


It was in the castle of Fontainebleau 
that Charles V., surnamed the Wise, 
founded his famous library, and here, as 
tradition asserts,'by paintings on its walls, 
Charles VII. commemorated his victories 
over the English. But from the death of 
Philip the Fair till the ascension of Fran¬ 
cis I. the stream of history flowed in other 
channels, and Fontainebleau is associated 
with none of the great episodes in the 
struggle between the Burgundians and the 
Armagnacs, or between the French and the 
English. The exigencies of state policy 
led sovereign after sovereign to prefer the 
castle of Touraine. 

Among the suite of apartments built by 
Louis XV., on the site of a gallery con¬ 
structed in the reigns of Francis I. and 
Henry II., is the room in which Xapoleon 
signed his abdication, on April 5, 1814. 
“The allied powers having proclaimed that 
the Emperor Xapoleon is the sole obstacle 
to the re-establishment of the peace of Eu¬ 
rope, the emperor, faithful to his oath, de¬ 
clares that he abandons for himself and 
for his heirs all claims upon the thrones of 
France and Italy, and that there is no per¬ 
sonal sacrifice, including even that of his 
life, which he is not prepared to make in 
the interest of France.” The writing-table 
on which this abdication was signed, and 
the pen with which he wrote his name, are 
preserved in the room. 

With the farewell of Xapoleon I. the 
historical charms of Fontainebleau come to 
an end. 

<£ £ ot 

BELGIUM’S GREAT TRADE 

This little Latin state is one of the most 
prosperous countries in the -world, although 
it has no ships to speak of, and one-fifth of 


its food in cereals and meat is imported. 
In 1900 the foreign trade of Belgium 
amounted to nearly $100 per inhabitant, 
against $35 for Germany and $90 for 
Great Britain. Her exports of hardware 
and textile goods alone have in one year 
been as high as $75,000,000 from an area 
one-third the size of the state of Indiana, 
with a population of 7,000,000. One-third 
of these speak only French and one-third 
only Flemish. 

Xearly the entire population is Roman 
Catholic, there being fewer than 10,000 
Protestants and 4,000 Jews. However, 
not only is full religious liberty granted, 
but the ministers of all religions are as¬ 
sisted by the national treasury. In 1898, 
$1,000,000 were given to the Roman Cath¬ 
olics, $20,000 to the Protestants, and 
$4,000 to the Jews. 

Socialism has gathered great strength in 
Belgium, and many socialistic features of 
government have been adopted. Every 
year finds an increase in measures of na¬ 
tional and municipal paternalism and the 
experiments have so far proven satisfac¬ 
tory. 

. V" c* 

HOLLAND’S ABANDONED CITIES 

The quaint and primitive town of Zaan- 
dam, "beyond the dam,” in its prosperous 
days was a town of 12,000 inhabitants, in¬ 
tersected by numerous canals, and the cen¬ 
ter of large shipbuilding operations. Hol¬ 
land was then “the King of the Seas,” and 
hither came Peter the Great, Czar of all 
the Russias, to learn the trade of ship¬ 
building, in 1697. He worked incognito, 
under the registered name of Peter Mich- 
aelhoff. He lived by himself, preparing 
his own meals and doing his own washing, 


390 


flotetoorthy Farts of A.11 flattens 


in a hut of two rooms. The cottage, or hut, 
now leans in all directions, and the floor 
resembles the waves of the sea. It is bare 
of furniture, except such as the great Peter 
used, a bedstead, a table and two chairs. 

But the walls of this historic hut, only 
ten by twelve, are covered with the names 
of visitors from all civilized nations. Over 
the old-fashioned chimney a marble tablet 
was placed by Alexander of Russia in 1811, 
with the inscription: “Alexander, to Peter 
the Great.” The whole hut is now encased 
in a building, erected for its preservation 
by a former Queen of Holland, Anna Pav¬ 
lovna, who was a Princess of Russia. But 
“Peter Michaelhoff,” finding himself an 
object of too great curiosity at Zaandam, 
went to the shipyards at Amsterdam, which 
were enclosed by a high wall. He there 
convpleted his apprenticeship, and in off 
hours constructed with his own hands the 
model of a man-of-war, which he took with 
him to Russia as a model for the great Rus¬ 
sian navy. Eighteen years after, he came 
back to Holland with his wife, the Czarina, 
to visit with her the shipyards where he 
had worked as a day laborer, and had lived 
upon his pay as “Peter Michaelhoff.” The 
anniversary of this visit is still observed 

at Zaandam as a holidav: and in commem- 

«/ / 

oration, the name of the town is written 
Saardam and Czardam. 

And vet with all this historic association 
*/ 

Zaandam is one of the Dead Cities of the 
Zuyder Zee. It is but a small town, if even 
such it may be called, with its detached 
cabins, painted bright green with red roofs, 
seen amidst scattered trees. Its canals are 
dry, and serve as roads; yet its cabins are 
said to contain china and old carved furni¬ 
ture fitted to delight the heart and excite 
the envy of a nineteenth century anti¬ 


quarian, searching for decorative household 
treasures of the past. 

Its four hundred windmills now make 
flaxseed oil, and their owners are city mil¬ 
lionaires. But desolation reigns in Zaan¬ 
dam; the only life is in its oil-mills, be¬ 
wildering and confusing in their turnings 
and twistings to the point of vertigo. 

Alkmar, another of the “dead cities,” is 
celebrated for its famous victory over the 
Spaniards in 1573— a victory that put 
fresh life into the Dutch cause, and was a 
turning-point in their favor. It was once 
a prosperous city, but is now only a well- 
kept village, celebrated for its cheese and 
wooded walks. 

Broek, once the capital of North Hol¬ 
land, is now only “the cleanest village in 
the world.” It is curious, interesting and 
clean, but the life has been washed out of 
it; its inhabitants seem turned to stone. 
The front doors of the one-story houses are 
never opened except for a marriage or a 
funeral, and the stillness of death is in its 
streets. Yet once across the threshold of 
these primitive homes, rare antique carved 
furniture, old china and Dutch curiosities 
crowd the “best room,” while the curious 
old costumes of the few inhabitants have 
an enchantment all their own. 

Mannikendam is another of the Dead 
Cities of the Zuyder Zee, and is more dead 
than any of the others. No living creature 
is to be seen along its brick-paved streets, 
not ever a dog or a cat. Not a door nor 
window of its red-painted houses, with 
green Venetian shutters, is open. It was 
once a flourishing city of commerce, one 
of the twenty great towns of Holland. 
Strangers seldom visit it now, for street 
after street, lined with closed houses, all 
seem to say, “We belong to a past age.” 


fiot&auorthy Facts of All JVations 


391 


And it is true. The few descendants that 
remain of the thrifty Dutch of Monniken- 
dam care as little for the modern world as 
the world cares for them. 

& & & 

MARTIN LUTHER’S PRISON, 
WARTBURG CASTLE 

There is no German, however little in¬ 
formed as to the history of his country, 
whose patriotic sentiments are not stirred 
when speaking or hearing of Wartburg Cas¬ 
tle. There are castles in Germany with 
scenery around them as lovely; the leg¬ 
ends connected with Wartburg Castle are 
but of transitory interest, and memorable 
only so far as giving to us vivid glimpses 
into the superstitious character of those 
times; to many people, particularly to 
practical Americans, who possess nothing 
of the kind in their history, they may seem 
ludicrous even when considered as mere 
improbable stories; and the moral which 
is attached to many of them remains un¬ 
appreciated or undiscovered. Luther found 
an asylum at Cobourg Castle as well, and 
there wrote the most celebrated of his 
hymns, “Ein’ feste Burg ist unser Gott— 
A castle strong is our Lord God”; in local 
historical reminiscences and mediaeval 
adornments the Castle of Nuremberg is to 
the Southern Germans, and Marienburg 
Castle, in East Prussia, to North Germans, 
undoubtedly dearer, because nearer and 
more directly associated with the histories 
of their native provinces. 

“The cause of this prominent and re¬ 
markable fact,” says the venerable poet and 
historian Storch, “is that every German of 
the present day, be he aware or uncon¬ 
scious of the special acts in its history, con¬ 
siders and venerates the Wartburg as Ger¬ 


many’s sole national sacred relic, as the 
stronghold from which radiated the light of 
German mind, as the hallowed spot whence 
sprang the liberty of German thought, as 
the battle-field in the victorious and untir¬ 
ing struggles of German genius. That 
which makes of the German a real Ger¬ 
man, which constitutes him a soldier of 
and gives him a foremost place among the 
pioneers of civilization, namely, the pre¬ 
cision and the clearness of German knowl¬ 
edge, and the courage to declare and main¬ 
tain the truth of knowledge in the face of 



WARTBURG CASTLE—WHERE MARTIN LUTHER 
WAS IMPRISONED. 


all the world, this characteristic feature of 
Germanism, we not only find symbolically 
indicated but even distinctly manifest in 
the past history of Wartburg Castle.” 

The bold reformer, Dr. Martinus Lu¬ 
ther, had just stood before Charles V., 
that young but mightiest of German em¬ 
perors since the days of Charlemagne. He 
had spoken before the assembled magnates 
of the empire at Worms, consisting of the 
Emperor, the Archduke Ferdinand, six 




















392 


./V otetvorthy Facts of All Rations 


electors, twenty-four dukes, seven mar¬ 
graves, thirty bishops and prelates, and 
princes, counts, lords and ambassadors 
without number, on April 4, 1521. “And 
if there were at Worms as many devils as 
there are tiles on the roofs of its houses, 
thither I will go,” he had replied to the 
entreaties of his anxious friends, who 
justly feared for his life. And when he 
entered the glittering hall where the Diet 
held its sessions, when stepping through the 
ante-chambers filled with men-at-arms, just 
at the entrance of the great hall, the old 
veteran general, George of Frundsburg, the 
Imperial Chief of the Landsknechts, while 
encouragingly patting his shoulders, had 
said: “Little monk, little monk, thou 

walkest to-day upon a difficult and dan¬ 
gerous road, such as I, though often stand¬ 
ing before mighty dangers and in the 
turmoils of deadly strife, have never as yet 
marched upon; but if thy cause be just, 
fear thee not, for God will not then aban¬ 
don thee!” He had just stood but not trem¬ 
bled before the mighty Emperor, and had 
answered the demand to recant by those 
memorable words, “Unless I be refuted by 
Scripture or the most unanswerable argu¬ 
ments, I cannot and will not recant. Here 
I stand; I cannot do otherwise; may God 
help me, Amen.” 

The friends of Luther were in sore dis¬ 
tress for his safety; above all, the Elec¬ 
tor, Frederick the Wise, of Saxony, his 
most powerful patron and friend. Such 
was the fear of the Emperor’s authority, 
however, that the Elector even did not wish 
to be personally concerned in any plan for 
the protection and safekeeping of Luther; 
nor did he wish to know wdiere he was to 
be brought into security; “that with rea¬ 
sonable truth I may be able to excuse my¬ 


self of any knowledge of these things,” he 
remarked to Spalatin, his private secretary 
and coiirt-preacher. Luther had already 
at Worms received some mysterious hints 
as to the projected undertaking to carry 
off his person and protect him against the 
consequence of the Emperor’s decree. 

His return from the Imperial Diet was 
like a triumphal march. Alttersfeld in Hes- 
sia, the Abbot with the dignitaries of that 
ancient ecclesiastical city, received him 
outside the gates, banquetted him and in¬ 
sisted upon his preaching before the assem¬ 
bled people, although this was against the 
strict Imperial prohibition. At Eisenach 
the burghers turned out en masse to wel¬ 
come him. In the same night, at Erfurt, 
while he slept tranquilly in “his dear 
town,” the students, his youthful admirers, 
revolted because the Dean of the Cloister 
of St. Severus had pushed Dr. John Drach, 
a tutor at Erfurt University, and one of 
the Reformer’s adherents, from the steps of 
the high altar. On the day following, the 
2d of May, Luther preached at Eisenach 
before his traveling companions, who were 
now to leave him, with the exception of 
the doctor of theology, Hicholaus von Ams- 
dorf, to return to the town of Wittenberg 
by way of Gotha; while Luther turned 
aside to Moehra Village, near Salzungen, 
to visit his kindred, where he met his old 
grandmother for the last time, as well as 
his uncle, Heinz Luther, a simple-hearted 
peasant. 

When he arrived he met his brother 
Jacob quite unexpectedly. On the 4th of 
May, after having preached under an old 
linden-tree to his kindred and humble peas¬ 
ant friends, he continued his journey, ac¬ 
companied by his brother Jacob and the 
inhabitants of Moehra Village, as far as 


JVoteiovorthy Facts of Alt Rations 


393 


Walterskausen. Dr. Myconius, the pastor 
of Gotha, is also said to have been with 
him. Thus, in a simple country wagon 
they passed Waldfisch Village, then the 
larger one of Schweina, through which 
they drove between four and five o’clock in 
the afternoon. They had now arrived at 
the foot of the steep hill near Altenstein 
Castle, where Luther made the driver 
slacken the pace of the horses, and re¬ 
quested his friends and kinsfolk to return. 
It was already dusk when they entered 
into the high-road near the ruined chapel 
overlooking the lonely narrow pass through 
which the road wound. There suddenly 
broke from the sombre shades of the woods 
a horseman in armor, with lowered visor 
and lance at a charge, followed by four 
heavily armed companions. Brother Jacob 
was the first to jump from the wagon and 
escape (little aid, our valorous brother, he 
was!), while one of the assailants seized 
the horses’ bridle-reins and roughly-called 
upon the driver to know “what sort of peo¬ 
ple he had in his wagon ?” at the same time 
striking him with his how so severelv that 
the poor fellow fell beneath the feet of the 
horses. In the meantime two of the 
knights had informed themselves as to the 
person of Luther, and one, putting the 
drawn how upon his breast, demanded his 
surrender. The companions of Luther re¬ 
maining with him, Doctors Myconius and 
Amsdorf, implored the knights .that he he 
treated mercifully; but Luther, who evi¬ 
dently understood the situation perfectly, 
whispered to his friends, “Confide, amici 
nostri sunt”—“Be of good cheer; they are 
our friends.” Luther was now taken from 
the wagon, his monk’s cowl was torn off 
him, a “gepner”—knight’s cloak—put on 
instead, he was led into the woods and put 


on a horse by the friendly kidnapers who 
were rescuing him. 

While in wild anxiety, Brother Jacoblias- 
tened back to Walterskausen to spread the 
sorrowful news of Luther’s capture, Ams¬ 
dorf and Myconius journeyed to the same 
town in a much easier frame of mind; and 
the knights with Luther penetrated deeper 
into the wilds of the forest, where they 
hound another man upon a horse so as to 
make it appear as if a hatch of dangerous 
criminals had been captured by them. 
They now made a considerable detour to¬ 
ward the foot of the Jusel Mountain, the 
highest peak of the range, in order to de¬ 
ceive the wood-cutters and charcoal-burners 
as to their real destination, and thev ar- 
rived at Wartburg Castle shortly before 
midnight. It was in the night from Sat¬ 
urday to Sunday that Luther first set foot 
into the now memorable chamber. “I’ve 
ridden nigh fifteen miles, I am tired and 
weary,” he afterwards wrote to friend 
Amsdorf. To deceive the inmates of the 
castle, who had crowded together to see the 
late unexpected arrival, he was roughly 
spoken to, pushed into his cell and the door 
locked upon him. 

The secret of his capture and imprison¬ 
ment was so well kept that one hundred 
years elapsed ere the circumstances, as here 
related, were generally known among the 
people. 

Luther’s residence at Wartburg was not 
without interest. The Governor of the cas¬ 
tle, a nobleman of ancient lineage and im¬ 
mense wealth and full of pride, became his 
friend; the Governor’s haughty eye soon 
felt the influence of that “falcon-eve,” as 
Erasmus of Rotterdam forcibly describes 
it. Luther was thirty-eight years of age 
at that time and still unmarried; he had 


flotetvorthy Facts of All flattens 


394 

not yet found his Catharine of Bohra, and 
he looked quite different from the oil-paint¬ 
ing by Lucas Cranach, which was taken 
in later life, and according to which we 
generally fancy him, when conjuring his 
picture to our mind’s eye, a portly, stout, 
well-to-do old gentleman, of serene and 
happy countenance, with a double chin. 

His chief work, as we know, was at 
Wartburg, the translation of the Scrip¬ 
tures. But he neither there translated the 
entire Bible, as is often supposed, nor did 
he employ much time in what he translated. 
He soon perceived the difficulty of trans¬ 
lating the Old Testament by himself, and 
wrote to Amsdorf on the 14th of January, 
1522: “Without your aid I cannot enter 
upon the Old.” The Hew Testament, as 
this day used in the Protestant Churches 
of Germany, was translated by Luther in 
the short space of two months. 

■j* & 

THE KREMLIN OF MOSCOW 

The Kremlin is a colossal volume of 
Russian history, with many chapters and 
a long index of pages. It is a record of 
memorable events extending through cen¬ 
turies. It is the heart and soul of Rus¬ 
sia. It is the great central fortress of this 
mightiest empire of ancient or modern 
times. It is the throne of the Emperors. 
Here they have been crowned for ages. 
They would not dare to be crowned else¬ 
where. Here their thrones and crowns, and 
imperial regalia are deposited for safe¬ 
keeping for the admiration of posterity. 
The Kremlin is the grand sanctuary of re¬ 
ligion. It is the center of Russian cathe¬ 
drals and the consecrated residence of the 
Holy Synod of the Greek Church and her 
Metropolitan Bishops. Here they perform 


the coronation ceremonies and anoint the 
sovereigns of Russia with holy oil; and on 
these occasions the imperial court of Rus¬ 
sia exhibits scenes of superlative magnifi¬ 
cence, upon jeweled thrones, with diamond 
crowns, and precious stones of inestimable 
value. 

The Kremlin is the pride of Moscow, the 
holy city of all Russia. It was the chosen 

abode of the old Muscovite Princes, the 

/ 

long residence of the old Tartar sovereigns. 
It is the sacred Alcazar of the Slavonians, 
the great Northern Acropolis, the far- 
famed Alhambra of the Russians. And it 
is the venerated mausoleum of the imperial 
family from Ivan the Terrible down to 
Peter the Great. Here are the tombs of 
the Patriarchs taking their long slumbers 
with the mighty monarchs whom they 
crowned. It includes all that is most pre¬ 
cious and sacred to the Russian race. In 
viewing this colossal collection of palaces, 
cathedrals and towers, the spectator is sup¬ 
posed to stand upon the south bank of the 
river Moskva, above the massive stone 
bridge, with its seven arches. The Moskva 
is here two hundred yards in width. Im¬ 
mediately behind the spectator on the broad 
street where he stands, is a long range of 
high buildings on the same side of the 
river, and about one-third of Moscow. The 
current flows to the right along the walls 
of the Kremlin, leaving a broad carriage¬ 
way between the walls and the river. The 
finest view of the Kremlin is obtained from 
the Moskvietskir bridge. 

It derives its name from the Tartar word 
Krem, signifying fortress. It is a tall city 
in the center of Moscow. It stands on a 
hill. It is elevated like a mighty salver, 
laden and filled with palaces and cathe¬ 
drals, high above its surroundings. It is 


395 


ffotetvortby Facts of All JV at ions 


encircled by castellated walls a mile and 
a half in extent. These walls vary from 
twelve to sixteen feet thick, and from thirty 
to fifty feet high, surmounted with sixty- 
one turrets, and having five gates of en¬ 
trance. It dates from 1367. Within these 
walls are contained all the most historically 
important buildings of Moscow; the holi¬ 
est churches, with the tombs of the ancient 
Czars, patriarchs and metropolitans—the 
imperial palaces, ancient and modern, cele¬ 
brated convents, the arsenal, senate-house 
and architectural memorials of every period 
of Kussian history. All the monarchs have 
felt it a duty to adorn and improve the 
Kremlin by adding some monument. It 
has thirty-two churches and cathedrals, and 


one hundred and seventy towers and cu¬ 
polas in gold and green colors, glittering 
with star spangles. The churches vary in 
the number of cupolas. Some have three, 
others four and some have thirteen cupolas, 
which are symbolical. Three cupolas rep¬ 
resent the Trinity. Five cupolas indicate 
Christ with the four Evangelists, and thir¬ 
teen, Christ and the twelve Apostles. One 
of the most singular and wonderful build¬ 
ings is the cathedral of Vasili Blagennoi, 
or the church of St. Basil. It has twenty 
towers and domes. They are of different 
shapes and sizes, and painted in every pos¬ 
sible color. Historians affirm that the ori¬ 
gin of this singular cathedral was a whim 
of Ivan the Terrible, to try how many dis- 



NIGHT ILLUMINATION UK THE KREMLIN AT MOSCOW. 
This was the magnificen* score at the coronation of the Czar. 




















39G 


JWotebuorthy Facts of All JSfattons 


tinct chapels could be erected under one 
roof, in such a manner that divine service 
could be performed simultaneously in all 
without interference one with another. 
This terrible monarch, it is said, was so 
much pleased with the edifice, that he 
caused the eyes of the architect to be put 
out to prevent him from planning another 
like it. 

Of the five gates of the Kremlin, we only 
stop to describe one, the Spass Vorota, the 
gate of the Redeemer, near the St. Basil 
Cathedral. Over this gate is a picture of 
the Savior under glass. It is held in great¬ 
est reverence by the Russians. This gate 
forms a passage through the tower of about 
twenty paces. Every one, monarch, high 
or low, must take off his hat here and keep 
it off till he passes through. Its sacred 
reputation has continued for centuries. 
The Tartars could not pass it. Miraculous 
clouds, it is said, veiled it from view. 
There is a sort of legend that the French 
army could not force an entrance by this 
gate. They attempted to blow open the 
gate with cannon; but the powder would 
not burn. They built a fire over the touch- 
hole ; but the powder exploded the wrong 
way, and killed the gunners, so it is said. 

Let us next ascend the lofty tower of 
Ivan. It is the highest tower in Moscow, 
exceeding two hundred feet. It has numer¬ 
ous stories or belfries, affording fine views 
as the visitor ascends the staircase. Close 
behind this tower, and near the entrance, 
stands the monster bell of Moscow, the 
greatest the world has seen. It has excited 
the wonder of ages. It is called the Czar 
Kolokol or King of Bells. It is twenty-one 
feet high and twenty-two in circumference. 
Its weight is over seventy tons. It is said 
to be worth, as old metal, more than half a 


million dollars. It fell from the tower in 
1737, and broke out a piece six feet long 
and three feet wide. 

We ascend to the first story, in which is 
hung a solitary bell, weighing sixty-four 
tons. It requires the strength of three men 
to toll it three times a year. Ascending 
the upper belfries, we find more than forty 
bells in this tower, diminishing in size as 
we ascend. On Easter Eve a death-like 
silence reigns in all the streets, till on a 
sudden, at midnight, the thunders of the 
guns of the Kremlin burst forth, and the 
clangor of all the church bells of Moscow, 
many hundreds in number, are heard re¬ 
sounding over the city, while countless 
thousands of the inhabitants come forth, 
and with one voice all repeat the words, 
“Christ is risen,” and all evince great joy 
at the glad tidings. 

We reach the summit of the tower, and 

# ' 

look abroad over the most magnificent 
scene in Europe. Clustered around the 
tower upon which we stand are thirty-two 
churches, including the cathedrals within 
the walls of the Kremlin. We look down 
upon them all,—domes, towers, golden 
spires and imperial palaces. Beyond the 
walls of the Kremlin the eve wanders over 

1/ 

the whole city of Moscow with its five hun¬ 
dred churches, and countless domes of green 
and red, starred with gold, glittering spires 
pointing upward in rich profusion over the 
city landscape far and near. What mighty 
and memorable events, and what tragic 
scenes have occurred and been witnessed 
within the purview of this high tower! 
Fearful calamities have visited Moscow 
along the line of its history. Six times it 
has been devastated and nearly destroyed 
by fire or sword. Tamerlane, the Eastern 
Destroyer, began the list of fearful trage- 


397 


JVotetuorthy FacU of All Stations 


dies and ravished it. Next it fell into the 
hands of the Tartars, who sacked it, and 
put many of the inhabitants to the sword. 
Again in 1536 it was nearly consumed by 
fire, and two thousand of the inhabitants 
perished in the flames. In 1571, the Tar¬ 
tars fired the suburbs, and a furious wind 
drove the flames into the citv, and not less 
than 100,000 persons perished by fire or 
sword. In 1611 a large portion of the city 
was again destroyed by fire. 

The terrible scenes in the modern burn¬ 
ing of Moscow by order of Count Rosto- 
pliiu are still fresh on the pages of history. 
It was a fearful sacrifice to destroy this 
sacred city of the Russians by their own 
hands. But it sealed the doom of Napoleon 
and his grand army. This massive old 
tower has, however, stood firm amid all 

these scenes of blood and fire. Turn vour 

«/ 

eye down now upon the ground and look 
along the walls near this tower, and you 
may count 876 cannon which once belonged 
to the grand army of France, which were 
left, or lost, or captured, or buried in the 
snows of Russia on that terrible retreat. 

It is not strange that Moscow and the 
Kremlin hold such a place of reverence 
and affection in the hearts of true Rus¬ 
sians. From Sparrow Hills, three miles 
away, Napoleon caught the first view of 
Moscow in all its pride, grandeur and mag¬ 
nificence ; so, from these same hills, a few 
days after, he took a sad, lingering look at 
the same city enveloped in smoking ruins. 

But Moscow has arisen, liked the fabled 
Phoenix, from its ashes, and now appears 
far more magnificent than before, as the 
great commercial metropolis of Russia. It 
is the truly Russian city, little modified by 
European influence, and far more interest¬ 
ing to the stranger than St. Petersburg. 


HUNGARIAN GIPSIES 

Inhabitants of all countries and natives 
of none, these children of nature call them- 
sel\ es Eommany. T ntil George Barrow 
enlightened us as to the habits and dialects 
of these wanderers, it was believed that 
their language was a mere incongruous 
polyglot of every language under the sun, 
consisting of inversions and contortions of 
words and slang expressions. This has all 
been shown to be erroneous, though many 
of our own slang words come from the 
Rommany. “Pal ' is pure Rommany for 
brother. The half-contemptuous expres¬ 
sions of “Fiddle-sticks” and “Fiddle-de- 
dee” distinctly come from the same lan- 
guage, and “Bosh” is Rommany for fiddle. 

They are all more or less musical, 
though in England rather less; in truth, the 
English gipsy seems to be disappearing 
entirely, emigrating perchance, or dying 
out. Except, as far as can be ascertained, 
in Hungary and Transylvania, they have 
no fixed habitations, or legitimate callings, 
living in most countries on the “glorious 
gospel of haphazard” principle, in a half¬ 
hearted sort of way, upon their wits, 
their cunning and fortune-telling. They 
scarcely ever resort to violence, being of 
a too lethargic temperament to exert them¬ 
selves about anything except when they 
grow jealous, and then their action is swift, 
fierce, and often fatal. Gipsies come of 
a very ancient Indian stock, so ancient in¬ 
deed as to defy all attempts to trace their 
origin, and were unquestionably the vic¬ 
tims of some dire vengeance, and, most 
likely, were dispossessed of all their be¬ 
longings and lands by some other ancient 
race, even to their belief in themselves and 
their god or gods, for now they neither 


398 


otetvorthy Facts of All JWations 



worship nor believe in anything, though 
they are quite prepared to call themselves 
Christians, and will pretend to embrace the 
religion of the people who permit them to 
settle in their midst. But in reality they 
remain heathen, cherishing the traditions 
of the fire worshippers, which in all like¬ 
lihood they were at an early stage them¬ 
selves. They will allow a priest or clergy¬ 
man to baptize one of their children, but 
the rite has no significance for them until 
the eldest of the clan has held the infant 


MISS STONE AFTER HER RELEASE. 

The ransomed missionaries after their captors had left them, were sheltered in the 
home of a native preacher, where their American friends found them. 


over a large open fire. Then is the child 
admitted to the community. 

For centuries they have wandered as 
outcasts and aliens; they have no recog¬ 
nized state, no laws, no civilization; and, 
as already indicated, no religion, the one 
exception to prove the rule being the gip¬ 
sies of Hungary, with an apparent religion, 
rather than a real one. The gipsies are at 
home only in the open air, and their coun- 
trv is the whole wide, wide world. For 
everywhere Nature is the same eternal, 

powerful, sublime, in¬ 
exhaustible mother, and 
in winter or in sum¬ 
mer, in north or south, 
only the direst neces¬ 
sity would bring one of 
these sons of the wil¬ 
derness under any roof, 
that is, of the ordinary 
built house. 

In most countries the 
gipsies are only toler¬ 
ated because they can¬ 
not very well be got rid 
of, but in Hungary, if 
not actually welcomed 
with open arms, they 
have, after long settle¬ 
ment (if such nomads 
can be called settlers 
anywhere), become a 
recognized, and indeed 
very important, element 
of the community. It 
was the great musician 
Franz Liszt who first 
brought the gipsies of 
his native country, with 
their marvelous musical 
natures, to the notice of 















JWotebuorthy Facts of All Rations 


399 


the public, and it was, as lie acknowledged 
himself, their influence that had such a 
marked effect upon the style that he 
adopted, and tended to develop that genius 
that made him famous. In return he wrote 
a history of his favorite people, and set to 
music many hundreds of songs depicting 
their life and legends as written by the 
poets. 

& & & 

THE REFERENDUM OF SWITZ¬ 
ERLAND 

Fifty thousand voters in Switzerland, 
by signing a petition, can have any law 
that has been passed by their assembly or 
legislature submitted to the people for 
ratification or rejection. This system, 
known as the referendum, went into effect 
in 187*1 and has been followed satisfac¬ 
torily ever since. In the census of 1901 
there were 728,681 qualified voters, but at 
the elections there are rarely more than 
half that number of accepted votes cast. 

The town meetings of public school dis¬ 
tricts in the rural parts of the United 
States are the nearest form we have of the 
plebiscite or referendum, of which the law 
in Switzerland is the best example in na- 
( tional affairs. In favor of the plebiscite, 
as the vote of the people on legislation is 
called, the following arguments have been 
mentioned: 

It is a calm appeal to the will of the 
people, “yes or no” on a given piece of 
legislation. In other words it is making a 
jury of a community or nation. It arouses 
the interest of voters in measures of public 
policy rather than in political bosses and 
politicians. It increases the stability of 
legislation, for acts of legislation are not 


so likely to be passed and then repealed 
as often happens in representative bodies. 
It inculcates patriotism of the highest form 
and makes jobbery in legislation well-nigh 
impossible. 

In the cantons or counties of Switzer¬ 
land the number of signatures on a petition 
necessary to compel a measure being sub¬ 
mitted to a vote of the people varies from 
500 in Zug to 6,000 in Vaud. All these 
petitions are limited as to time, after the 
publication of an act passed by the legisla¬ 
tive body. The time for the filing of a 
petition varies from four to six weeks. If 
the assembly is doubtful as to how a pro¬ 
posed piece of legislation will be received, 
it may itself refer the given act to a vote 
of the people. 

The initiative, or origination of pro¬ 
posed legislation by the people, has also 

been successfullv tried in Switzerland. 
«/ 

This is a kind of legalized extension of the 
ancient right of petition, wherein the de¬ 
mands of the petition are not discretionary 
but mandatory. The number of persons 
who may present a demand for the con¬ 
sideration of proposed legislation varies 
from a single person in Zurich to 12,000 
in Bern. It would seem likely that where 
any single individual could alone compel 
a plebiscite or referendum vote on any 
proposition, there would be a deluge of such 
demands. But in the twenty years follow¬ 
ing the adoption of this plan in Zurich, 
only twenty-two such demands were made 
and fifteen were rejected by the majority 
vote of the people. 

The constitutional law of Switzerland 
.provides that petitions to the number re¬ 
quired may compel a vote even for the dis¬ 
solution of the assembly and council, the 
council of seven members being practically 


400 


JVotetvorthy Facts of All /Nations 


the same as the president and cabinet of the 
United States. 

<£ & S 

GENEVA AND ITS LAKE 

The water front of the beautiful Swiss 
city of Geneva, which faces the lake of the 
same name, offers one of the most pictur¬ 
esque views to be found in interior Europe. 
Geneva is a city of 30,000 inhabitants, ly¬ 
ing at the foot of the lake, and divided into 
two parts by the swift and rushing River 
Rhone. The favorite promenade, the 
Mont Blanc Bridge, crosses the river and 
connects the two parts of the city. Broad 
quays lined with handsome buildings, 
many of which are the popular tourist 
hotels, face the river and lake. A wooded 
park and a sea wall of masonry are favored 
resorts for the traveler, who from here ob¬ 
tains a beautiful view of Mont Blanc and 


the lake itself. Considerable commerce is 
transacted on the blue waters of the lake, 
and the peculiarly-rigged sailing boats 
which ply between the city and the neigh¬ 
boring villages on the shore help to en¬ 
liven the scene. Here it wa^ that Calvin 
preached and Rousseau was born. Vol¬ 
taire, Byron, Goethe and the Empress 
Josephine were among those whose fame is 
identified with this favored place of their 
residence. The lake is the largest in 
Switzerland, being about fifty by nine 
miles and 1,230 feet above the sea level. 
It is in the form of a half moon. The 
water is deep blue and contains but few 
fish. It never freezes over and has 
mysterious rises and falls, strong currents 
and water spouts. Excellent steamboats 
serve to carry the traveler back and forth 
throughout the length of the lake, and give 
access thus to some of the most delightful 
resorts of Switzerland. 



WATER FRONT OF THE CTTT OF GENEVA. LAKE GENEVA, SWITZERLAND. 










Jfotebvorthy Facts of All Rations 


401 


THE VATICAN 

The Vatican, which is one of the seven 
hills of old Rome, has always retained its 
ancient name, and in the ages when the 
papal power was at its height, this name 
was almost as significant and imposing to 
the Christian world as that of Rome itself 
had been to the Pagan nations. The ex¬ 
communications and anathemas—“the 
thunders of the Vatican”—made emperors 
and kings tremble on their thrones, and 
often shook Europe from one end to the 
other. Princes and people looked with 
equal awe to the ecclesiastical palace on the 
hill, where spiritual arms, with the cross, 
the signet-ring, and the pen, wielded by a 
few infirm old men, decided the fate of 
“powers and dominions.” After a long 
waning, the mighty temporal strength of 
the Vatican disappeared, but still that im¬ 
mortal hill has a lasting hold on the vener¬ 
ation of mankind. 

The palace of the Vatican, which covers 
a good part of the hill, has few external 
features to recommend it to the lover of 
architecture, but taken as a mass, its pro¬ 
digious size and solidity are imposing. It 
occupies a space which is 1,200 feet in 
length, and about 1,000 feet in breadth. 
It is, however, rather an assemblage of 
buildings grouped and connected together, 
than one palace, and the component parts 
have been erected at different periods, and 
by very different architects. 

Although the building itself has not 
much architectural beauty, its grand and 
capital accessory has a great deal. This 
'is the staircase which forms the principal 
entrance, and connects the Vatican with 
the noble portico of St. Peter’s. It springs 
boldly from the base of the equestrian 


statue of Constantine, and in four ma¬ 
jestic flights of marble steps, adorned with 
a double row of Ionic pillars, it reaches 
the threshold of the grand entrance hall. 
It is the work of Bernini, and taken alto¬ 
gether it is probably the most magnificent 
staircase in the world. From the entrance 
hall we may pass directly into many his¬ 
toric and magnificent rooms. 

The history of the Bible, from the crea- 



IN THE VATICAN GARDENS. 


tion of the world, is painted on the arched 
ceilings of Raphael’s galleries. From one 
of these galleries a door opens into the 
Camere di Raffaello, which are covered 
with the frescoes of that greatest of 
masters. These rooms in themselves pre¬ 
sent a great and wonderful school of paint¬ 
ing. They are totally unfurnished—the 
cabinet-maker and the upholsterer had no 












402 


JVotebvorthy Facts of All JVations 


business here—the soul and hand of 
D’Urbino fills and beautifies them. 
Among the grand subjects he has treated 
in these chambers are “Pope Leo and At- 
tila,” the “Judgment of Solomon/’ the 
“Coronation of Charlemagne/’ and the 
glorious “School of Athens.” 

Crossing the court of San Damaso, and 
some chapels and halls which form the 
state apartments of the Vatican, the visitor 
comes to a vast well-lighted gallery, at one 



THE LEANING TOWER OF PISA, ITALY. 


side of which an iron door admits him into 
the Vatican Library, a magnificent range 
of buildings covered with paintings 
throughout, and more than 1,000 feet long. 
Several apartments branch off from this 
grand line; the Stanza de Papiri, or room 
of manuscripts written on Egyptian 
papyrus before the introduction of paper, 
is covered with frescoes by Mengs. With 
a happy appropriateness, the designs, 


decorations, and marbles in this beautiful 
room are all in the Egyptian style. 

ISTot far from the library are magnificent 
halls and galleries of the Belvedere, which 
name- has been given to the only true, the 
only “glorious Apollo” (in sculpture)— 
the matchless Apollo di Belvedere. This 
far-extending museum is lined with mar¬ 
bles, paved with ancient and modern mo¬ 
saics, and filled with statues, vases, can¬ 
delabra, tombs, altars, medallions and 
medals; Specimens of Egyptian, Etruscan, 
Grecian and Roman antiquities are all 
found here; and never surely was there a 
shelter built by modern hands so worthy of 
being a lodging to these ancient gems and 
treasures. 

THE LEANING TOWER OF PISA 

The Leaning Tower of Pisa is perhaps 
one of the most familiar architectural 
structures in the world to all who have 
read any of the pictorial literature of 
travel. So unique is it in its construction 
and in its position that it has been con¬ 
spicuous and famous for many centuries. 
The tower was built for a belfry, or cam¬ 
panile, near the cathedral of the Italian 
city of Pisa. It was begun in 1174 and 
finished nearly 200 years later, in 1350. 
It is 179 feet high, in eight stories, sur¬ 
rounded by colonnades, and contains seven 
bells. It is fourteen feet out of the per¬ 
pendicular, but is absolutely stable, amply 
complying with the inflexible rule of 
physics that “the center of gravity must 
fall within the base” of any object that is 
to maintain its position. It has been dis¬ 
puted whether the builders intended the 
tower to lean in this fashion, or found that 
it settled to this extent in spite of their 









JVotetvorthy Facts of All JVations 


desire, but the latter contention is gener¬ 
ally accepted. Pisa is a quiet and beauti¬ 
ful town of 50,000 inhabitants, with a his¬ 
tory which includes a Roman conquest, a 
rivalry of Venice and Genoa in the Middle 
Ages, and a defeat of the Saracens in many 
naval battles. It was adorned with tem¬ 
ples by Augustus and Hadrian, and now 
contains architectural and artistic beauties 
in addition to the Leaning Tower, suffi¬ 
cient to attract hosts of visitors every year. 

CORK IN PORTUGAL AND SPAIN 

The maritime county in the province of 
Munster, Ireland, derived its name from 
the Irish word Corrocli, meaning swamp, 
but the substance of the same name, with 
which we stop bottles, derives its name 
from the Latin word cortex, meaning bark. 
Thus we have the same word applied to 
widely dilferent objects, having an equally 
wide derivation. 

The soft bark known as cork is taken 
from a species of oak that grows abundantly 
in Portugal, Spain and Italy. During July 
and August, after the tree is fifteen years 
old, the bark is removed and thereafter 
every three years. In other species of oak, 
if a simple ring is cut through the bark, 
around the tree in the spring, its death at 
once begins and is complete in a few weeks, 
but the cork tree, completely denuded of 
its bark every three years, will live at least 
150 years. But this is agreeable to the na¬ 
ture of the tree, for if this bark is not re¬ 
moved artificially it will, on maturity, dry 
into fine bits and fall off like scaly bark 
hickories. 

There are scattering groups of cork trees 


103 

growing throughout northern Africa, about 
equal in quality to those in Italy, and thus 
somewhat inferior to those of Portugal, 
where the best cork is obtained. In 1859, 
an attempt was made to start cork groves 
in the southern United States. The trees 



BOTANICAL GARDENS, LISBON, PORTUGAL. 


grew unusually thrifty, but the cork 
proved to be of poor quality. 

In Catalonia, Estramadura and Barce¬ 
lona, Spain, there are a thousand square 
miles of cork forests growing densely, to 
the average height of fifty feet. The in- 






404 


JVotetvorthy Facts of All Rations 


dustry in Catalonia employs 10,000 per¬ 
sons, each of whom in the course of a year 
gathers an average of a ton of cork. Where 
it is so abundant, it is in almost universal 
use. In Spain, it is made into all sorts of 
culinary utensils, it lines floors and walks, 
it is made into mattings of various kinds, 
and even used as pillows. In Italy, it is 
made into crosses, images and sandals. In 
Turkey, where the cork is of a harder qual¬ 
ity, it is used in making cabins and is in 



THE FAMED STAIRS OF CAPRI, ITALY. 


common use to make coffins for the peas¬ 
ants. In Algeria and Morocco, it affords 
the material for house furniture, plates, 
drinking vessels, tubs, armor plating and 
boats. 

In Portugal there are 34,000 square 
miles of cork groves. As these forests are 
in the hands of private monopolies, the 
government furnishes no statistics. How¬ 
ever, it is known that the export of cork 
from Portugal amounts to an annual aver¬ 
age of about 25,000 tons of the rough bark, 
and nearly 3,000 tons of manufactured ar¬ 
ticles. 

je 

GIBRALTAR 

Gibraltar proper occupies a bold, rocky 
peninsula which guards the passage be¬ 
tween the Atlantic Ocean and the Medit¬ 
erranean. It is a favorite military and 
naval station, wherein officers of both serv¬ 
ices can resign for the season their profes¬ 
sional cares for lighter joys. Its works of 
defense, its bomb-proof batteries and for¬ 
tresses, heavily armed, more resemble the 
bulwarks of nature than those by the hand 
of man. They are well grouped together, 
even if in a small area, because Gibraltar 
in no case exceeds three-quarters of a mile 
in breadth. The rock rises abruptly from 
the low, sandy, peninsula-like isthmus, to 
about 1,400 feet above the level of the sea. 
From its summit a view of unique sublim¬ 
ity is obtained. It can only be appreciated 
when seen. The mighty Mediterranean 
Sea stretches away in the background, 
alike shadowy and grand in scenic beauty, 
steamers and shipping ever traversing its 
waters. In another direction the Atlantic 
Ocean and expanded water of the Bay of 





405 


ffoletoorthy F arts of A. 11 /Nations 


Biscay, washing the shores of Spain, are 
prominent features. 

Gibraltar was known to the Greeks and 
Romans as Calpe or Abyla. The strip of 
land near Ceuta, across the straits, was 
named Abyla. For many centuries they 
formed the renowned pillars of Hercules, 
the then limit of ocean enterprise and com¬ 
merce. Its strategical value to England is 
of paramount importance, being really the 
key of the Mediterranean, along which the 
merchants of the world pass upon their 
lawful commerce. 

The ocean’s surfy, slow, deep, mellow 
voice, full of awe and mystery, breaks 
night and day against the rocks, moaning, 
as it were, over the dead it holds in its 
bosom, for the sea is the largest of all cem¬ 
eteries, and its slumberers sleep without 
monuments. In other graveyards distinc¬ 
tion is shown between the grave of the peer 
and that of the peasant, but in the sea and 
ocean, closely encircling Gibraltar, the 
same waves roll over all, and the same 
requiem is by the minstrelsy of the ocean 
sung in their honor. The same storm 
beats, and the same sun shines over their 
remains, but their graves are unmarked. 

It is the general and popular belief that 
Gibraltar is an impregnable fortress, but 
grave doubts have arisen during the last 
twenty-five years as to whether ‘‘The Rock” 
is really the impenetrable quadrilateral it 
is generally supposed to be. All political 
parties of England appear to be agreed that 
if there are any defects they should be rec¬ 
tified, hence the action of the government 
in sending out the Duke of Cambridge to 
inspect and report upon the necessary re¬ 
quirements, the absolute necessary strength 
of the garrison, and other material and de¬ 
tailed matter. 


Gibraltar has been the theatre of many 
sieges. The first appears to have taken 
place in 1309, when Alonzo Perez de Guz¬ 
man took possession of it for Ferdinand 
IV. of Spain. The real value of the Rock 
was evidently discovered and appreciated 
by the Moors in the eighth century, when 
they erected a fortress upon it. In 1315 
there was a second siege, but the invaders 
were beaten off; however, in 1333 Vasco 
Perez lost Gibraltar. A fourth siege to 
get it back took place in vain in 1344, and 
in 1349 there was a fifth siege. The sixth 
resulted in Gibraltar being transferred 
from the hands of the king of Morocco to 
those of Yussef III. of Grenada. The 
seventh siege by the Spanish Count Niebla 
Enrico de Guzman was disastrous to the 
besiegers. In 1462 an eighth siege brought 
Gibraltar once more under Christian rule. 
By a ninth siege the Duke of Medina Si- 
donia contrived to get himself, son and 
heir, created perpetual governors of the 
Rock. In 1501 the fortress was formally 
incorporated with the domains of the 
crown of Spain, and there was a tenth siege 
in 1506, by the Duke Don Juan, trying to 
recover possession. 

The pirates of Algiers made a furious 
attack on the Rock in 1540, the object 
being to recover it for Mahomet, but the 
besiegers were repulsed after a bitter con¬ 
flict, and immediate steps were taken to 
strengthen the works of nature by those of 
art, so that the Rock eventually became a 
model first-class fortress. During the war 
of the Spanish succession, the combined 
Dutch and English fleets under Sir George 
Rook captured the fortress. In 1704 Spain 
closely invested Gibraltar both by sea and 
land, but after a bitter six months’ siege 
the invaders retired. The apes of Bar- 


406 


Noteworthy Fact* of All Nations 


bary still find protection under the British 
flag, and are often seen from the signal- 
station, the only place in Europe where 
such animals may be seen at large. 

<£ < 3 * 

THE ISLAND OF CRETE 

Better known in classic history as Can- 
dia, and famous for its hundred cities, its 
labyrinth, the legend of the Minotaur and 
Mount Ida, the island of Crete has wit¬ 
nessed more of war than perhaps any other 
spot on the globe. The first to take it from 
the Greeks were the Saracens in 823, but 
they lost it to its original owners again in 
961. Venice, then in the zenith of her 
power, purchased it in 1204, the inhabi¬ 
tants, however, rising in rebellion, and 
only being subdued in 1364. After stand- 
ing a siege of twenty-four years, during 
which some 300,000 men perished, it sur¬ 
rendered to the Turks in 1669, and since 
then, with the exception of ten years dat¬ 
ing from 1830, when it was ceded to 
Egypt, it has been, in spite of desperate 
struggles for freedom, ruled by the Sul¬ 
tans. 

A persecution of Christians in 1859 by 
the Moslems brought about a long and 
determined struggle for independence, and 
in 1866 the Cretan General Assembly pro¬ 
claimed the abolition of Turkish authority. 
This struggle continued with varying suc¬ 
cess until 1869, when the Provisional Gov¬ 
ernment surrendered and Omar Fenizi was 
appointed Governor by the Sultan. An¬ 
other insurrection took place in 1877, and 
early in 1878 union with Greece was pro¬ 
claimed. The Berlin treaty, by declaring 
for the enforcement of legal and political 
reforms, quieted matters for a time, but in 


1884 another rising against Moslem rule 
took place, order not being restored, and 
then only by the mediation of the Powers, 
until 1887. 

Since then various small risings have 
taken place, only to be sternly repressed 
with the greatest cruelty and bloodshed by 
the Turks. The most notable revolt was 
that of 1895, which involved Greece in a 
war with Turkey. The sympathy of the 
Greeks with their persecuted brethren was 
such that the Greek “irregulars” along the 
frontier of Macedonia became involved in 
numerous attacks on the Turkish troops 
stationed along the line, which resulted in 
bringing on a w 7 ar disastrous to the Greeks. 

The Sultan agreed to govern Crete ac¬ 
cording to the requirements of the powers, 
and a plan was reached whereby it was be¬ 
lieved that the utmost liberty would be se¬ 
cured by the Christian Greeks under Turk¬ 
ish rule. 

& S 

THE STRANGE SEA MILLS OF 
CEPHALONIA, IN GREECE 

When the waves of the sea cannot enter 
into the caverns remote from the shore, ex¬ 
cept by narrow channels, it often happens 
that a rivulet of soft w 7 ater regularly flows 
toward the interior of the land without 
ever returning to the ocean. This strange 
fact, which may seem at first sight a re¬ 
versal of the laws of nature, may be ob¬ 
served at various points on the coast of 
calcareous countries, and especially on the 
coasts of Greece and the neighboring is¬ 
lands. Near Argostoli, a commercial town 
in the island of Cephalonia, four little tor¬ 
rents of sea water, rolling on an average 
fifty-five gallons of water per second, pene¬ 
trate into the fissures of the cliffs, flow rap- 


407 


otetuorthy Facts 

idly among the blocks that are scattered 
over the rocky bed, and gradually disappear 
in the crevices of the soil. 

Two of these water courses are suffi¬ 
ciently powerful to turn throughout the 
year the wheels of two mills constructed by 
an enterprising Englishman. Though the 
subterranean cavities of Argostoli are in 
constant communication with the sea, and 
the entrance to the canals is carefully 
freed from the sea¬ 
weed that could obstruct 
the passage, or at least 
retard the current, the 
waters are not the same 
height in the grottoes as 
in the neighboring gulf. 

This is because the 
calcareous rocks of 
Cephalonia, dried on 
the surface by the sea 
breeze and the heat 
of the sun, are pierced 
and cracked throughout 
by innumerable crev¬ 
ices, which are so many 
flues aiding the circu¬ 
lation of the air and 
the evaporation of the hidden moisture. 

The boundaries of this influx have never 
been definitely determined, but it certainly 
extends along the coast for nearly half a 
mile. At all points between the two mills, 
and for an unknown distance beyond 
each, the water is everywhere percolating 
through the cracks and fissures of the lime- 
stone and sinking into the earth. The 
openings in the sea bottom around the 
point are, no doubt, mainly closed by 
weeds, gravel, etc., yet no inconsiderable 
amount of water must find its way to these 
mysterious depths through such an extent 


of All Rations 

of beach, lying on a rock that is practically 
as porous as a sieve; and since this condi¬ 
tion may prevail for a long distance from 
the shore, where the pressure would tend 
to increase the flow, we may reasonably as¬ 
sume the quantity of water absorbed out¬ 
side of the mills as undoubtedly greater 
than that needed to run them. 

If we assume that each grist mill would 
require five horse power to operate it, and 


that the head of water actually used was 
about three feet, vve must have a flow of at 
least 1,000 cubic feet per minute, or 2,000 
per minute for the two mills; and we must 
double this^ amount to get even an approx¬ 
imate estimate of the magnitude of the in¬ 
verted river at Argostoli. This assump¬ 
tion makes the daily consumption of water 
nearly 6,000,000 and the annual consump¬ 
tion over 2,000,000,000 cubic feet. If we 
imagine a cavern below we must give it 
generous proportions, as 2,000,000,000 
cubic feet of water would fill a chamber 
about five miles long, 1,000 feet wide, and 



ITALIAN FIELD LABORERS AT THE DINNER HOUR. 















408 


^fotetoorthy Facts of All Rations 


To feet deep. Or, if the water runs into 
3 fissure, say 10 feet wide, it must be about 
10 miles long and 4,000 feet deep to hold 
one year’s influx at this point. 

No explanation of this phenomenon 
heretofore suggested is even measurably 
satisfactory. It cannot be connected in 
any way with tidal phenomena, because 
this part of the Mediterranean is almost 
tideless, and there is nothing periodic in 
the flow of the water into the land. That 
the w r ater is simply filling a system of fis¬ 
sures and caverns in the earth is clearly in¬ 
admissible in view of the well-established 
facts. The flow of water into the land has 
certainly been uninterrupted since 1833. 
The supply of water is exhaustless, and the 
rate of downpour is limited only by the ca¬ 
pacity of the fissures. The present rate of 
flow, or anything approaching it, continued 
for a century, would give a total volume of 
water so prodigious as to far exceed the ca¬ 
pacity of any known caverns. 

The force of this objection is augmented 
by the consideration that caverns other 
than fissures must have been formed by so¬ 
lution of the rocks and have thus required 
for their formation a volume of water 
many times greater than that required to 
fill them. Furthermore, it is virtually an 
axiom in geology that all cavities in the 
earth below the drainage level of the dis¬ 
trict, and especially below sea level, ex¬ 
cept possibly those due to recent, sudden, 
and extreme rifting, must be permanently 
and continuously full of water, and cer¬ 
tainly it is hardly conceivable that fracture 
fissures, developed at the surface as mere 
cracks, could require centuries for their 
filling with the sea pouring into them. 

None of the suggested modifications of 
the cavern theory seems to be worthy of 


serious consideration. We cannot suppose 
that the water flows into caverns and disap¬ 
pears by evaporation or absorption. Both 
of these processes below a very moderate 
depth would necessarily be extremely slow, 
and the former would gradually fill the 
caverns with salt. Nor can we follow the 
supposition that an earthquake has at some 
period opened a communication between 
the sea and the region of volcanic fire, and 
that the w 7 ater, being there converted into 
steam, is afterward condensed in its up¬ 
ward course and forms those hot springs 
which exist in various parts of Greece. 

Equally objectionable is the view that 
the water is absorbed at great depths by 
molten masses. Volcanic phenomena are 
wholly wanting in this part of Greece; 
that is, there are no active, recently active, 
or extinct volcanoes, nor, so far as we can 
learn, any geologically recent volcanic 
rocks. The great crater of Santorin is 
three hundred miles distant, while Cepha- 
lonia and the neighboring mainland consist 
of secondary and tertiary strata, overlying 
ancient crystalline rocks. 

The rejection of all these hypotheses 
forces us to the conclusion that in some 
way the water must return to the surface. 
A circulation, due exclusively to hydro¬ 
static pressure, is manifestly impossible, 
unless, indeed, it should issue in the basin 
of the Dead Sea, a full thousand miles 
distant, since the water starts downward 
from the sea level. Still less can we sup¬ 
pose that it would rise in the form of sa¬ 
line springs on the land. 

It has occurred to mind, however, that 
in the subterranean heat we have an ade¬ 
quate cause of aqueous circulation. The 
temperature of the ground increases down¬ 
ward, and it certainly is not a violent hy- 


JSfotebvorthy Facts of Alt Stations 


409 



pothesis that the water gains access to a 
system of fissures traversing a notable 
range of temperature. In this connection 
it may he noted that the conditions are fa¬ 
vorable to profound Assuring; for Cepha- 
lonia, like the rest of Greece, is distinctly 
a seismic region—earthquakes, often of de¬ 
structive severity, being of annual and al¬ 
most monthly occurrence, and the prevail¬ 
ing rock formation is the massive cretace¬ 
ous limestone, some thousands of feet in 
thickness. 

S <£ £ 

LIFE IN A TURKISH HAREM 

Romance, mystery and pictures of re¬ 
volting moral misery have been almost the 
sole source of information regarding the 
peculiar home life of the people whom we 
chiefly know as the unspeakable Turk. 

Our own customs are, of course, our 
own measures of morality, and anything 
different must be very bad. However, if 
it is enough to live a satisfied life, we 
must admit that the in¬ 
mates of the harem live 
well. They are wholly 
absorbed, as nuns in a 
convent in the child-like 
faith and religious sen¬ 
timent of their career. 

Strange to say, more 
than ninety-five per 
cent of the inmates of 
the harems of the rich 
and powerful are Cir¬ 
cassians. These white 
women of Circassia 
look upon an entrance 
into a Turkish harem 
as the height of am¬ 
bition. In truth, it is a Constantinople-vtldiz palace and mosque. 


great advance to them, both socially and 
materially. They believe themselves far 
superior in caste to any Christian lady that 
ever lived. The Circassian is first a slave 
in the harem, but at any time she may be¬ 
come the wife of the master and thus be 
raised to such superiority over others that 
the slave is always treated with as much 
deference and respect as if she were already 
mistress of the house. 

It causes no comment for the wife of a 
rich pacha to rise on the entrance of a slave 
and humbly kiss her hand. This is be¬ 
cause the wife was once in an inferior posi¬ 
tion to what the slave now is, and had al¬ 
ways been well treated by the slave thus 
honored. As an inferior slave may sud¬ 
denly be raised to high position, her for¬ 
mer superiors kiss the hem of her garment 
without jealousy or envy, for to them it is 
all fate. 

The great national powers, by compact 
with the Turkish government, forbade the 
traffic in slaves a few years ago, and since 










410 


Jtotetvorthy Facts of All Stations 


then the number of Circassians in the 
harem has somewhat lessened. Before 
this, when a young man became twenty 
years of age, his father went to the slave 
market and brought home a few slaves, 
from which the son selected a wife. Then 
the young man in the course of the year 
bought two or three more as slaves of 
his wife. These, with the wife, were in the 
same position as the slaves of the father. 
At the death of the father, his Avives 
went out of the house to homes of their 
oavii, Avith their children, and the son’s Avife 
became the head of the house, Avhile her 
slaves became odalisques, that is inferior 
Avi\ T es. 


The odalisques rank much loAver than 
their children in the household, but high¬ 
er than their slaves. Should they have 
no children, or should their children die, 
they rank no higher than slaves, and can 
expect no different treatment. In that 
case, at the death of their husband, they 
are either pensioned, on barely enough to 
keep them, or they are married to any old 
servant who will keep them, or they are 
sold as slaves and begin again the life of 
a slave, Avitli its prospects. 

The entire life of the odalisque is spent 
in sewing, gossiping with her slaves and 
visitors, and caring for her children. The 
house of the harem has its Availed gardens 



THE FAVORITE OF THE HAREM. 























ffotetvorthy Facts of Alt JVatfons 


411 


and yards, and of warm evenings the fam¬ 
ily gathers in a group on the grass under 
the trees, sing songs and listen to the wild 
stories of some old woman. These evening 
scenes may he visited by the brothers, 
cousins, nephews or uncles of the head of 
the family, but by no others. 

The fidelity of slaves to the odalisque is 
a remarkably developed trait. “I have 
eaten her bread and salt and I can not 
leave her,” is the sentiment expressed. 
Bread and salt are sacred symbols, and no 
greater curse can he pronounced in a house¬ 
hold than for the master to say, “May my 
bread and salt rise against you.” 

£ 3 

EGYPT AS IT IS TO-DAY 

Great as it was in the early history of 
civilization, Egypt to-day has hut little 
prominence in the affairs of the world. 
Even now its chief interest to us lies in the 
past. Luxor, Karnac, Memphis, the Nile, 
the Pyramids, the Sphinx and the Desert 
—these are the names 
that are significant to 
us in their suggestion 
of a historic past and a 
proud civilization. And 
yet even in Egypt the 
influence of the In¬ 
dustrial Age is felt and 
a new regime seems to 
he beginning. To-day, 

Alexandria, the an¬ 
cient city, is an im¬ 
portant modern port, 
largely rebuilt since the 
bombardment, twenty 
years ago, and the 
center of a large ex¬ 
port and import trade. 

The Suez Canal turned 


the tide of travel between the Ori¬ 
ent and the Occident across the corner of 
this ancient realm, where the Bed Sea and 
the Mediterranean come nearest together. 
This has brought hosts of travelers into 
Egypt whose journeys otherwise would 
have taken the wide detour from Europe 
around South Africa, to reach India, Aus¬ 
tralia or the Far East. 

Here is another evidence of the far- 
reaching effect of the industrial influence 
upon whatever country it touches. The 
construction of the Suez Canal made it 
necessary that the European Powers, who 
shared in its expense and whose vessels 
made use of it, should preserve the peace 
and order of the neighboring country. And 
so first by formal treaty and afterward by 
virtual occupation, England obtained dom¬ 
inance in the affairs of Egypt, which is 
nominally a state tributary to Turkey, and 
governed by its own Khedive. The Turk¬ 
ish influence, therefore, being virtually 
nullified in Egypt, and the British influ- 



IN THE SHADOW OF THE GREAT PYRAMID. 








THE GREAT SPHINX, NEAR THE PYRAMIDS, CAIRO, EGYPT, 











413 




JV otebvorthy Facts of A ll /Nations 


ence having become so 
strong, Egypt is enjoy¬ 
ing peace, order, com¬ 
mercial prosperity and 
industrial development 
to a degree that it has 
never known before. 
Modern innovations 
have been introduced 
into the Egyptian cities 
almost as freely as in 
Western Europe. It is 
not necessary now to 
patronize the clamorous 
donkey boys to reach 
the ancient remains of 


EGYPTIAN VILLAGE ON THE UPPER NILE. 


tjie tombs of the Pha¬ 
raohs, for an electric trolley line speeds 
the stranger, from Cairo swiftly across 
the desert to the very base of the Sphinx 
and the great pyramids themselves. It 
is not yet reported that an elevator is 
running to the top of the pyramid of 
Cheops, but we do not know what may hap¬ 


pen. Passenger steamers ply up and down 
the ISTile, and the products of that fertile 
valley, still irrigated by the annual over¬ 
flow, as it was 5,000 years ago, enter the 
markets of Europe in competition with our 
own wheat, corn and cotton. Railways ex- 
tend far southward along the Nile, into the 
heart of the continent, and it is no longer 
to be doubted that within a few years there 
will be direct connection from North to 
South Africa by way of the Cape to Cairo 
Railway. 

& & 


CAMEL RACE IN SOUTHERN EGYPT. 


RECENT DISCOVERIES IN EGYP¬ 
TIAN ANTIQUITIES 

It is difficult to realize that only five or 
six years ago criticism, so-called, was still 
assuring us that Menes, the founder of 
the united monarchy of Egypt, and his im¬ 
mediate ancestors were “mythical” and 
“fabulous.” Now we know almost as 
much about them and the people over 
whom they ruled as we do about the Pha¬ 
raohs of the fourth dynasty. Art was far 




A-- 


. p V; 




















414 


JVotetvorthy Facts of All JVations 


advanced; the system of hieroglyphic writ¬ 
ing had long since been perfected, and a 
“hieratic” or running hand had even been 
formed out of it. The jeweler’s art had 
already reached a high state of perfection; 
a gold cylinder of a Babylonian type has 
been found by Dr. Beisner with the name 
of Aha, or Menes, upon it, and in one of 
the Abydos tombs four exquisitely wrought 
bracelets have been brought to light, the 
alternating gold and turquoise plaques of 
one of which are inscribed with the same 
name. The tombs themselves are vast and 
stately structures, more especially that of 
Den, or Esaphaes, which was paved with 
huge slabs of granite from Assuan. 

Intercourse must have been carried on 
with all parts of the known world. The 
gold, which contains a little silver, came, 
according to Dr. Gladstone’s analysis, from 


Asia Minor; the vases of obsidian, frag¬ 
ments of which have been found in the 
tomb of Menes himself, from the Island of 
Melos in the Aegean Sea. There are 
shells from the Red Sea, and indications 
of the use of the incense that was brought 
from southern Arabia, and the coast of 
Somaliland, while the seal cylinder and 
the employment of clay as a writing mate¬ 
rial imply Babylonian influence. Indeed, 
the beads of lapis-lazuli which help to form 
one of the bracelets may have been im¬ 
ported from the mountains of Persia. 

Egypt was thus already connected with 
the rest of the civilized world both by land 
and by sea. A few miles to the north of 
Abydos, near the village of Mahasna, the 
great brick tombs of two of the earliest 
kings of the third dynasty have been dis¬ 
covered by Mr. Garstang. The largest of 



PYRAMID OF CHEOPS OR GREAT PYRAMID, NEAR CAIRO, EGYPT. 

Contains 4,000,000 tons of stone and is 450 feet in Height. Built 2100 B. C., requiring the labor of 100.0CO 
men for twenty years. Was the tomb of Cheops, an Egyptian Monarch. 










JV debit orthy Facts of All JSfations 


415 


them is thirty feet above the surface of the 
ground and nearly seventy feet below it. 
The eighteen chambers which the explorer 
discovered here are approached by an 
arched passage and staircase which runs 
down through the middle of the edifice, 
from its top to its bottom. Huge portcul¬ 
lises of granite, let down from the open¬ 
ings in the brick roof, close the passage and 


cut off the approach to the chambers. The 
sepulcher is what *an old English writer 
would have called “magnifical,” and testi¬ 
fies to a fact which is being impressed upon 
us by other recent discoveries, that the 
greatest architectural works of Egypt be¬ 
long to what has hitherto been regarded as 
the beginning of its history. There is no 
longer any reason to question the Greek 
record that Menes diverted the Nile from 
its former channel under the Libyan hills, 


by means of a dike which Mariette identi¬ 
fied with that of Koshesha. 

<3* 

THE GREAT PYRAMIDS OF 
EGYPT 

The Pyramids of Gizeh are all that re¬ 
main of any of the Seven Wonders of the 


Ancient World and they were old before 
any of the others had been thought of. In 
the time of Moses they were already 
ancient monuments, old almost beyond any 
of the authentic traditions of the times. 
They even then belonged to the times of an 
Ancient Egypt. Ever since the Israelites 
were in bondage to the Pharaohs, the 
minds of curious investigators have been 
busy with speculation as to why they were 
ever erected. Within the last century the 



BAKING BREAD FOR THE BRITISH ARMY ON THE NILE, UPPER EGYPT. 









410 


JVotetvortfry Facts of All JSfations 


greatest number of persons have busied 
themselves with the puzzle, and it is jet 
unsolved. 

Extensive researches and elaborate ar¬ 
guments have been used to show that thej 
had been erected as barriers against shift¬ 
ing sands, as parts of a mechanism for fil¬ 
tering Nile water, as monuments com 
memorating the deluge, as a means of em- 


ress of the seasons, as a demonstration of 
the quadrature of the circle, as a com¬ 
memoration of the long reigns of certain 
great kings, and as the tombs of the mem¬ 
bers of great dynasties. The latter is now 
the most generally accepted theory. A 
tradition that can be traced no farther back 
than the middle ages represents them as the 
granaries of Joseph. Pliny, who died in 





THE SLAVE MARKET IN MOROCCO. 


bodying in imperishable stone the mathe¬ 
matical and religious symbols of the world, 
as a measure of planetary distances, as a 
permanent standard of weights and meas¬ 
ures, as monuments to monotheism, as 
prophecies of the birth of Christ, as a 
mathematical prophecy of the Second Ad¬ 
vent measuring in numbers of inches the 
year 1882, as a record of their latitude, 
longitude, and date of beginning construc¬ 
tion, as vast sundials used to note the prog- 


the first century of the Christian era, says 
that there were traditions in his day which 
attributed their construction to the desire 
of certain kings not to leave any money to 
their successors, and also that it w T as the 
theory of the learned men of his time that 
they were built merely to use up the sur¬ 
plus energy of the people and to keep them 
employed. Many learned archaeologists 
still hold to the latter theory. Plato and 
Aristotle both held this theory. 












JVoteZoorthy FacU of All JVatioru 417 

> _ •* 


Herodotus, born 484 years before Christ, 
carefully examined the pyramids and gave 
the theory almost unanimously approved by 
modern scholarship, that they were built as 
the tombs for the kings of reigning dynas¬ 
ties. At the time of Herodotus there re¬ 
mained enough of the causeways or embank¬ 
ments upon which as inclined planes the 
great stones were dragged on rollers to their 
places, that Herodotus was able to put on 
record the method by which the pyramids 
were built, otherwise that process would 
now be as much a mystery as the purpose 
of these vast stone structures. Herodotus 
regarded these great causeways as objects 
of wonder almost equal to the pyramids 
themselves. According to his story there 
yet remained parts of these causeways in 
some places sixty feet wide and fifty feet 
in height. At that time the whole surface 
of the pyramids was covered with casings 
of cement, upon which were engraved or 
impressed hieroglyphics, giving these vast 
structures the appearance of having been 
chiseled smooth out of a single mountain of 
stone. 

Thus is the idea suggested that perhaps 
the monuments were not only designed as 
the tombs of dynasties of kings but that 
the outside surface was designed to be a 
great library of history, or perhaps tablets 
for the engrossing of the law. 

A French pilgrim to Egypt in 1395 
found the dismantling of Cheops only about 
half done, and as late as 1638 most of the 
casing on Khafra Pyramid was yet un¬ 
touched. An Arabian writer of the thir¬ 
teenth century says that if the inscriptions 
on these casings were copied they would 
fill more than ten thousand pages. But 
these have all disappeared because of the 
ignorant vandalism of the Egyptian govern¬ 


ments of the middle ages, excepting a few 
inscriptions copied by early pilgrims. Thus 
perished what might have been a complete 
history of the civilized world for unknown 
periods that were centuries prior to the 
birth of Moses. 

£ S 

THE TROGLODYTES OF AFRICA 

The Troglodytes, or cliff and cave dwell¬ 
ers, of Africa are in the line of caravan 
travel, and are visited by these freight 
trains of the African desert. Ho outside 
influence has been able, however, to wean 
them from their ancient habits, their an¬ 
tique garb and their peculiar manner of 
living. So far as is known, the manners 
and customs of the Troglodytes have not 
changed since Bible times, and any one 
coming upon a group of these people in the 
present day, and comparing their appear¬ 
ance with descriptions extant that some his¬ 
torians have regarded as fabulous, will see 
that they are precisely the same now as they 
were many centuries ago. 

A Troglodyte city is the most curious 
dwelling place in the world. From the ex¬ 
terior it presents the aspect of a Roman 

circus. The habitations are built in lavers 

«/ 

one above the other, and form a circular 
wall with a single entrance from the out¬ 
side. All the doors of the houses open on 
the interior of the circular city. Each habi¬ 
tation has a door and a window. To get 
to them you climb a flight of steps cut in 
the wall, which brings you to the lower 
layer of houses. If you wish to go higher 
you climb another pair of steps to the 
houses above, and from here to the third 
row, if you are visiting some one living on 
the top of the pile. The doors are all fas- 


418 


JSfotetovorthy Facts of All J'fations 



tenecl with the most primitive lock that is 
turned by means of a wooden key. 

Besides providing protection from their 
enemy, the sun, the circular habitation with 
the dead walls outside forms a strong fort¬ 
ress to guard the inhabitants from the at¬ 
tacks of neighboring tribes. In these more 
peaceful days, however, they have no such 
fear before them, and so they use the walled 
city mostly for the storing of crops, while 
they live in holes dug in the ground within 
the walls, and frequently change their posi¬ 


tion in search of pasture for their animals. 

The age of the cities is immense. The 
exact date when they were built is un¬ 
known, but it is believed that they antedate 
the birth of Christ. The people are peace¬ 
ably disposed, in which phase of character 
they are superior to most other natives of 
northern Africa. They are intelligent and 
hard working, tending their flocks and 
farming their land with patient energy. 
The approach to their country is so diffi¬ 
cult and dangerous, on account of the 

frightful gorges it is 
necessary to traverse, 
and the risk of being 
overcome by the deadly 
sirocco, that the inter¬ 
esting people have been 
disturbed but little by 
Europeans. 


CAMPAIGNING IN CENTRAL AFRICA. 

Native troops in British service crossing a swamp in the jungle. 


LIBERIA, 

THE AMERICAN 
COLONY 
IN AFRICA 

Lying between the 
fifth and eighth degrees 
of north latitude on the 
west coast of Africa is 
the little negro republic 
of Liberia. Its coast 
line is about three hun¬ 
dred miles, and its do¬ 
main extends two hun¬ 
dred and fifty miles 
into the interior, so that 
its territory includes, 
perhaps, 75,000 square 
miles. It owes its ex¬ 
istence to good men in 
America, both north 













Jfotebvorthy Facts of All Rations 


419 


and south, who many years ago felt that the 
freed people of the United States should 
have a place in the land of their fathers, 
where they could have the opportunity and 
satisfaction of building a nation of their 
own, which should demonstrate the capacity 
of the negro for nation building, and also 
open the way for his having a share in the 
civilization and redemption of the African 
continent. 

There are now in the republic about 
24,000 American-Liberians, speaking, of 
course, the English language; and perhaps 
1,000,000 native Africans. The former are 
emigrants from the United States, or their 
descendants; and the latter are made up 
of various tribes of aborigines, speaking 
many dialects, acknowledging the sover¬ 
eignty of the republic, but as a whole liv¬ 
ing in barbarism, as their fathers before 
them have done for many centuries. The 
form of government is modeled after that 
of the United States, and only negroes can 
own land, become citizens or hold office. 
A few thousand natives have become civil¬ 
ized and are a part of the nation. For 
twenty-five years Liberia was a colony, un¬ 
der the immediate direction of the coloni¬ 
zation societies; but in 1847 the nation was 
formed and received the friendly recogni¬ 
tion and good will of other nations. Li¬ 
beria, Santo Domingo and Haiti are the 

onlv nations in the world controlled entirely 
«/ 

by negroes. 

* To say that the hopes of the friends 
of the negro as a nation builder have been 
realized during the past fifty years in Li¬ 
beria would not be true. On the other 
hand, to accept the uncharitable and un¬ 
kind criticisms of the struggling republic, 
which are heard along the coast from many 
traders and travelers, and often reiterated 


in Europe and America, would be doing 
great injustice to the people of Liberia. 
When we consider the difficulties which 
these people have had to meet in a new, 
and, to many, a hostile climate, their lack 
of wealth and experience in government, 
surrounded and permeated by multitudes 
of barbarous heathen,, and subjected con¬ 
stantly to the uncharitable criticism of 
white traders and travelers, the marvel is 
that so much in the way of efficient govern¬ 
ment and advance in social conditions has 
been accomplished. True, their national 
domain, rich in minerals and agricultural 
possibilities, has not even been explored; 
but it is also true that, until within a very 
few years, hut little advance has been made 
by other nations on either coast of the con¬ 
tinent in extending practical and efficient 
government among the natives of the in¬ 
terior. 

j* <£ J* 

PYGMIES IN CENTRAL AFRICA 

Away back in the days when most of the 
world was unknown, instead of being most¬ 
ly known as it is now, the geographers mak¬ 
ing their maps used to decorate the outlying 
portions with all sorts of strange and fabu¬ 
lous figures. Probably they would not have 
claimed to believe that the giants and the 
dwarfs, the headless men and the men with 
one eye in the middle of their foreheads, 
the unicorns and the centaurs and all the 
rest of the monsters, really lived there. 
Even today we are very prone to imagine 
all sorts of mysterious things in the lands 
that have never been visited, although very 
likely if we were to go there we would find 
things quite as natural as they are here. 
But that was the way the ancient geogra¬ 
phers displayed their ignorance, and their 


420 


JVotetvorthy Facts of All JVafions 



acceptance of all sorts of traditions and travelers’ tales 
that circulated from mouth to mouth very freely. Even 
the stories of Gullivers travels, with his dwarfs and 
giants and talking horses, found believers, where, on 
the other hand, the stories of Marco Polo, Sir John 
Mandeville, and other earliest travelers to the Orient, 
who reported things which are now known to be mostly 
true, were hardly believed at all. 

Strangely enough, there are discoveries made at times, 
with the advance of exploration in the present day, 
which go far to verify some of the most extravagant 
stories of the past. Africa has done much to justify 
some of these old-fashioned myths. In Africa, for in- 
stance, was found the rhinoceros, which, with its single 
horn, is a clumsy sort of substitute for the unicorn of 
the ancients. In Africa, too, have been discovered races 
of man extremely backward in their development, and 
at least two tribes which are actual pygmies, to justify 
the old stories of the country of the dwarfs. It is in 
the great forests of the Congo River in Central Africa 
that these most peculiar races have been found. These 
pygmies were probably well known to the ancient Egyp¬ 
tian slave-traders, who journeyed up the ISTile in ancient 
days to return with treasures and curious specimens and 
wonderful stories. Herodotus wrote about the pygmies 
and their tights with cranes, but the story has been 
believed entirely mythological, until the discovery of 
ostriches and these very dwarfs has given justification 
to the ancient classic writer. Sir Harry II. Johnston, 
the governor of British East Africa, who has described 
these African tribes most interestingly, suggests that 
from the mischievous actions of such dwarfs as these 
may easily have come the stories of brownies and gob¬ 
lins in our own fairy tales. He found two varieties of 
the pygmies, one with reddish and yellowish brown skin 
and a tendency to red in the hair of the head, and the 
other a black-skinned type with entirely black hair. 
The latter are slightly taller than the others. The 
tallest specimen measured by the explorer was about five 
feet in height, but the average height for the man was 
four feet, seven inches, and for the woman four feet, two 
inches. Several of the men were only four feet, two 














421 


ffotetvorthy Facts of* All flattens 


inches in height, and sevei.il of the women 
were four feet. The nose and the lips are 
very different in shape from those of the 
ordinary negro types, the upper lip being 
long and straight and the nose having very 
little bridge. The chin is very much reced- 
ing, the neck is short, and the head rather 
sunk between the shoulders. The legs are 
short in proportion to the body and the feet 
are inclined to turn in. Some of the dwarfs 
have quite long beards. They seldom wear 
anything in the way of ornament and in the 
forests they go about naked. 

These Congo pygmies are very shy, and 
avoid contact with travelers through their 
country. They keep no domestic animals 
nor do they cultivate the ground, hut live 
entirely by hunting with hows and arrows 
or snares. Their huts are about four feet 
high and of about the same diameter, built 
of branches stuck into the ground and bent 
over into a semicircle. The hut is thatched 
with large leaves and a small hole is left at 
the side through which the pygmy crawls 
in to lie on his bed of leaves, which is the 
only piece of furniture. 

Stanley found some of these dwarfs in 
his journey through the Congo forests, and 
agrees with Sir Harry Johnston in the de¬ 
scription. It seems that the little fellows 
have no language of their own, but talk 
more or less imperfectly the language of 
whatever tribe of negroes happens to be 
their nearest neighbors. The white travel¬ 
ers who have visited them say that, although 
they are absolutely savage in their natural 
life, yet they possess quicker intelligence 
than the ordinary negroes and learn lan¬ 
guages easier. The foreign travelers de¬ 
clare that they are most interesting people, 
fond of singing and dancing, with music 
of their own that is distinctly melodious, 


and a drollery of action which makes them 
generally entertaining. It remains now for 
Africa to yield a race of giants to complete 
the record of marvels which the continent 
has produced. 

£ j/t -M 

WHO ARE THE BOERS? 

The Dutch were not in the first instance 
the discoverers of the Cape of Good Hope. 
The old Portuguese navigators were the 
first to brave the terrors of the Stormy 
Cape, as they called it. In 1486 Bartholo¬ 
mew Diaz doubled the Cape, and pushed 
his way beyond the present site of Port 
Elizabeth. In 1497 that great sailor, Vasco 
da Gama, passed the Cape, and penetrated 
by sea as far to the eastward as the Mozam¬ 
bique coast. Although the early navigators 
occasionally touched at the Cape on their 
way to the Indies, there seems to have been 
no regular settlement there until well into 
the seventeenth century. In 1591 Captain 
James Lancaster, with an English squad¬ 
ron, visited Table Bay. In 1595 four 
Dutch vessels, the first fleet to cast anchor 
in these waters, touched at Mossel Bay, a 
little to the east of the Cape. From this 
time fleets of the various nations were in 
the habit of calling at the Cape of Good 
Hope for rest and refreshment, obtaining 
oxen and sheep from the Hottentot aborig¬ 
inals, and picking up wild fowl, fish and 
green herbage. 

In 1652 the Dutch East India Company 
finally took possession of the Cape, and 
founded a settlement there. Jan Van Rie- 
beek landed with a number of colonists, and 
at once set vigorously to work to establish 
the foundations of Dutch supremacy in this 
quarter of the globe. 


422 JVotetuorthy Facts of All Stations 



BOER PRISONERS OF WAR IN INDIA. 

This is a view of roll-call in the British prison camp at Ahmedaagar, India, where more than 1,000 

former Boer soldiers were confined. 


In 1672 the Dutch East India Company 
purchased from the Hottentot chiefs, who 
claimed to be lords of the soil, the whole 
vast tract of country stretching from Sal- 
danha Bay to the Cape peninsula. 

Between 1685 and 1688 came a most im¬ 
portant accession of strength to the Dutch 
settlers. Thanks to the revocation of the 
Edict of Hantes by Louis XIV., large num¬ 
bers of Huguenots were driven from 
France. By arrangement with the authori¬ 
ties in Holland, it came to pass that some 
of these French Protestants, to the num¬ 
ber of between two and three hundred, were 
taken to the Cape. They were granted free 
passages and as much land as they could 
bring under cultivation, and were assisted 
with money to buy implements, seed and 
other necessities, on condition of thereafter 
repaying the same. These French Hugue¬ 
nots, nearly all steady, honest and God¬ 
fearing folk, became a source of great 
strength to the rising colony. 

During the last century the Boers spread 


far and wide into Cape Colony, traversing 
pathless deserts, waterless karroos, and diffi¬ 
cult mountain country, in search of new 
homes and pastures. Many of them w T ere 
hunters pure and simple, and followed the 
elephants for their ivory. As they moved 
inland, magistracies were tardily estab¬ 
lished in their midst, not lest they might 
lapse into utter barbarians, but to enable 
an anxious government to draw its taxa¬ 
tion from the land on which they settled. 
Churches and schools followed the settlers 
yet more tardily. 

Far-removed though they have been from 
churches and pastors, they have yet clung 
closely to the primitive faith of their fore¬ 
fathers. Wherever they have trekked, the 
great Dutch Bible, often more than two 
hundred years old, and its lessons, have 
gone with them. At morning and at night, 
wherever they may be, prayer and thanks¬ 
giving are invariably offered up. It is the 
fashion among the “Uitlanders” to ridicule 
the long and somewhat dreary prayers of 










Noteworthy Facts of All Nations 


423 



ABYSSINIAN WOMEN IN HOLIDAY DRESS. 

these Dutch fanners; vet, surely it is to 
the credit of the Boers that, amid every 
danger and difficulty, they have thus pre¬ 
served their faith. Even when marching to 
fisrht the Zulu hosts under Dingaan in 
Natal, they offered up prayers at every halt, 
and the 400 farmers who met and con¬ 
quered 10,000 Zulus at the Blood River in 
1838 attributed their astonishing victorv to 
the direct intervention of the Lord of Hosts 
in answer to their supplications. 

In 1796 the British, by arrangement, 
with the Stadtholder of the Dutch Repub¬ 
lic, then a fugitive from the armies of the 
French Republic, took possession of the 
Cape, which in 1803 was handed back to 
the Dutch. In 1806 the British, being then 
at war with the Dutch, again took posses¬ 
sion of the Cape Colony, after a severe 
struggle near Cape Town. From that time 


the Cape has been continuously in the 
hands of Great Britain. 

The early Cape governors were not re¬ 
markable for their sympathy or friendli¬ 
ness for the Dutch settlers, and the griev¬ 
ances of the latter were seldom listened to. 
The fathers of the present Dutch popula¬ 
tion in the Transvaal and Orange Free 
State quitted their home in the Cape Col¬ 
ony, and trekked into dangerous and un¬ 
known deserts to avoid what they conceived 
to be gross and burning wrongs. 

& S 

THE DIAMOND MINES OF 
KIMBERLEY 

The five diamond mines are all con¬ 
tained in a circle three and one-half miles 
in diameter. They are irregularly shaped, 
round or oval pipes, extending vertically 
downward to an unknown depth, retaining 
about the same diameter throughout. They 
are said to be volcanic necks, filled from 
below with a heterogeneous mixture of 
fragments of the surrounding rocks, and 
of older rocks, such as granite, mingled 
and cemented with a bluish colored hard 
clayey mass, in which famous blue clay the 
imbedded diamonds are hidden. 

In the first days of diamond mining there 
was no idea that diamondiferous earth ex¬ 
tended to any particular depth, and miners 
were allowed to dig holes at haphazard, and 
prospect where they liked. When the Kim¬ 
berley mine was discovered, a new arrange¬ 
ment was made, and in July, 1871, it was 
cut up into about 500 claims, each 31 feet 
square, with spaces reserved for about fif¬ 
teen roadways across the mine. No person 
at first could hold more than two claims, a 
rule afterwards modified. 







424 



ffotetoorthy Facts of Alt ffations 


The system of underground working in 
recent years is as follows: Shafts are sunk 
in the solid rock at a sufficient distance from 
the pipe to be quite safe against reef move¬ 
ments in the open mine. The main shaft at 
De Beers starts about 540 feet from the 
north side of the mine, and is now over 
1,500 feet deep. Tunnels are driven from 
this shaft at different levels to cross the 
mine from west to east, about 120 feet 
apart. These tunnels are connected with 
each other by two tunnels running north 


A 

The inhabitants of this remote African kingdom 
themselves the chosen 


and south, one near the west side of the 
mine and one midway between it and the 
east margin of the mine. From the east 
and west tunnels offsets are driven to the 
surrounding rock. When near the rock, 
they are widened into galleries, these in 
turn being stoped on the sides until they 
meet, and upwards until they break through 
the blue ground. The fallen reef with 
which the upper part of the mine is filled, 
sinks and partially fills the open space. The 
workmen then stand on the fallen reef, and 

drill the blue ground 
overhead; as the roof 
is blasted back the 
debris follows. When 
s t o p i n g between two 
tunnels, the blue is 
stoped up to the debris 
about midway between 
the two tunnels. The 
upper levels are worked 
back in advance of the 
lower levels, and the 
works assume the shape 
of irregular terraces. 
The main levels are 
from 90 to 120 feet 
apart, with intermedi¬ 
ate levels every 30 feet. 
Hoisting is done from 
only one level at a time 
through the same shaft. 
By this ingenious meth¬ 
od of mining, every por¬ 
tion of blue ground is 
excavated and raised to 
the surface, the rubbish 
on the top gradually 
sinking down and tak¬ 
ing its place. The 
scene below ground in 


GROUP OF ABYSSINIANS, IN THEIR OWN COUNTRY. 

are Coptic Christians, and consider 
people of God. 



425 


JVolebvorthy Facts of Alt JWations 


the labyrinth of galleries is bewildering in 
its complexity, ancl is about as little like 
one’s idea of a diamond mine as can well be 
conceived. Electric light is universal in 
the workings. One set of workers attends to 
the rock-drilling machines for blasting the 
blue ground; in other parts the blue is 
shoveled into wagons, which, when filled, 
are carried along rails by moving ropes till 
they get to the gallery, where the contents 
are sent to the surface. 

At the bottom of the main shaft, at the 
1,300-foot level, the galleries converge to 
a large open space where the tram lines car¬ 
rying the trucks meet. In front is a chute 
to which the trucks full of blue ground are 
rapidly wheeled, tipped over and their con¬ 
tents discharged, when they are shunted to 
make way for other trucks. At the foot of 
the shoot is a “skip” holding 64 cubic feet, 
or four truck loads, an electric bell sounds at 
the engine-house, when the skip is hoisted to 
the surface and another takes its place. So 
the work proceeds, and on busy days ground 
has been hoisted at the rate of 20 loads 
every three minutes, equal to 400 loads an 
hour. In IS94 the record hoisting of blue 
ground at the Kimberley mine was 470 
loads an hour; in one shift of eight hours 
3,312 loads, and in a day of three shifts, 
7,415 loads. 

All below ground is dirty, muddy, 
grimy; half naked men, black as ebony, 
muscular as athletes, with perspiration ooz¬ 
ing from every pore, are seen in every di¬ 
rection, hammering, picking, shoveling, 
wheeling the trucks to and fro, keep¬ 
ing up a weird chant, which rises in force 
and melody when a titanic task requires ex¬ 
cessive muscular strain. The whole scene 
is far more suggestive of a coal mine than 
a diamond mine, and all this mighty or¬ 


ganization, this strenuous expenditure of 
energy, this clever, costly machinery, this 
ceaseless toil of skilled and black labor, 
going on day and night, is just to win a few 
stones wherewith to deck my lady’s finger. 

The sorting room in the pulsator house is 
long, narrow and well lighted. Here the 
rich gravel is brought m wet, a s^eveful 
at a time, and is dumped in a heap on tables 
covered with iron plates. The tables at one 
end take the coarsest lumps, next comes the 
gravel which passed the three-eighths-inch 
holes, then the next in order, and so on. 
The first sorting is done by thoroughly 
trustworthy white men; for here the dan¬ 
ger of robbery is greatest. Sweeping the 
heap of gravel to the right, the sorter 
scrapes a little of it to the center of the table 
by means of a flat piece of sheet zinc. With 
this tool he rapidly passes in review the 
grains, seizes the diamonds, and puts them 
into a little tin box in front of him. The 
stuff is then swept off to the left, and an¬ 
other lot taken, and so on till the sieveful 
of gravel is exhausted, when another is 
brought iu. The stuff the sorter has passed 
to his left as temporarily inspected, is taken 
next to another part of the room, where it 
is again scrutinized by native convicts again 
and again, and as long as diamonds can be 
found in quantity sufficient to repay the 
cost of convict labor, it is passed under ex¬ 
amination. 

The diamond has a peculiar luster, and 
on the sorter’s table it is impossible to mis¬ 
take it for any other stone that may be pres¬ 
ent. It looks somewhat like clear pieces of 
gum arabic, with a sort of luster which 
makes a conspicuous shine among the other 
stones. 

In the pulsator and sorting house most of 
the native laborers are long-sentence con- 


426 


floletoorlhy Fads of At l Rations 


victs, supplied with food, clothing and med¬ 
ical attendance by the company. These 
men are necessarily well guarded, and all 
the white men in the works carry revolvers. 
Apart from the hopelessness of a successful 
rising, there is little inducement to revolt; 
the lot of these diamond workers is prefer¬ 
able 1y> life in the government prisons, and 

they seem contented. 

•/ 

Sometimes as many as 8,000 carats of 
diamonds come from the pnlsator in one 
day, representing about $50,000 in value. 
Prodigious diamonds are not so uncommon 
as is generally supposed. Diamonds weigh¬ 
ing over an ounce (151.5 carats) are not 
unfrequent at Kimberley, and, were it nec¬ 
essary, there would be no difficulty in get¬ 
ting together a hundred of them. 

& «5t 

ABYSSINIA AND ITS ANCIENT 
CHRISTIAN FAITH 

Just as very few are familiar with the 
fact that Egypt was once a Christian king¬ 
dom, for 259 years ending A. D. 640, so 
there are fewer still outside the circle of 
missionary enterprise, who know or care 
aught for the existing Christian Empire 
of Abyssinia, beyond its more recent po¬ 
litical records. Yet Abyssinia has been 
Christian for centuries; and its late King 
John, who greatly enlarged its boundaries 
and extended its influence in Central Af¬ 
rica, bore, like some European monarchs, 
the title of “Defender of the Faith,” most 
dear to the kings of Abyssinia. 

The Christian period of Egypt, compara¬ 
tively short in duration and unimportant in 
influencing neighboring tribes or communi¬ 
ties, ended in the Arab conquest under 
Amru, which left, but few vestiges of Chris¬ 
tians or Christianity. To-day, a small Cop- 



WIFE OF BEDOUIN CHIEF. 


tic community in Cairo, respected more for 
the intelligence of its members, the chief 
accountants and clerks of the administra¬ 
tion, than for their numbers or influence, 
and a few more scattered over various vil¬ 
lages, alone attest the antiquity of Chris¬ 
tianity in Egypt. But Abyssinia, the an¬ 
cient Ethiopia, claiming to possess the 
primitive Christianity and boasting of pre¬ 
serving the relics of St. Mark the Evangel¬ 
ist, has ever held fast to Christianity, even 
though disfiguring it with strange super¬ 
stitions, distorting it with fierce fanaticism, 
and showing even sterner savagery than ani¬ 
mated the old Crusaders, with w T hom ha¬ 
tred to the heathen was equivalent to love 
of God. 

Three great mountain chains forming a 
triangle, with its base resting on the Abai 
and the Kawasb, and its apex at Masso- 
wah on the Red Sea, are the boundaries of 
an immense elevated plateau, upheaved by 
volcanic action from the sultry plains of 






JVotebvorthy Facts of A It Stations 


427 


trojDical Africa, but blessed with a climate 
as fresh and healthy as any in Europe. In¬ 
deed, the table-lands of Abyssinia, bounded 
on the north and west by the arid deserts 
of the Sudan, on the south by the country 
of the ferocious Gallas, and on the east by 
Debeni, Adal, and the great salt plains of 
Arrhoo,may be likened to some rocky island 
rising in the midst of the ocean, rich with 
verdant plains, bubbling streams and shady 
woods, but seldom visited by the mariner, 
owing to its isolated position and the terri¬ 
ble cliffs by which it is surrounded. Very 
seldom do the natives of the Abyssinian 
plateau venture down into the fever- 
stricken plains, where dwell their hered¬ 
itary enemies, the Mahometans and the 
pagan Gallas. Xor, except when led to a 


profitable and pious invasion of “Habash,” 
do the people of the low countries often 
penetrate the wild passes of the Abyssinian 
mountains. It happens, therefore, that 
from whichever side the traveler approaches 
Abyssinia, he can glean but little informa¬ 
tion from the natives, concerning the coun¬ 
try beyond the mighty wall of mountains 
which rise before him, as if to bar his path. 

The Abvssinians trace the origin of their 
empire to the days of Solomon and the 
Queen of Sheba’s visit to him; and their 
line of kings to the joint issue of those two 
potentates. Their religion exhibits a 
strange mixture of Judaism and Christian¬ 
ity; a great pride of race and religion ani¬ 
mates this singular people whose monarch 
bears the haughty title of “King of Kings” ; 



AN ARAB SCHOOL. 
















428 


ftoteteuorthy Facts of All Stations 



and they consider themselves not only the 
peers, hut even the superiors, of all the rest 
of mankind. 

It was the English expedition against 
King Theodorus, in 1867, that opened out 
the country and let in some light on its 
dark places. Great was the surprise of 


THE RAILWAY RACE FOR THE 
INDIAN OCEAN 

The greater European Powers have en¬ 
tered upon a remarkable race for trade and 
influence in the Orient. The remarkable 
products and the enormous commerce of 


IN AN ARABIAN OASIS—THE EVENING CAMP. 


Christendom, which had previously classed 
the Abyssinians among other savage and 

fj O O 

warring tribes, leading a nomadic existence 
in the deserts and jungles of Africa, where 
the climate and wild beasts dispute with 
equally savage men the entrance or egress of 
the foreigner and repel the onward march 
of civilization. Since then they have de¬ 
feated Italy in a disastrous campaign, un¬ 
dertaken to claim them as a colony. 


Southern and Eastern Asia are tempting the 
commercial nations to use all their energy 
in securing a share of the profit that offer's 
there. Steamships have supplanted sailing 
vessels in large measure, and now the tend¬ 
ency is toward railway construction. No 
European Power except Russia connects 
directly with the Orient by railways in¬ 
cluded entirely within its own territory, 
and inasmuch as the Russians have seized 








JSote^A)orthy Facts of All JVations 


429 


their opportunity by building from Europe 
to the Pacific Ocean with a branch through 
Manchuria, the rival Powers are even more 
anxious to support their own interests in 
similar fashion as far as possible. 

Persia and Turkey each offer natural 
routes bv which communication can be es- 
tablished from Europe to the Indian Ocean 
by combined railway and steamship lines. 
Persia, once in ancient times the most pow¬ 
erful of nations, with Cyrus, Darius and 
Xerxes as its greatest rulers, is at last fall¬ 
ing under the influence of the advance of 
western civilization and yielding; to the 
pressure of European inducements. Ger¬ 


many, England and Russia are all center¬ 
ing their attention on it with jealous eyes, 
each endeavoring to preserve Persian trade 
and Persian concessions to the exclusion of 
the others. Turkey likewise is the subject 
of constant pressure from more than one of 
the great western Powers, in the effort to 
obtain the same privileges. Comparatively 
short railway lines across Turkey from the 
Mediterranean or the Black Sea, or across 
Persia from the Caspian Sea, will connect 
European waters with the Persian Gulf on 
the south. From this Persian Gulf ter¬ 
minus the voyage is a greatly reduced one 
to the cities of the Orient and the East. The 



MOHAMMEDAN PILGRIMS DRAWING NEAR TO MECCA. 














430 


flotetuorthy Facts of All flattens 


Russians have prosperous steamship lines 
plying to every port on the Caspian, and 
except for the south shore, which is Per¬ 
sian, that great body of water, five times as 
large as Lake Superior, is a Russian lake. 
Indeed, the northern provinces of Persia it¬ 
self, bordered by Russian railways in 
Transcaspia and by Russian steamship 
routes on the Caspian Sea, are now all but 
Russian. From Baku, the great petroleum 
port on the west shore of the Caspian, the 
railway system is extending southward to¬ 
ward Persia and the Russians apparently 
will have first access by this route to the 
Persian Gulf. French, German, Russian, 
Austrian, Italian and British steamships 
ply on the Black Sea and the Mediterra¬ 
nean, and of these countries Germany has 
the lead in railway concessions across Asia 
Minor to the Persian Gulf. The world is 
becoming smaller by the multiplication of 
new railway and steamship routes, and the 
traveler is profited by the rivalries of the 
Powers. The coasts of Turkey around the 
Black Sea and the Mediterranean have been 
accessible by numerous steamship lines, so 
that Turkish products and Turkish life 
have been fairly well known to the outer 
world. But Persia has been generally out 
of reach of observation and development. 

With the new regime of western trade 
and western methods introduced, Persia is 
altering its manners very rapidly. The 
country is one of large resources, although 
the beautiful silk and wool fabrics are vir¬ 
tually the only products that are conspicu¬ 
ous in American and European markets. 
Persian rugs are prized as the choicest floor 
coverings for the houses of our own people, 
and Persian silks and shawls likewise are 
highly valued. They are of the finest qual¬ 
ity and highly decorative in design. 


DANCING AND HOWLING 
DERVISHES 

There are two kinds of dervishes, the 
' dancing and howling dervishes. The 
Tekke, where the religious dances of the 
former are held, in Turkey, is in Kassim 
Pasha, a village suburb of Constantinople. 
Also in the Sudan there are numerous sects 
of dervishes, all with their peculiar customs. 
There is nothing in the exterior of their 
buildings to distinguish them from other 
rather grim and prison-like houses in the 
long, narrow street of Constantinople. 
One’s attention is drawn to the place by the 
train of solemn, brown-cloaked figures, 
wild-eyed and hollow-cheeked, who come 
toiling up the brow of the dusty hill, and 
disappear into the building. Weird looking 
beings they are, with the glint of the maniac 
in their eyes, but impressive and dignified 
in spite of their ludicrous dress. 

The inside of the Tekke is a large, cir¬ 
cular hall, with a highly polished marble 
floor and a promenade, for men only, round 
the dancing portion of it on the ground 
floor. A row of white marble pillars and a 
low marble screen separate the spectators 
from the dancers. Christian ladies present 
are taken up into the balcony. The division 
of the balcony, which is not screened off, 
is reserved for strangers of both sexes. Be¬ 
ing Christians, it is not deemed necessary 
for the ladies to sit alone or behind the 
arabesqued grille. 

A visitor describes one of these scenes 
as follows: 

“It was weary work waiting for the danc¬ 
ing to begin. The orchestra had been play¬ 
ing with all its might, in a small division 
of the balcony entirely hidden from sight, 
music that until then I thought only a Chi- 


JVotebvorthy Facts of A. 11 JV at ions 


431 


nese band at a joss-liouse meeting could 
produce. It was tlie sort of noise that makes 
one’s teeth ache, shrill whistles and queer 
stringed instruments of every shape and 
variety, positively shrieking out inspiration 
to the dancers. The noise was barbaric, and 
cannot be imagined by an ear unaccustomed 
to Eastern music. While this awful music 
was drumming itself into my brain and 
nerves, the dervishes were walking in sol¬ 
emn procession around the room. Their 
curious dress is made of thick, soft, sand- 
colored felt, and their high hats reminded 
me of a pailful of sand turned out on the 
seashore. When the figure is not in motion, 
the skirt hangs in soft, close folds, reaching 
to the ankle, and when the dancer is spin¬ 
ning round and round like a teetotum it 
flies out into a complete circle, getting 
larger as the motion increases in rapidity. 
A dancer with accordion pleats could hardly 
do more. A dervish of high position sits 
in a sort of throne, raised on a low dais at 
the east end of the building. When the 
dancers, who walked round the building 
with their arms folded across their breasts, 
reached his throne, they bowed low, facing 
Meccaward, and passed out of his presence 
backward. This solemn walking and end¬ 
less bowing seemed to last an hour and a 
( half, the rasping orchestra doing its best to 
work up their feelings to the necessary pitch 
of excitement. 

“Quite suddenly it had the desired effect, 
for a small figure, one of the youngest of 
the company, glided silently off the red mat¬ 
ting which led up to the dais and com¬ 
menced the famous dance. Eastern nations 
seldom move their feet from the floor, and 
the dervish dancers in this respect are much 
the same as the Japanese geishas and the 
Indian nautch dancers; in fact, to the Eng¬ 


lish mind it is not dancing. I had hoped 
that they would whoop and shout and jump 
about in a wild corroboree, like the Austra¬ 
lian aborigine or the Indian of America, 
but their dancing is as solemn as their walk¬ 
ing. With their arms extended out as 
straight as possible, they spun round and 
round the room on their bare feet. The 
giddiness of the motion became sickening to 
look at. One after another they glided over 
the polished floor with their feet close to¬ 
gether and their arms extended, until they 
made the room look full of human pegtops. 
But the dancing soon became as monotonous 
as the walking had been, and all that we 
were waiting for now was to see them drop 
down in a fainting fit from exhaustion. I 
watched their faces change from the awful 
sallowness which is their natural color to a 
dull red, and from a dull red to a horrible 
crimson, and then back again to a more ashen 
hue than before. The different stages of 
fatigue were horrible to witness. Round 
and round they went, until the whole room 
seemed to be revolving on its axle. In my 
fancy the white marble pillars had left their 
accustomed place and had joined the wild¬ 
eyed figures down below. I felt that it was 
time to go, and I staggered across the bal¬ 
cony and groped my way down the narrow 
stair. As we were going out we saw two of 

the dancers being carried out of the build- 

• 

mg. 

The howling dervishes wait for the in¬ 
spiration “to howl,” while the band plays 
the same class of music as has been already 
described, or, if possible, worse. While they 
are waiting they stand with their backs 
rigid against the wall of the building and 
their arms folded across their chests. Softly 
the “howling” begins. It is only a low 
moan at first, and very gently the bodies 



DEPARTURE OF THE SACRED CARPET FROM CAIRO, FOR MECCA. 

Once a year the Khedive sends a beautiful carpet to the tomb of Mohammed, in charge of the Mecca 
pilgrims. It is hung in the tomb until brought back by the next year’s pilgrims, when it is 
given to some mosque which it is desired to honor. 





JVolebvorthy Facts of A. 11 Nations 


433 


bend forward from the waist, but the moan¬ 
ing gets louder and louder, the bodies bend 
further and further forward until their 
foreheads almost touch the marble floor. 
Within half an hour’s time the howls get 
fiendish and the gray-robed figures rock 
themselves back and forward with horrible 
violence and rapidity. Their balance is 
marvelous, for they never move their feet 
or knees. One after another becomes purple 
in the face, and their wild eyes seem start¬ 
ing out of their heads. Mad yells make 
your blood run cold, and you do not wait 
to see the end of the entertainment. 

«5t jt 

PILGRIMS TO MECCA 

Every year thousands upon thousands of 
pious believers in the name of Mohammed 
desert their homesteads and wend their 
way, both by land and by sea, towards the 
country that saw the birth of their religion 
and witnessed the miraculous deeds of their 
archprophet. From China, India and Per¬ 
sia ; from every quarter of the Turkish Em¬ 
pire; from Egypt, Tripoli, Tunis, Algiers, 
and Morocco; from Zanzibar and Senegal; 
from Kurdistan and Afghanistan; from 
the Sudan and the great Sahara, and from 
many other places whose existence we are 
but dimly conscious of, they throng, many 
poor, ignorant and dirty, but devout and de¬ 
termined in their purpose. They are pil¬ 
e-rims to the holv cities of Arabia, Mecca 
and Medina, and to reach them they starve 
themselves for years to save up sufficient 
money to defray their expenses, and endure 
horrible privations by the way. They com¬ 
mit themselves to the mercies of the vast 
and awe-inspiring sea, dreaded by all true 
Orientals; they risk being robbed by the 


Bedouins or killed by the heat, and all with 
an amount of phlegm and good humor that 
is almost sublime. Whatever happens to 
them they care not; God will provide for 
them, and should they die on their way out 
they will be received all the more readily 
into the mansions and the arms of the vo¬ 
luptuous houris already provided for each 
one of them by their much-beloved prophet 
in the seven-storied paradise of Islam. 

It is incumbent on all good Moslems to 
perform this pilgrimage at least once, if 
they can afford it. Many perform it several 
times, and some make a business of it, and 
hire themselves out as substitutes for 
others; for a pilgrimage by proxy is con¬ 
sidered to be as effective as one performed 
in person, provided that the person in whose 
behalf it is performed be dead. Ko one can 
hire a substitute during his lifetime, but 
he may leave a provision to that effect in his 
will. This pilgrimage must not be con¬ 
sidered in the light of a penance, after 
which the hadji is to receive a plenary in¬ 
dulgence for past sins. It is an ordinance 
of the religion of Islam, of the same nature 
as the Eucharist, whereby the believer is 
supposed to be brought into closer com¬ 
munion for the time being with the Deity 
and his human representative. 

Of course it is easy enough to declare that 
one is not able to afford the expense of the 
undertaking, and many, without the ‘legst 
odium being attached to them, excuse them¬ 
selves on that plea, for it is expressly or¬ 
dered that no man unable to pay his own 
way without being an incumbrance to any 
one else should attempt it. The necessary 
expenses vary according to the station of 
the hadji. A poor man starting from the 
shores of Persia could perform the whole 
pilgrimage and get back for about three 



1CENE ON THE GEORGIAN MILITARY ROAD THROUGH THE CAUCASUS MOUNTAINS. 
























A GUSHING OIL WELL IN THE BAKU FIELDS, RUSSIAN CAUCASUS, 































436 


fiotetovorthy Facts of All JVations 


hundred and fifty rupees, or about $110. A 
person of any consequence would probably 
spend a thousand rupees; and of course a 
rich man could, if he liked, spend a much 
larger sunl. Yet not much opportunity for 
display is allowed. 

All around Mecca there are certain 
places, forming a circle round the city, after 
passing which the pilgrimage begins in 
earnest. For men no covering is allowed 
but a couple of white towels or bits of calico 
sheeting, one fastened round the waist and 
the other thrown over the shoulder. On 
women, also, no jewel or ornament of any 
description is tolerated, robes of snow-white 
linen constituting their only apparel. 

In the present age of increasing facilities 
in travel, the pilgrimage is made in all the 
cheapness and comfort desired. The scenes 
of vast multitudes, reduced to a common 
level, coming to the tomb of the prophet, are 
indescribable in their picturesque and mot¬ 
ley array. Modern sanitary precaution and 
discipline have reduced the danger of dis¬ 
ease and the terrors of the pilgrimage have 
been removed. Where formerly the host of 
pilgrims slept upon a blanket, most of them 
now come in groups and have tents, thus, 
during the season, presenting the picture of 
a vast army encamped on the plains. 

j* 

MOUNTAINS AND OIL-WELLS OF 
THE CAUCASUS 

Two great petroleum monopolies virtually 
divide the world’s markets between them, 
one, the Standard Oil Company of the 
United States, and the other the corpora¬ 
tions controlled by the Rothschilds in 
Europe. Of course there are minor com¬ 
panies with local trade in many countries, 
but the greatest volume of traffic in petro¬ 


leum or naphtha and its products is in these 
hands. In America the oldest and most 
famous oil fields are those of Pennsylvania 
and Ohio, although other isolated regions 
have shared the production. Of late Cali¬ 
fornia has contributed to the American 
supply, and latest of all the remarkable dis¬ 
coveries centering at Beaumont, Texas, 
have startled the world. Here gushers pro¬ 
ducing from 30,000 to 70,000 barrels of 
petroleum a day have been opened, and ap¬ 
parently the field waits for nothing but 
ample transportation facilities to become 
the most important of all factors in oil 
trade. 

The greatest developed oil field in the 
world, in some respects surpassing even the 
American oil-bearing districts, is that which 
centers at Baku, a Russian jDort on the west 
shore of the Caspian Sea, just south of the 
Caucasus Mountains. The Caucasus is a 
great range which extends from the Black 
Sea to the Caspian Sea, forming the boun¬ 
dary between Europe and Asia. The coun¬ 
try to the south of the range was formerly 
included in the ancient Asiatic kingdom of 
Georgia, but for the last century it has been 
a part of the Russian Empire, and is called 
the province of the Caucasus. The capital 
is Tiflis, about half way between the Black 
Sea and the Caspian. A railway connects 
Batum on the Black Sea, with Baku on the 
Caspian, passing through Tiflis. 

The latter city may be reached, however, 
by a more picturesque route from Europe. 
The Russian railway systems in Europe ex¬ 
tend to the city of Vladikavkaz, in the foot 
hills of the great mountain range, exactly 
opposite Tiflis. Between the two cities a 
remarkable road was built by the Russians 
nearly a century ago, called by them the 
Georgian Military Road. It is 126 miles 


Jfoietvorthy Facts of Alt Rations 


437 


from Vladikavkaz to Tiflis and a large por 
tion of the way is traversed by this stupen¬ 
dous mountain range. The road passes 
through the Dariel Gorge, which for cen¬ 
turies has been the pathway of armies mov¬ 
ing back and forth between Europe and 
Asia. This was the path by which the bar¬ 
barians of the north made their incursions 
upon the highly civilized eastern provinces 
of Greece and Rome, and back through the 
same gorge the legions drove them. Row 
the peaceful traveler over this remarkable 
road crosses the summit of the range at a 
height of nearly 9,000 feet, among the eter¬ 
nal snows, and sees the peak of Kazbek 
frowning over him, that mysterious moun¬ 
tain upon which mythology located the 
scene of the tortures of Prometheus who 
was punished for his theft of fire from 
Mount Olympus. Once over the summit 
of the pass, the traveler descends into Asia 
by way of the most remarkable zigzag 
known to mountain roads. The accompany¬ 
ing illustration shows the descent down the 
mountain side from the barren granite 
above to the smiling valley below. In the 
course of the road as it may be traced in 
the picture, the distance traversed measures 
approximately ten miles and the descent is 
more than 2,000 feet. 

The contrast between the titanic moun¬ 
tain scenery of the Caucasus and the indus¬ 
trial activities of . Baku is a striking one. 
At Baku the earth and the air are saturated 
with petroleum. Hundreds of great oil 
wells are pouring their liquid wealth into 
immense reservoirs, to await shipment by 
rail or vessel to the European and Asiatic 
markets where the product is consumed. 
Sometimes a great well bursts from all 
restraint, and pours forth a flood of petro¬ 
leum which runs to waste until the stream 


can be diverted into some earthen reservoir. 
When fires occur here there is little to do 
but let them exhaust themselves. Some¬ 
times the losses reach millions of dollars 
before a limit can be placed upon the rav¬ 
ages of the flames. The Baku oil fields 
seem to be inexhaustible and already they 
have brought immense wealth to all those 
heavily interested in them. The annual 
product of petroleum here is nearly 50,000,- 
000 barrels. 

& & 

AFGHANISTAN, THE “BUFFER 
NATION” 

The land of the Ameer lies north of India 

like a great wedge, having the sharp end at 

China and the head against Persia. The 

Ameer has been noteworthy because of his 

country’s peculiar geographical position. 

This has made him the most prominent man 

in the councils of the Mohammedans be- 

% 

cause he was in a position to mediate and 
decide between the Moslems of India and 
those of Turkey. It also gave him great 
prominence in the political games of Cen¬ 
tral Asia, because he held neutral territorv 
between the advance of the Russians from 
the north and the English from the south. 

The Ameer is absolute in his dominions, 
and his rule is both personal and arbitrary 
over his four or five million subjects. Some 
of his punishments are very peculiar. As 
examples, an old man expressed doubts as 
to the wisdom of certain acts of the Ameer 
and he was sentenced to have the beard on 
one side of his face publicly pulled out. A 
baker who had been convicted of selling 
short weight was sentenced to sell over 
weight at the same price for a month. A 
young man became frightened at the ap¬ 
pearance of horsemen in the distance and so 



LHASSA.’THE FORBIDDEN CITY OF THIBET. 

This picture of the mysterious Buddhist capital is from a painting by a Thibetan artist. 




























439 


JNfoteWorthy Facts of All Stations 


reported that the Russians were coming. 
For this he was compelled to stand from 
daylight till dark on the top of a post, just 
within reach of a soldier’s bayonet and yell 
at the top of his voice, “The Russians are 
coming to Kabul.” 

The Afghans are divided into clans or 
tribes. They are good horsemen and are 
almost wholly agricultural in their pursuits. 
The English have tried to bring them un¬ 
der their influence both by war and by 
bribery, but the use of force has been dis¬ 
astrous and the bribery but of temporary 
value. 

S S 

BOKHARA AND CENTRAL ASIA 

Down in the heart of Central Asia is the 
Russian vassal state of Bokhara, recently 
opened to the world, or at least to those who 
obtain permission from the Russian govern¬ 
ment to visit it, by the construction of the 
Transcaspian Railway. Until the conquest 
of the Khanates of Turkestan by the Rus¬ 
sian Empire within the last thirty years, 
the capital of this remote native state 
ranked with Mecca and Lhassa as one of 
the forbidden cities of the world. Hardlv 
more than fifty years ago, two English 
officers, making their way to the city of Bok¬ 
hara from India to negotiate a treaty of 
peace between Great Britain and the Emir, 
were put to death by the most horrible tor¬ 
tures, prolonged through a considerable 
period. 

Since then the Russians have built a 
great railway, parallel with the one more 
celebrated a thousand miles farther north, 
which penetrates the deserts and plains of 
Central Asia almost to the frontiers of In¬ 
dia and Mongolia. The Transcaspian line 
has been kept in the background by the Rus¬ 


sians, while the Transsiberian line has been 
made conspicuous in every way. The rea¬ 
son for this is that the former was built 
entirely for military and political purposes 
to threaten the Afghan and the Indian 
frontiers, and to facilitate the conquest and 
maintain the peace of the Czar’s new pos¬ 
sessions in Central Asia. So it is that the 
famous old cities of the realm of Genghis 
Khan and his great successor, Tamerlane, 
are now reached by the direct line of rail¬ 
way from the Caspian Sea. 

Tashkend, Khokand, Samarkand, Bok¬ 
hara and Merv are stations on the line 
where Orient and Occident meet in peculiar 
conglomeration. The ancient architectural 
remains left by Tamerlane are still beauti¬ 
ful and sufficiently preserved to reward the’ 
long and tiresome journey required to reach 
them. The tomb of Tamerlane stands in 
Samarkand almost as it stood five centuries 
ago, a noble dome rivaling in its own way 
the tomb of Napoleon in Paris, or the Taj 
Mahal of India. But the Russians are to¬ 
day dominant in all the great land included 
in Tamerlane’s realm. It is merely a Rus¬ 
sian figure of speech to call Bokhara, Khiva 
and the other vassal states which they toler¬ 
ate even semi-independent. The Emirs are 
left a shadow of authority over their own 
people, but the paw of the Russian bear 
reaching down from the north is over them 
all. 

J & 

TIBET, THE HERMIT NATION 

Buried deep in the heart of Asia, and 
separated from the burning plains of India 
and from the populous regions of China by 
stupendous ranges of snowy mountains, 
there lies a wonderful land. This land is 
Tibet. Its physical features are most re- 


440 


otetooorthy Facts of All ffations 


markable, for the country seems to consist 
of a vast central plateau, the greater portion 
of which lies at a higher elevation than the 
top of Mont Blanc, and from which descend 
on all sides great valleys, traversed by the 
Iloang-ho, the Yang-tsze-kiang, the Brah¬ 
maputra, and the Indus. The Tibetans 
themselves are a morose and gloomy race, 
and sunk in poverty and filth, seem to be 
degraded members of the human family. 

But perhaps it is the religion of the 
Tibetans which is the strangest feature of 
the country, for the Tibetans are Buddhists 
of a most extraordinary character. All over 
the mountains in the inhabited portions of 
Tibet, are scattered the convents of the 
Lamas, which are full of monks and nuns, 
ruled by abbesses, and by Lamas in red and 
yellow robes, with mitres on their heads, 
and with tridents and praying-wheels in 
their hands. Multitudes of pilgrims tra¬ 
verse the roads which lead to the holy city 
of Lhassa, the capital of the country; and 
in the great temple at Lhassa, which is 
splendidly adorned, the Buddhist priests 
and monks chant the service, in the pres¬ 
ence of crowds of devout worshippers. 

Another wonderful thing connected with 
Tibet is the jealous way in which it is 
guarded by its inhabitants, and the extraor¬ 
dinary care taken by them to prevent Euro¬ 
peans from entering the country. On the 
side of India every mountain pass is care¬ 
fully watched, and any European who at¬ 
tempts to enter Tibet from this direction is 
instantly turned back. On the side of 
China the frontier is guarded with equal 
care, and so perfect is the cordon in this 
quarter, that although the borders of Tibet 
may be reached, they cannot be passed. 

The Indian Government has trained 
Hindu Pundits to travel in Tibet and make 


scientific observations; but even this has to 
be done with great secrecy, and their scien¬ 
tific instruments have to be carefully con¬ 
cealed. On the frontier, these Hindus are 
strictly examined by the Tibetans, and are 
frequently turned back. Often, however, 
they are successful; and after traversing 
unknown portions of Tibet, they return to 
India and report their discoveries to the 
officials of the British Government, by 
whom they are rewarded. 

The most remarkable journey undertaken 
by these trained Hindus was performed by 
the Pundit Hain Singh in 1874. He en¬ 
tered Great Tibet from the west, and leav¬ 
ing the head waters of the Indus, ascended 
to a vast table-land, divided by a range of 
mountains from the Brahmaputra on the 
south, and stretching away for an unknown 
distance towards the north. Having reached 
Lake Hamcho, he crossed the snow T y moun¬ 
tains which rise along its southern border. 
Then he entered the habitable portion ^of 
Tibet, with its towns, convents and monas¬ 
teries, and ultimately made his way into 
Assam, and thence to Calcutta. 

Others have lost their lives in attempting 
to penetrate to Lhassa, the capital. A. Sav¬ 
age Landor was desperately tortured and 
mutilated before he was ejected from the 
territory. Only foreign occupation with 
troops can open this strange land to visitors 
and to modern civilization. 

THE YOGI OF INDIA 

The possession of mysterious and occult 
power not possible to ordinary mortals has 
been for ages attributed to a sect of hermits 
in the mountains north of Delhi in India. 

They live in monasteries like those of the 
Middle Ages and have the cadaverous look 


441 


JVofebvorthy Facts of Alt ffations 


to be achieved only by extraordinary self¬ 
training in feats of bodily suffering and en¬ 
durance, as practiced by the severest 
ascetics. They claim to be able to do natur¬ 
ally by their occult powers, what to ordi¬ 
nary mortals is miraculous and super¬ 
natural. They throw a rope into the air, 
in the semi-darkness of evening, where it 
remains suspended till one of them climbs 
up on it out of sight and returns. They 
bury one another alive 
and at the end of weeks 
or of months disinter 
and revive the one who 
was buried. But re¬ 
gardless of the vast 
mass of evidence re¬ 
garding these miracles, 
they are but little be¬ 
lieved iri and have been 
often explained as opti¬ 
cal illusions and clever 

tricks. They claim to 
</ 

attain to the power even 
of the suspension of ani¬ 
mation through severe 
fasting and mental ab¬ 
straction. Throwing 
themselves into a state 
of hypnosis, they are 
able to suffer many 
remarkable things to be 
done with themselves. 

They are the relig¬ 
ious conjurers of India 
and have long been able to impress their 
mysteries upon many learned men of un¬ 
doubted sincerity and honor. However, 
their feats have lost their serious interest 
to all but the Theosophists, and no longer 
deserve more attention than given to com¬ 
binations of conjuring with hypnotism. 


THE ISLAND TEMPLES OF 
INDIA 

Elephanta, which the natives call Galli- 
pouri, is a small island on the Indian coast, 
nearly opposite Bombay. The huge stone 
elephant on the south shore, which has been 
apparently split in two by gunpowder, gave 
its name to the island, and is so good an 
imitation of the real article that, at a short 


A SNAKE-CHARMER. 

distance, even an eye accustomed to ele¬ 
phants might be deceived. This seems to _ 
have been a work of supererogation, a sort 
of playful freak on the part of the architect, 
mortal or otherwise, that served as a prepa¬ 
ration for the wonders to be seen within the 
cavern pagoda. The horse, too, is repre- 









442 


flotetoorthy Facts of -A// ;Nations 


sented as “so lively, and with such a color 
and carriage, that many have fancied it a 
living animal.” 

This temple, or Pantheon of the gods, 
who in India are deified heroes and princes, 
is about half-way up the steep mountain, 
from the stony heart of which it has been 
excavated. It forms a complete square of 
120 feet, and is 18 feet in height. The four 
rows of pillars, on which the solid mass of 
rock above is supported, are exquisitely pro¬ 
portioned, hut of no received school of arch¬ 
itecture. Each finely-fluted column rests 
upon a square pedestal, and is larger in the 
center than at any other point. The rich 


capitals have a flat appearance, which has 
been compared to that of a cushion pressed 
together by the weight of the mountain 
overhead. A stone ridge, like a beam, 
crosses the tops of these capitals; it is about 
a foot thick, and profusely ornamented with 
carved work. 

Forty or fifty colossal statues stand out 
from the sides of the cavern in such wonder¬ 
ful bas-relief that, although they are not de¬ 
tached from the rock, the rounding of each 
figure is so perfect that a careful examina¬ 
tion is necessary to convince the spectator of 
this fact. These figures vary in style and 
character; some wearing the pyramidal 



ENTRANCE TO THE CAVES OF ELEPHANTA, 














ffotebvorthy Facts o_f A. It ffations 


443 


helmet of the warrior, others with crowns 
ingeniously wrought, and splendid with 
jewels, while some of the heads are without 
ornament, save that of curled or flowing- 
tresses. Hands are plentiful with these 
heroes and princes, who do not appear to 
have v found four, or even six, too many for 
them; and these numerous hands are gen¬ 
erally filled with sceptres and shields. 

Some of these worthies have undeniably 
bad countenances, and are described by an 
ancient writer to be of such “horrible and 
fearful forms,” that they “make a man’s 
hayre stand upright.” Others look serene 
and benignant, while on the features of 
others are marks of dejection and anguish. 
The gorgeous Indian dress in which they 
are attired, with heavy ear-jewels, magnifi¬ 
cent collars sparkling with gems, fancifully 
wrought belts, and rich bracelets on arms 
and wrists, makes a picture that fairly daz¬ 
zles amid the gloom of the cavern. 

The nearest of these figures to the en¬ 
trance, and facing it, is an enormous bust. 
Its three heads, joined behind the ears, rep¬ 
resent the grand triple deity of India— 
Brahma, Vishnu and Siva. The great 
breadth and depth of the central head are 
evidently the sculptor’s expression of the 
supreme presiding deity. A face that is 
five feet long, with a nose of a foot and a 
half, conveys a practical idea of power that 
is further enhanced by a shoulder expansion 
of twenty feet. An immense jewel sparkles 
like a solitary star in the pyramidal cap 
that crowns the head, while a broad collar of 
pearls and other precious stones adorns the 
neck. The sleepy, placid expression of the 
face is supposed to express “that absorbed 
state which constitutes the supreme felicity 
of the Indian deity.” 

The head on the .right of Brahma is the 


preserver, Vishnu, smiling and-gazing with 
rapt admiration on the sacred lotus which 
he holds in his left hand. The destroyer, 
Mahades, scowls on the other side, and looks 
the very incarnation of malice. Ilis tongue 
is thrust out, and the large hooded snake 
grasped in his right hand seems only the 
natural expression of his own evil nature. 

On either side of this triple-headed bust 
is a majestic, whole length figure, wearing 
the three-fold cord of Brahma, and sup¬ 
posed to represent a subdar, or priest of 
that deity. Farther on is the figure of an 
Amazon, which seems curiously out of place 



HINDU BABY IN ITS CRADLE. 


in a Hindoo temple. It is in the midst of 
thirty uncouth statues, and has four arms, 
the right fore-arm resting upon the head of 
a bull. The left fore-arm hangs down, but 
whatever it holds has been mutilated past 
recognition. The hand of the hinder right 
arm grasps a hooded snake ; the left a round 
shield. This brings back the theory of 
Semiramis; but it is supposed again that, 
as Herodotus writes of Scythian Amazons, 
the statue may be accounted for by the con¬ 
nection which, in early ages, seems to have 
existed between India and Scythia. 








444 


flotetuorthy Facts cyf All flattens 



A SIAMESE BELLE. 


The sacred Zennar of Brahma which 
adorns so many of these sculptured figures, 
the striking representations of the very gods 
now worshipped in India, and the assertion 
of Niebuhr, who declares that he saw the 
islanders paying homage to the images in 
the temple of Elephanta, all seem to contra¬ 
dict the theory that the rites of a religion 
quite different from that now prevailing in 


India were practiced in these cavern pa¬ 
godas. 

At one end of this wonderful temple is 
a dark recess twenty feet square, with no 
outside ornament except the eight naked 
figures, thirteen and a half feet high, that 
seem to be starting from the wall to which 
they are attached. These figures are orna¬ 
mented in the same gorgeous fashion as the 
other statues, with rich collars about their 
necks and immense jewels in their ears. 
They guard the sacred mysteries of a de¬ 
basing worship, whose serpent-like trail dis¬ 
figures all Indian temples and paintings. 

The crushed appearance of Elephanta’s 
flat roof and comparatively low ceiling is 
a prominent defect in this famous temple; 
but it is, nevertheless, a palace of wonders, 
and in contemplating the life-like forms 
that stud the massive rock from whence 
they seem to have sprung, the spectator al¬ 
most feels that the spirits who were sup¬ 
posed to work in the bowels of the earth 
could alone have accomplished such results. 

& £ 

SIAM AND ITS STRANGE 
PEOPLE 

Siam is the Holland and Venice of the 
far East. During a part of the year the 
best of its lands lie under water and the 
people move from one village to another in 
boats. The rivers and canals are the high¬ 
ways of the kingdom, and the city of Bang¬ 
kok, the royal capital, has more houses built 
upon piles than have the piled cities of Am¬ 
sterdam and Rotterdam, and its canal 
streets surpass in number the waterways 
through which go the gondolas of Venice. 
Bangkok is even more built upon the waters 
than is the famed queen city of the Adri- 






JVotebvorthy Facts of All JVaftons 


445 


atic. Venice rises from the sea and its 
foundations reach down into its sand. 
Bangkok floats upon the bosom of the 
mighty Menam River, and its hundred 
thousand dwellings rise and fall with the 
tide. The Menam is called the mother of 
waters and Bangkok, its most beautiful 
daughter, is soothed during the day and 
lulled to sleep at night upon the bosom of 
this mighty mother. 

Bangkok has few things in common with 
its sister city of Italy, and it differs from 
Venice as the half-nude savage maiden of 
the tropics, laden with barbaric gold, differs 
from the fashionable girl of our modern 
civilization, clad in her latest Parisian 
dress. Imagine a low, flat country filled 
with the most luxuriant of tropical vegeta¬ 
tion. The wind sighs through the palm 
trees. Birds of the gayest plumage fill the 


air with their tropical songs. In the jungle 
is heard the chatter of the monkey, and 
along the flat streams basks the alligator. A 
low, clear blue sky, in which the sun of the 
tropics shines its hottest, hangs over it, and 
at night the moon and the stars shine with 
an untold brightness. Sailing up this river, 
from the Gulf of Siam, at about thirty 
miles from its mouth, you note in the dis¬ 
tance the spires of temples and palaces. 
As you go on, from out the palm trees on 
each side shine little one-story houses, their 
roofs thatched with palm leaves, and their 
foundations apparently rising from the 
water itself. 

There are no cellars in Bangkok and each 
home has a hole in the floor through which 
the sweepings are thrown. At two or more 
corners of each of these dwellings a pole 
has been driven down into the mud, and the 



mm 




A STREET IN COLOMBO. 









446 


ffotetvorthy Facts of All JVations 


house is anchored to these. Its owner pays 
a ground rent to the person owning the land 
on the banks in front of which the house 
rests. But in case of dispute the moorings 
are cut, and the house, family and all, float 
away to another location. There are fifteen 
miles of these floating houses. They line 
both hanks of the river and the canals hack 
into the jungle. It is not uncommon for the 
owner of a floating dwelling to anchor his 



TEA-PICKER, CEYLON. 


house in the middle of one of the narrowest 
of these water avenues, and boats passing by 
must get through as they can. The native 
houses of the land are built, high up on 
piles, so that one could almost walk under 
their floors. Some of them have pictur¬ 
esquely pointed ridge roofs, hut like the 
floating houses, they are as a rule small, and 
their interior arrangements are the same. 


It is estimated that 50,000 out of the 
700,000 people of Bangkok live thus upon 
the water. There are thousands of children 
here who have never had a play-ground big¬ 
ger than the fifteen-foot veranda in front 
of their homes, and whole families live 
through generations in one of these three- 
roomed floating houses without having 
spent a night upon the land. 

All of the women have short hair, and 
some of them would be beautiful were it not 
for the universal custom of betel-nut chew¬ 
ing. The betel-nut is the product of a palm 
tree. It is about as large around as a wal¬ 
nut, and its meat is of a soft, spongy nature, 
the taste of which suggests the astringent 
properties of the unripe persimmon. The 
natives cut these nuts into quarters, and 
when they chew them they add a mixture 
of pink colored lime and tobacco, which, 
with the betel-nut, makes the compound 
which they munch from morning till night. 
After a short time it becomes a cud, and 
they lodge this between the lips and the 
teeth when not engaged in chewing. The 
chewing produces a blood-red saliva, which 
turns the teeth from white to polished jet, 
makes the lips crack, contracts the gums so 
that the teeth become long black fangs, to 
disfigure what would be otherwise fairly 
beautiful faces. Betel-nut chewing is fol¬ 
lowed by all Siamese, from the lowest to the 
highest, and a nobleman going through the 
streets has alwavs his servant following 
him, bearing a box of silver or gold half the 
size of a cigar box, in which are choice mix¬ 
tures of betel and lime. 

All of the Siamese men, women and chil¬ 
dren, smoke as well as chew. You see. 
cigarettes and cigars, unlit and half-smoked, 
behind the ears of both sexes. 

Siam is the land of the white elephant, 



JVoletoorthy Fads of All Rations 


447 


and the king has four white elephants in the 
imperial stables which adjoin his palace. 
Great burly beasts with mouse-colored skins 
speckled by disease, they have been shorn 
of their glory, and their tusks are no longer 
bound with gold nor are their bodies 
swathed in cloths of purple velvet. Heavy 
ropes have taken the place of golden chains 
in binding their ankles. These elephants 
are often used in the grand processions of 
the*king. At such times thev are decorated 
with something of their old grandeur. Pa¬ 
vilions are tied upon their backs and the 
royal family ride out in state. 

& j* 

CHINESE FOOD AND COOKERY 

John Chinaman always has a bowl at his 
elbow at meal-time, which he fills with rice 
from a vessel on the table, a large spoon or 
ladle being used for this purpose. This 
bowl is held in the left hand, and brought 
near the chin from time to time, when the 
rice is shovelled into the mouth by a pair of 
chop-sticks, taken between the thumb and 
fore and middle fingers, instead of being 
used separately, one in each hand, as is 
sometimes supposed. In the boats on the 
rivers, of China, children of all ages are 
seen, late in the day, with bowls, which they 
take to their mothers to he filled with rice, 
and it is curious to see the avidity with 
which they consume their invariable diet. 
Many poor people know no other dish than 
this; but those who can afford a little vari¬ 
ety, are glad to spend a few “cash,” as the 
smaller Chinese coins are called, in the pur¬ 
chase of fish, flesh or fowl, to give a relish 
to their monotonous vegetable. On the river 
boats may be seen the rude implements of 
these floating kitchens, consisting chiefly of 


a large boiler, resting upon an earthenware 
pan. This serves as a furnace, and “all-out¬ 
doors” does duty as a chimney. Within the 
pot containing the rice, as it sizzles and 
steams away, are pans placed on a grating. 
They hold such savory accomplishments as 
the natives use for side-dishes. 

The Chinese are very fond of gelatinous 
substances, and this accounts for their using 
animals and parts of animals for* food 
which are rejected in other countries, and 
their penchant for such delicacies as tri¬ 
pang, hirds’-nests, sharks’-fins, fish-maws, 
and agar-agar, a vegetable glue made from 
sea-weed. Among fish, the sturgeon is 
highly prized, and, as in classic times, is 
considered worthy of a princely banquet. 
The expression “caviare to the general,” 
used hv Shakespeare to illustrate anything 
above the taste or comprehension of the com¬ 
mon people, attests the estimate formerly 
placed upon this fish by epicures, caviare 
being the roe of the sturgeon. A very choice 
delicacv for Chinese tables is sturgeon skull- 
cap, made from the most select portions of 
the royal fish. Shark-fins and pork are also 
highly esteemed. An English traveler, who 
partook of a dinner at which these were 
served, says the Chinaman must have smiled 
at the unreasonable prejudices of the Occi¬ 
dentals when he saw some of them tasting 
the pork, but fighting shy of the shark. He 
adds that the monster’s fins were boiled to 
so soft a consistency that they might have 
been turbot-fins. The Chinese pork has a 
shining, flabby appearance which is not at¬ 
tractive to foreign eyes, and its rank, coarse 
taste does not invite renewed attention from 
the wary stranger. Cut into thin slices 
and fried in soy, which relieves the gross 
flavor of the meat, it is not absolutely re¬ 
pulsive. 



SAILING SLEDGES ON THE 


In winter as in summer the 
the ingenious 


Chinese waterways are 
Chinaman rigs up 


GRAND CANAL OF CHINA, 
the chief arteries of traffic. To assist his progress 
a sail in the manner pictured. 




















449 


Sfotebvorthy Facts of A ll Stations 


One of the most cherished delicacies of 
Chinese epicures is the beche-de-mer, or 
tripang, a kind of sea-slug, fished for on the 
coral-reefs of the Eastern seas. This ma¬ 
rine animal is hardly less peculiar in his 
habits and appearance than the “heathen 
Chinee” who delights to devour him, being 
both tough and flexible, able to stand erect 
and graze on the sea-grasses, or to crawl and 
digest vast quantities of shells. With his 
tubular feet, or feelers, he seizes the unwary 
mollusk, which, firmly held by these suck¬ 
ers, is passed into the mouth of the slug, 
where it is speedily crushed and thrust into 
the stomach. From his resemblance to the 
familiar product of our gardens, this wan¬ 
dering echinodern is called by sailors the 
sea-cucumber. 

Another gelatinous delicacy of the Chi¬ 
nese is the birds’-nest. This is the habita¬ 
tion of a small swallow called, from its 
having an edible house, Ilirundo esculenta. 
These nests are found on most of the rocky 
islets of the Indian Archipelago, though 
Java and Sumatra furnish the principal 
supply. They are composed of a mucilagin¬ 
ous substance resembling coarse fibrous 
isinglass in external appearance, and in 
color are reddish white. Hardly thicker 
than an ordinary teaspoon, the weight of 
one of these little articles is from a quarter 
to half an ounce. The quality of the nests 
depends on the character of the caves, and 
the time in which they are taken. The best 
are obtained before the young swallows are 
fledged; next in value are those containing 
eggs only. Those which have been occupied 
by the newly-fledged birds, are rendered 
nearly worthless by blood, feathers and dirt. 

These nests are obtained twice a year, the 
most valuable being found in deep, damp 
caves, which, unless essentially changed in 


character, will long continue to shelter the 
swallows and their nests. It was formerly 
supposed that the materials used by the 
birds in building these habitations, was the 
spawn of fish, or of beche-de-mer, but this 
view, however conformable to the principle 
of natural selection on the part of the birds 
in choosing such dainty delicacies to gratify 
the Celestial appetite, seems to be contra¬ 
dicted by the fact that some of the most 
productive caves are situated fifty miles 
from the sea. 

The difficulty and danger experienced by, 
the gatherers of these nests, furnish a new 
illustration of the tyranny of the human 
palate over the lives and happiness of men. 
To obtain the nests is the business of per¬ 
sons who have been trained to it from their 
youth, for no inexperienced person could 
safely undertake it. The caves are ap- 
proached by ladders of bamboo and rattan 
let down over precipices, often descending 
perpendicularly for hundreds of feet over a 
sea beating violently against the rocks. 
After reaching the mouth of the cave, the 
seeker for nests gropes along on narrow 
ledges, where he is obliged to cling with his 
hands to slippery crevices, and penetrate 
gloomy recesses, where a single misstep 
w T ould precipitate him into the yawning 
abyss below, to be dashed to pieces by the 
turbulent surf. It is often necessary to use, 
torches to light the wanderer on his way, 
and reveal the places where the nests are: 
hidden. 

The Chinaman, believing that cookery is] 
the test of civilization, regards the carving 
processes of European and American so¬ 
ciety as conclusive proof of barbarism. An 
Englishman’s mode of feeding, he says, 
allies him to the savages of Formosa; the 
chief labors of the slaughter-house being 


450 


flotetvorthy Facts of All Stations 


transferred to the dinner-table, and the 
principal work of the kitchen being per¬ 
formed by the stomach. “In remote ages, 
before we became civilized,” said a polite 
Chinaman, “we nsed knives and forks as 
you do and had no chopsticks. We still 
carry a knife in our chop-stick-case but it is 
a remnant of barbarism—we never use it. 
We sit down to table to eat, not to cut up 
carcasses.” Undoubtedly, the Chinese sys¬ 


tem is admirably adapted for dyspeptics, as 
well as for that large class of persons whom 
necessity or inclination prevents from tak¬ 
ing exercise enough to digest a mass of solid 
food. 

Cats and dogs are eaten to some extent 
by the Chinese, but generally when young 
and tender. As those intended for the table 
are usually fed upon rice, their flesh is more 
palatable and cleanly than that of their 

brethren in other coun¬ 
tries. They are sold 
alive in cages, and their 
dolorous cries, some¬ 
times attributed to con¬ 
sciousness of their im¬ 
pending fate, are more 
likely the result of ill- 
treatment on the part 
of the hawkers, or of 
discontent with their 
peripatetic prisons. To 
ascertain the age and 
health of these crea¬ 
tures, buyers open their 
mouths and examine 
the teeth, so that puss 
and pup are subjected 
to a good deal of dis¬ 
agreeable scrutiny be¬ 
fore being swallowed 
by the Celestials. 

Frogs are favorite 
articles of food in 
China. They are caught 
by fastening a youthful 
specimen by the waist 
to a fishline, and bob¬ 
bing him up and down 
in the grass and grain 
of a rice-field, the fa¬ 
vorite resort of his old- 



BUDDHIST ROCK TEMPLE IN CHINA. 










JVotebuorthy Facts of All J^ations 


451 


er brethren. One of these old croakers 
jumps at the squirming youngster, swallows 
him whole, and is himself secured, while 
the young one is rescued from the maw 
only to be used for bait again until death 
relieves him. 

It is not likely that Chinese delicacies of 
the table will ever become popular in this 
country. On the contrary, John Chinaman, 
appreciating the dietetic conditions of our 
civilization, will probably conform to our 
customs in this as in other respects. We 
shall long continue to use his tea, but it is 
more than doubtful whether the coming 
man will drink samsku, or eat sea-slugs, 
birds’-nests, cats or dogs. 

& j* & 

CHINESE BEGGARS 

The condition of the Chinese poor is very 
bad, judging from a European point of 
view, for in their wretched huts—they can¬ 
not be called cottages—there is an utter 
want of what we consider “home comforts” ; 
the very expression is a mockery in connec¬ 
tion with them and their mode of living. 
What wonder, then, that beggars swarm in 
every direction, for the line of demarcation 
between the very poor and the beggar 
classes is very slight ? 

The beggars of most Chinese cities may 
be divided into three principal classes, each 
miserable, dirty, and designing, but with 
differences, which must excite and demand 
pity in varying degrees. One class, the 
most numerous, perhaps most powerful, 
best organized, and most prolific in re¬ 
sources, is under a “head man,” a species of 
gypsy king. This man is raised to his high 
dignity on account of his superior talents 
as a knave and extorter of money. “What¬ 
ever the beggars procure by begging,” says 


the writer of a Chinese romance, “is given 
to the head man; and in time of rain or 
snow, when they cannot follow their calling, 
their chief provides them with food and 
supplies them with clothing.” 

The head man’s duties are to estimate the 
wealth and resources of the chief shops in 
the cities, excepting, it is said, those of 
tailors and other artisans. He goes around 
to the owners of these shops, and bargains 
with them until they come to satisfactory 
terms. Two slips of paper, one green and 
the other red,, are then pasted up in the 
shop, on which are set forth the head man’s 
name, the amount of blackmail agreed 
upon, the days of payment, and a warning 
to the fraternity not to annoy the shop¬ 
keeper. The shop is thus protected, for 
the time being, against molestation by this 
man’s tribe; but if the owner refuses to 
come to terms, the consequences are disas¬ 
trous, for a crowd of ragged, filthy, brazen¬ 
faced, stentorian-voiced beggars is let loose 
upon him, and the transaction of business 
is rendered almost, if not quite, impossible, 
until at length, in his despair, he gladly 
agrees to pay a heavier contribution than at 
first demanded. The payment thus made 
by large shops is from $7.50 to $8.50 a 
year. 

Only men are admitted into the beggars’ 
clubs or guilds, and they all draw from the 
funds, accumulated as before described, cer¬ 
tain stipulated sums, according to their? 
abilities. The ceremonies attending births* 
marriages and deaths furnish the beggars 
with great opportunities. If a wedding be 
going on, they appear, shouting, “Good luck, 
to you! may you grow in wealth and in¬ 
crease in honors! May your halls be filled 
with gold and precious stones! May you 
have numerous sons and daughters! Good 


452 


JVo1e\x)orthy Facts of All JWations 


luck to you, good luck to you!” On receiv¬ 
ing a small gratuity they depart; but only 
to reappear the next day, and, after the ex- 
pression of further congratulatory senti¬ 
ments, to demand the fragments of the mar¬ 
riage feast. Much the same takes jDlace 
after funeral feasts, and on such occasions 
it sometimes happens that a considerable 
sum has to be distributed among the beggars 
before they will allow the burial or ances¬ 
tral sacrifice to proceed without interrup¬ 
tion. To attain their end, they will even go 
to the length of getting into the grave and 
preventing the coffin from being lowered. 

The following is a curious use to which 
beggars are sometimes turned. When a very 
irate creditor is weary of his debtor’s delay, 
and cares more to annoy the man than to 
possess his money, he gives his bill to these 
beggars, compounding, perhaps, for part of 
the spoils; and sends them day by day to 
worry the miserable debtor into settling the 
account. Among their other means of gain¬ 
ing a living, beggars are employed to bury 
criminals after an execution; others, again, 
act the parts of shipwrecked sailors, etc., 
etc., and spread before them on the ground a 
harrowing description of their supposed 
sufferings. Some attach wisps of straw to 
their children, implying thereby that, in¬ 
consequence of the extreme distress of the 
parents, they were for sale; though, if the 
truth were known, it would probably be 
found that these very children had been be- 
fore hired to be pinched, and made to cry in 
order to excite pity. 

Another class goes by the name of “high- 
flower people,” but, notwithstanding their 
high-sounding title, they are decidedly a 
grade lower than the former class. They 
live in the outer courts of certain temples, 
and consist mainly of refugees from other 


districts. These poor wretches have their 
regular sources of income as well as the for¬ 
mer class. In the middle of the seventh 
% , 

moon, when sacrifices are offered to the 
spirits from the tombs, who are then sup¬ 
posed to be maliciously using their brief 
month’s holiday to sow sickness broadcast, 
these poor beggars come and claim the re¬ 
mains of the feast, which, after all, is but a 
scanty one. 

The third class of beggars is that for 
which an asylum is provided. This is called 
by names signifying asylum for the father¬ 
less and distressed, or asylum for relief. 
These beggars are not able-bodied, like most 
of the others, but are blind, lame, or 
maimed, or suffering from wounds, com¬ 
monly self-inflicted. They often blind 
themselves to attract pity, when they are too 
lazy to earn an honest and independent live¬ 
lihood. Besides actual self-mutilation, of 
which we could quote numerous instances, 
these beggars are not one whit behind their 
European confreres in simulating frac¬ 
tures, wounds, etc., ‘and so crafty and skil¬ 
ful are they, that their devices need very 
careful inspection before the hideous im¬ 
posture can be unmasked. 

The number of beggars in some Chinese 
towns is almost incredible; in Eingpo, for 
instance, a city in which the population is 
estimated at 115,000, they are said to 
amount to between 10,000 and 11,000. 
There is no national system for relieving 
them, and they are left to do very nearly 
as they like, no Chinese statesman having 
as vet had the courage to deal with the 
difficult question efficiently. In former 
days, at Peking, the government used to 
keep up certain small tenements for their 
shelter, which were called “feather houses,” 
from their being furnished with quantities 


JVotetovorthy Facts of All JVationr 


453 


of feathers to impart a little warmth to 
their wretched occupants in the piercing 
cold of a northern winter. 

The Chinese beggar is incorrigible. He 
seems thoroughly to enjoy his wretched 
and squalid mode of living; and for the 
present at least, nothing that benevolent 
and philanthropic foreigners can do will 
avail much towards the diminution of men* 
dicancy in the empire. That Chinese beg- 


well-paved streets; handsome buildings, 
parks and gardens; theaters and concert 
halls; a railway station, and, perhaps, 
more significant of all, five stone piers, each 
from a quarter to a half mile in length, and 
provided with railway tracks, warehouses, 
and elevators. The Russian Government 
has shown that the Americans are not the 
only people who can run up boom towns. 

The peculiarity of Dalny, however, is 



VLADIVOSTOK HARBOR, THE CHIEF RUSSIAN HARBOR ON THE PACIFIC. 


gars are happy in their way there can be no 
doubt, as witness some of their sayings: 
“Three years a beggar, who would he a 
kins:?” and “The finest rice has not charms 
equal to roving liberty.” 

C* S 

RUSSIA’S PORT ON THE PACIFIC 

Twice in the history of Russia has the 
Czar decreed a city into being. Two hun¬ 
dred years ago it. was St. Petersburg, on 
the banks of the Neva. To-day it is Dalny, 
off the Yellow Sea, on Talienwan Bay. 

In 1889 there was nothing at Dalny ex¬ 
cept a deep and spacious harbor. By 1902 
there was a population of 50,000; broad, 


that for a boom town it is suspiciously sub¬ 
stantial. It was built with an eye to the 
future. When three years old it looked 
more like an old resident than a squatter. 
It gave one the impression that the Russian 
“provisional” occupation of Manchuria 
was a mate to the English “provisional” 
occupation of Egypt. Both these occupa¬ 
tions are not so much provisional as pro¬ 
visional. 

Dalny means “Far Away.” It is about 
6,000 miles from St. Petersburg. It has a 
continuous connection by railway to that 
city. From St. Petersburg to Dalny by the 
Suez Canal it is forty-five days. Overland 
by rail it becomes about fifteen. Almost 












454 


J^oletMOrthy Facts of Alt Rations 


the same proportionate reduction can be 
made in the traffic from Berlin, Paris and 
London. With that traffic established, 
steamers will ply from Dalny to Shanghai 
and Nagasaki. With the route to the Par 
East via Irkutsk, Russia may begin to re¬ 
coup herself for the four or five hundred 
million dollars spent since 1891 in the con¬ 
struction of her Transsiberian Railway sys¬ 
tem. 

The natural advantages of Dalny are 
striking. The largest ocean-going vessels 
can steam into the harbor wfithout the aid 
of a pilot and proceed directly to the new 
piers. There is no danger of ice blockades 
at anv time. Navigation is clear all twelve 
months. Port Arthur is only forty-five 
miles away. Seoul, Wei-Hai-Wei, and 
other strategic points are not far distant. 
The commerce of the east cannot fail to 


transact a large part of its current through 
the new ports. 

Dalny has no custom-house. According 
to the Russian authorities, it is to lie open 
to the merchant marine of the world. It is 
to illustrate the “open door” idea in its 
widest sense. The world received this an¬ 
nouncement with some misgivings. Shakes¬ 
peare has expressed his opinion of foolish 
curs that run winking in the mouths of 
Russian bears and get their heads crushed 
like rotten apples. It is never safe to pre¬ 
sume too much on Russian inducements. 
But it is still a free port, and there is no 
reason why American traders should not 
enter by the Dalny open door as long as it 
remains open. 

The ultimate fate of Dalny will be a 
matter of no very little interest. It is not 
every city founded by rescript or ukase that 



WINTER SCENE IN A KIRGHIZ VILLAGE—SOUTHWESTERN SIBERIA. 











fl otebuorthy Facts of A // fiat ions 


455 


lives. Such attempts to raise autocratic 
power above social and economic forces are 
often futile. The cities of Genghis Khan 
and other Oriental conquerors hardly sur¬ 
vived their builders. Alexandria, on the 
other hand, has endured to the present day. 
There is no general rule. Some artificially 
created cities thrive. Others do not. What 
Dalny will do, or fail to do in the future 
will concern all nations that have interests 
in the Orient, and that means all the great 
nations of the world. 

3 <£ 

KOREA AND ITS AWAKENING 

The little Empire of Korea always stands 
with the threat of international warfare 
hanging over it. The location of Korea has 
made it a hone of contention between its 
Asiatic neighbors for many centuries, and 
when the European powers fixed covetous 
eyes upon it, its position became even more 
precarious. Japanese and Chinese influ¬ 
ence have struggled for favor in Korea for 
a long time, although the Chinese strength 
in the peninsula has been far greater in the 
past. In 1894, Japanese influence had be¬ 
come dominant at the Korean court and the 
result of the contentions and jealousies that 
arose was the war between China and 
Japan, fought over Korean controversies 
and upon Korean soil. Since then, the 
eraduallv reduced strength of China in all 
international affairs tended to leave Korea 
more at the disposal of Japan, until the 
European powers began to thrust their own 
interests forward and take a hand in the 
affair. 

Then Russia and England became prime 
factors in the struggle. The Russians’ oc¬ 
cupation of Manchuria brought them into 


contact with Korea along the whole north¬ 
ern frontier of the little Empire, and gave 
them an immense advantage in whatever 
they should attempt. The succession of 
treaties dealing with affairs in the Orient, 
by which Japan and Great Britain became 
allies and France and Russia renewed and 
emphasized their own alliance, was stimu¬ 
lated no less by the Korean situation than 
by the Manchurian. Japan yearned to make 
Korea her own. Russia had Manchuria in 
her grasp, and it became a virtual moral 
certainty that the day of relinquishment of 
the Chinese province would be slow in com¬ 
ing if it ever came. So the threat grew 
that some day we might see the next great 
international war upon Korean soil for su¬ 
premacy in the Orient. 

Backward as the little peninsular empire 
is, its possibilities are considerable and its 
natural resources important. The people 
are frugal and industrious like all of the 
Mongol race, but they have little knowledge 
of the rest of the world and the progress of 
civilization. The population varies from 
8,000,000 to 16,000,000 and the estimated 
area is 82,000 square miles. As far as its 
developments go, Korea is a purely agricul¬ 
tural country and the methods of cultiva¬ 
tion are of a backward and primitive type, 
the means of the communication being 
few and difficult. Rice, wheat, beans, 
tobacco, barley, millet and oats, are grown. 
Gold, copper, iron and coal abound. Trans¬ 
port in the interior is by pack horses 
and oxen. There are a few telegraph 
lines in the country, mostly in Japa¬ 
nese hands, a postoffice has been estab¬ 
lished, and a railway to the capital, Seoul, 
is under construction by an American syn¬ 
dicate. The Koreans’ own name for their 
country is “the land of the morning calm,” 



BAYONET EXERCISE WITH OSCILLATING DUMMIES IN THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 

These oscillating dummies are placed on the top of entrenchments, which the soldiers scale. After they 
deliver their blows the soldiers, going through the ranks of their silent victims, place them¬ 
selves in skirmishing order. 












457 


ffotekvorthy Facts of Alt flattens 


The introduction of western methods and 
ideas, and the struggle of western powers 
for control of the country, promise to make 
that phrase a misnomer before many years 
have passed. 

j* 

THE TEMPLES AT NIKKO, JAPAN 

At Nikko are the most famous and the 
most elegant temples, in the highest state of 
preservation, placed in scenery at once 
grand and beautiful. These costly works 
of art are not so much temples to-day as 
national monuments. No words can convey 
an idea of their elegance or the richness of 
their decoration. No European cathedral 
or palace can compare with them in the lat¬ 
ter respect. Of course they lack the majes¬ 


tic proportions of the famous Christian 
churches, but in variety, originality and 
richness of ornamentation they surpass the 
finest production of European builders. 
Many of them have substructures of stone, 
but the rich effects are produced by bronze 
and lacquer work, and by such carving as 
only Japanese artists have accomplished. 
The carvings are generally on the exteriors. 
Many are grotesque but all are full of life 
and action. In one place there is a frieze 
of large monkeys, one of which presses his 
paws upon his lips, another on his ears and 
a third on his eyes; also a sleeping cat over 
a gateway, so lifelike that one expects to see 
her move if disturbed. Outside and inside 
the most charming harmonies of color ar¬ 
rest the attention. 



NIKKO, JAPAN, GARDEN SCENE. 









458 


ffolebuorthy Facts of All flatioru 


We advance from court to court through 
these wonderful gateways, finding each 
more beautiful than the others; and around 
all and among all the stately cryptomerias, 
adorning a stone stairway here and stretch¬ 
ing to right and left in grand avenues. No¬ 
where else may one see such combinations 
of nature and art. As we advance we con¬ 
stantly ascend, opening new vistas continu¬ 
ally, and after we leave the last court of the 
temple there are 200 stone steps, divided 
into four great stairways, which lead up to 
the mausoleum of Ieyasu. 


The tomb itself, shaped like a small pa¬ 
goda, is a single bronze casting of a light 
color, produced by the admixture of gold. 
The accessories include a stone table, bear¬ 
ing an immense bronze stork with a brass 
candlestick in its mouth, an incense burner 
of bronze, and a vase with artificial lotus 
flowers and leaves in brass. Turning from 
this, we pass on to other temples, through 
other stately avenues and spacious courts, 
to the mausoleum of Iemitsu, equally beau¬ 


tiful, though less profusely decorated. You 
must imagine those peculiar temple gates 
of granite and bronze, great stone lanterns, 
huge bells, stone fountains, so finely leveled 
that the water flows over every inch of their 
circumference in a silver film, the rich 
colors of the bronze and the lacquerwork, 
the latter sometimes vividly red, leaping 
cascades, colossal sculptures, and, above all, 
the enormous trunks and the graceful foli¬ 
age of the trees. To see the temple on a 
moonlight night, the vision of beauty is 
far beyond any dream of fairyland. The 

floors of the temples 
are either shining with 
lacquer or covered by 
immaculate mats, and 
the visitor is obliged to 
remove his boots at the 
threshold, putting on a 
pair of soft-soled slip¬ 
pers. These structures 
extend over hundreds 
of acres, and there are 
miles of stately avenues. 
The amount of human 
labor expended here, 
and generally labor of 
a high order of artis¬ 
tic skill, is sometimes 
enormous. The richness 
of the materials used is also to be consid¬ 
ered. It is estimated that these temples 
could not be reproduced to-day for $50,- 
000,000. They are visited by thousands 
of pilgrims, who show all the outward 
forms of devotion. Certain it is that the 
opportunity to see such works of art must 
be an esthetic education. 

The ethical instruction is rude, but it 
seems to include all that is considered es¬ 
sential by the great body of Christians. 














JWotebvorthy Facts of Alt Rations 


459 


They have a supreme god, Amida, and 
many subordinate deities, to whom they ap¬ 
peal for special blessings. They have a sys¬ 
tem of rewards and punishments after 
death, and the most elaborate philosophy of 
prayer. They are taught deference, charity, 
kindness, honesty, veracity. The result of 
this teaching is a kindly, urbane, docile 
people, comparing favorably in all the fun¬ 
damental virtues with any western people. 

**< & 

SECRET SOCIETIES IN THE 
PHILIPPINES 

Where large numbers are in deepest sym¬ 
pathy with a given political movement, and 
when to espouse that cause means persecu¬ 
tion or death, it mav be certain that there 
will be a conspiracy under the protective 
oaths of a secret society. 

Under the oppression of Spain, the Kati- 
punan society was formed in 1894, by Dr. 
Jose Rizal, the martyr, patriot, hero and 
poet of the Philippines. Within a year it 



FILIPINOS IN MANILA HOSPITAL. 



AMERICAN SOLDIERS IN THE PHILIPPINES. 


enrolled 50,000 sworn able-bodied men as 
members, and by them was fought the stub¬ 
born war against the Spaniards until the 
battle of Manila. This society was simply 
a modified form of freemasonrv. Father 

c/ 

Coleman, an American priest of the Domin¬ 
ican order, long in the Philippines, says 
this: 

“Freemasonry, as the world knows, has 
been the principal cause of the social dis¬ 
order in the Philippines. The Masons in¬ 
stigated the natives to make war on the 
clergy and the Spaniards.” 

The hostility may be estimated by the 
fact that there were at one time 3,000 Ma¬ 
sons in dungeons at Manila. In order to 
free Masonry from the political stigma, the 
Ivatipunan society was organized. Its cere¬ 
monies w r ere of a dread and impressive 
character, full of oriental mysticism, de¬ 
signed to impress the initiate and direct his 
vengeance against the usurpers. The sign 
of the order was the scar from an incision 
in the left forearm or below the left knee, 
and with the blood therefrom, or with blood 
pricked from the third finger of the left 
hand, the constitution was signed. It was 
















460 


ffotetovorthy Facts of All JWations 


very similar in its operations to the Car¬ 
bonari of Italy. 

Dr. Iiizal was at last suspected of being 
at the head of the society. lie was arrested 
and shot, while the band played rollicking 
airs and the Spanish ladies looked on and 
applauded. It was on Dec. 6, 1896, when 

he was led to execution from the side of a 

* 

lovely girl who was made his bride while 
the soldiers were loading their muskets. 

From Spanish persecution she was com¬ 
pelled to fly to the camps of the insurgents, 
where she was well nigh worshipped as the 
wife of their martyr-hero. In the bloody 
battle against the Spaniards at Silan she 
led the last charge, but they were driven 
back by the superior numbers and arms. 
Since 1900, she has been in charge of one 
of the public schools in Manila. 

BORNEO AND ITS WHITE 
RAJAH 

Borneo is a little larger than the state of 
Texas, and was the home of the worst sav¬ 
ages of the Malay Archipelago. The in¬ 
terior of Borneo was long ruled by the Dyak 
head-hunters, who were docile, friendly and 
trustworthy beyond many of the other 
Malays, but whose religion taught them 
that every person they decapitated would 
be their slave in the next world. 

At the opening of the nineteenth century, 
there was a fierce rivalry among the mari¬ 
time nations for the control of the pirate- 
infested islands of the Malays, on account 
of the spice and cotfee trade. The first 
compromise was that the Dutch were left 
unmolested in Java, the English held Ma¬ 
lacca and the Malay peninsula, while Su¬ 
matra, Borneo and Papua were left to the 
savage natives. 


In 1838 the son of an English clergyman, 
being of an adventurous spirit, sailed up 
one of the many small streams of Borneo 
with a little schooner having about a dozen 
sailors. He was burning with the ambition 
to emulate Pizarro and Cortez. He had the 
courage, for he had been wounded in one of 
the desperate battles of India, decorated for 
bravery and discharged cn a pension before 
he was twenty-one. Fate caused him to 
land at Sarawak, which was governed by an 
old rajah who w T as apparently about to be 
overwhelmed by the Dyaks. 

The young man’s chance was here. He 
offered to conquer the Dyaks if the Rajah 
would make him general over all the mili¬ 
tary forces and direct heir to the throne. 
The Rajah had no intention of keeping his 
word, but all that was asked by the Eng¬ 
lishman was solemnly promised. Young 
Brooke put each one of his sailors over an 
equal force of natives and soon succeeded 
in crushing the power of the Dyaks. The 
Rajah then ordered Brooke and his men to 
leave the territory, but Brooke appealed to 
the Sultan of the islands to confirm the 
justly-won promises. To the surprise of the 
English, in reply a courier came from 
Kuching, the capital, who proceeded to dis¬ 
miss the old Rajah and to install Brooke 
in his place. The Englishman now had 
his wish and was king of Sarawak. 

The head-hunters soon became his most 
devoted subjects. However, his people 
lived by piracy, w 7 ere polygamists and slave¬ 
holders, therefore his task of Christian gov¬ 
ernment was an appalling one. In five 
years he had civilized the people as far as 
justice was concerned, and had established 
a system of schools, churches and courts. 
At the end of ten years there was not a 
nook or corner in his dominions which was 


461 


/Noteworthy FacU of All JNations 


not yielding him faithful allegiance and 
obedience. 

Ihen he visited England, where he was 
the lion of the day. He was banqueted by 
boards of trade and given the freedom of 
the cities. He was lodged in Balmoral Cas¬ 
tle and knighted by the Queen. He died in 
1868 and was buried with great honor in 
England. His nephew, who had been his 
faithful companion for many years, suc¬ 
ceeded him and is now the white Rajah of 
Sarawak. 

THREE CENTURIES OF WAR IN 
THE EAST INDIES 

A war that has been going on for 300 
years, is the conspicuous fact in the his¬ 
tory of the Dutch colonies in the East In¬ 
dies. Lying to the southeast of Asia, and 
extending almost to the Australian coast, 
is that great archipelago of tropical fertil¬ 
ity which has contributed so generously to 
the wealth and prosperity of the little king¬ 
dom of the Netherlands. The total popula¬ 
tion of the Dutch East Indies, according to 
the last returns, is approximately 35,000,- 
000, or seven times as great as that of the 
mother country, while the area is about 
735,000 square miles, or more than sixty 
times that of Holland itself. It was in 
1602 that the Dutch created their East In¬ 
dia Company, which conquered the islands 
and ruled them during nearly two centuries 
until in 1798 the company dissolved and 
government was assumed by the Dutch 
kingdom. There are a dozen or more of the 
islands of which the area much exceeds that 
of Holland itself. Java, Sumatra, Borneo, 
Celebes, and New Guinea are the more fa¬ 
mous of these great tropical islands, but of 
these Borneo and New Guinea are not en¬ 


tirely owned by the Dutch, as Germany and 
England have large possessions there also. 

In spite of the schools, the churches, the 
increased commerce and prosperity of the 
islands, the careful administration of jus¬ 
tice and the honest and intelligent colonial 
government to which Dutch publicists point 
with pride, they have not been able in three 
centuries yet to overcome the resistance of 
large elements of the native population to 
alien rule. For three centuries the Dutch 
have been in absolute control of the islands 
as far as their relations with other coun¬ 
tries are concerned, directing all of their 
industrial and agricultural development 
and maintaining authority by a large colo¬ 
nial army, partly brought from Holland 
and partly recruited from the friendly na¬ 
tive races. In spite of this long period of 
control, there are large areas in these great 
islands which are pacified only as far as the 
range of the Dutch rifles extends. They 
have garrisoned military posts at intervals, 
and the territory immediately surrounding 
these posts is peaceably accessible to the 
Dutch tax collector and safe for the visit of 
the traveler. But in the depths of the trop¬ 
ical forests, out of reach of protection from 
the soldiery, the white man is not safe. 
These races who have been fighting for 
their freedom from Dutch rule for 300 
years of bitter and ofttimes cruel warfare, 
are akin to the Moros and the other more 
warlike tribes of the Philippine Islands. It 
is not a pleasant prospect for us to face in 
contemplating the course of our own his¬ 
tory in the Orient, as it is to be developed 
within the next few years, but inasmuch as 
this experience of the Dutch harmonizes so 
exactly with that of the Spanish who had 
been themselves fighting in the Philippines 
for as long a period, the lesson should not 



Copyright, 1901, by Paris Medicine Co., St. Louis, U. S. A. 

QUININE (CHINCHONA LEDGE RIAN A) TREES (PERUVIAN BARK). 

It is these trees which produce the Peruvian Bark, or Quinine of Commerce. 





















/Noteworthy Facts of All /Nations 


463 


be lost upon us. Holland has poured mil¬ 
lions of dollars into the effort to subdue 
their rebellious subjects in the East Indies, 
and although the tropical products which 
have brought wealth from the colonies to 
the little kingdom have more than compen¬ 
sated this money cost, there are thousands 
of killed and wounded and diseased soldiers 
every decade to be reckoned as the largest 
item in the price of colonial power in the 
Orient. 

et £ 

THE UNITED STATES OF 
AUSTRALIA 

With the first year of the twentieth cen¬ 
tury, a new commonwealth was born into 
the family of nations, so nearly a nation 
itself as to justify a warm welcome into the 
sisterhood. Away down in the South Pa¬ 
cific Ocean, the British Colonies which have 
been known as Australasia have federated, 
and have formed a great union not unlike 
the union of the American Colonies into the 
United States of America. The onlv one 

V 

of these far-away colonies omitted in the 
consolidation, is New Zealand, which lying 
more than a thousand miles to the eastward 
of the Australian continent, and having 
many diverse interests, decided that in its 
^case independence was better than union. 
In the Commonwealth of Australia, there¬ 
fore, are united the five continental colonies 
of New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, 
South Australia and Western Australia, 
and the little island to the southward of the 
continent, called Tasmania. In organizing 
their government, these federated colonies 
went through inanv of the same difficulties 
and faced similar problems to those that 
■were solved by our own colonial fathers in 
the days when they were organizing the 


union of the states from the federated colo¬ 
nies. Meeting the same conditions as they 
did in many details, the Australian states¬ 
men studied with care the form of the 
American government and used our polit¬ 
ical history to draw from it such lessons as 
were applicable to their own situation. 

As with us, the individual colonies thus 
becoming the states of the Commonwealth 
of Australia retain their own control of 
their own internal affairs, simply yielding 
such functions to the national government 
as can best be administered by the general 
organization. As in our country, each state 
has its own governor, local legislature, ex¬ 
ecutive department, and judiciary depart¬ 
ment. As with us, too, the national govern¬ 
ment of Australia has the same organization 
of two legislative bodies, an upper and a 
lower house, in its parliament, and its own 
executive department and courts for na¬ 
tional affairs. One conspicuous difference, • 
however, comes from the fact that in 
Australia, as in most other free countries 
except our own, parliamentary government 
exists above the executive, and a changed 
majority in parliament requires the change 
of executive and the formation of a new 
ministry or cabinet. 

In our own country, as is, of course, 
clearly understood, the President and his 
cabinet of personal appointees may and do 
hold office through the term of his election, 
irrespective of the partisan character of con¬ 
gress, or the changing opinions of the coun¬ 
try at large as expressed in intervening elec¬ 
tions. This, therefore, results in the con¬ 
dition that the President may be an ad¬ 
herent of one political party, while congress 
has a working majority of the opposition. 
Under such circumstances, legislation be¬ 
comes virtually blockaded, for the legisla- 


464 


flfotetvorthy Facts o_f Af* JVationA 


tive and the executive must be in agreement 
under our system, before legislation can 
find its way to the statute books. 

This kind of a deadlock cannot occur in 
a country which is governed by the parlia¬ 
mentary system, with what is known as a 
responsible ministry. The governor-gen¬ 
eral in such a country as Australia is not, 
in fact, the executive, but a virtual figure¬ 
head, with important social and personal 
functions, but little influence and no author- 
itv over the affairs of the country. When 
parliament is elected, with a certain polit¬ 
ical majority of one party or the other in 
control, the governor-general calls the rec¬ 
ognized and admitted leader of the party 
in control and delegates to him the forma¬ 
tion of a ministry. The leader thus desig¬ 
nated becomes the premier, and may at his 
own choice assume whatever portfolio in 
the cabinet he desires. In effect, the pre¬ 
mier then becomes the chief executive of 
the country, and remains so until a parlia¬ 
mentary majority should be cast against 
some measure which he proposes or in the 
form of a vote of “no confidence.” When 
that occurs, he must resign with his cabinet, 
when the leader of the opposition which has 
now become the majority is in turn called 
to form a ministry. The alternative before a 
premier thus defeated in parliament, in¬ 
stead of resigning, is for him to “appeal to 
the country,” as the saying is, by calling a 
new election. In the event that he is sus¬ 
tained by the popular verdict in his favor, 
as would be demonstrated if a majority of 
parliament again voted in his support, he 
would still hold his office. 

The fact that the premier and all his 
fellow members of the ministry must be 
members of one or the other house of parlia¬ 
ment, serving in their places as do the other 


members, makes it possible and necessary 
for them to enter into debate when measures 
are under discussion to support their par¬ 
ties’ position. At the same time they are 
more readily subject to be questioned and 
criticised by their fellow members of par¬ 
liament than they would be if they were at 
long range, sequestered in their department 
offices. It is evident that the Australian 
system, or, more broadly speaking, the 
system of responsible ministries and parlia¬ 
mentary governments, makes the legislation 
of the country and the acts of the executive 
much more promptly amenable to the pub¬ 
lic will than can be true under our own 
system, where both legislatures and execu¬ 
tives are elected for a fixed term of office. 
Whether or not this is an advantage may be 
left to the individual judgment of the 
reader. Beyond question, there are points 
in favor of both systems. 

The Australian Commonwealth is going 
through difficulties in the way of selecting 
a capital not unlike those which our own 
republic faced in its young days. Just as 
Hew York, Baltimore, Philadelphia, and 
our other important colonial cities strove 
for the honor, so have Adelaide, Melbourne, 
Sydney, and Brisbane sought for the dis¬ 
tinction in Australia. And just as with us 
a compromise was effected, a new site 
chosen where no city was, and a new fed¬ 
eral district created to be entirely under 
the control of congress and not subject to 
the authority of any state, so Australians 
have solved their problem. They have de¬ 
cided that the federal capital shall be within 
the State of Hew South Wales, which is 
known as the mother colony of Australasia, 
but not within 200 miles of Sydney, the 
metropolis of the continent. Until the final 
selection of this favored spot shall be made, 


465 


JVotetvorthy FacU of All JVations 


Melbourne is to be the commonwealth cap¬ 
ital temporarily. The presumption is that 
Albury will be the fortunate town selected 
for the permanent capital. Albury is a 
picturesque and thriving town on the banks 
of the Murray River, which here forms the 
boundary between New South Wales and 
Victoria, the two most populous colonies. 
The railway systems of the two colonies 
meet here, and a great railway bridge unites 
them. Here will be established a federal 
district under parliamentary control, not 
subject to the government of either state, 
and here, if Australian expectations are ful¬ 
filled, will grow up a city to rival our own 
Washington in its architectural beauty and 
political importance. 

A new nation not only needs a constitu- 
tion and a capital, but a flag as well, and 
the choosing of the emblem aroused the ut¬ 
most interest throughout the commonwealth. 
A prize of $1,000 was offered for the best 
design, and more than 30,000 suggestions 
came in to the office where the competition 
was directed. The difficult task of making 
a final selection was entrusted to a commit¬ 
tee of naval experts. The same design had 
been submitted by five competitors, so that 
each received $200 as his share of the 
award. The Union Jack occupies the upper 
corner of the flag, at the staff. A large six- 
pointed star under it denotes the six states 
of the federation, and the Southern Cross, 
that beautiful constellation known to every 
traveler in the southern hemisphere, is 
marked on the other end of the flag. This 
new flac is one with which we are likelv to 
become familiar, for the trade between Aus¬ 
tralia and the United States is increasing 
with great rapidity. The Australians are 
among the most enterprising of people. 
They have a continent of enormous re¬ 


sources, hardly beginning to be developed, 
and their commerce is the largest, per cap¬ 
ita, of all the countries in the world, so that 
ve are quite justified in maintaining the 
most cordial relations with our neighbor 
commonwealth in the South Pacific. 

< 3 * <£ 

NEW ZEALAND, THE LAND OP 
LIBERAL LAWS 

We are accustomed to speak of China and 
Australia as the antipodes, and yet, as a 
matter of fact, those countries are not our 
antipodes at all. The exact opposite to the 
central portion of the Tinted States of 
America is found away down in the Indian 
Ocean, about half way between Australia 
and Madagascar. Down in the South Pa¬ 
cific Ocean, however, is the island colony 
of Great Britain named New Zealand. The 
peojile of New Zealand like to call their 
country the Great Britain of the south, 
and there are many points in common be¬ 
tween the two countries which suggest the 
parallel. New Zealand, like Great Britain, 
is an island country, composed of two large 
islands, virtually the exact geographical 
antipode of Great Britain itself, and with 
the population as entirely English, Irish, 
and Scotch, as are the British Isles. Even 
the manners of life, the industries and the 
products are very similar, and the climate 
itself of New Zealand is not unlike that of 
Great Britain, although slightly warmer 
both in winter and in summer. 

One detail in which New Zealand is a 
genuine opposite of Great Britain is in 
its legislation on industrial and financial 
questions. New Zealand is as radical as 
Great Britain is conservative, and the island 
colony has been called by one student “the 


466 


JVotetvorthy Facts of All JVfations 


economic laboratory of the world.” Tbe 
youngest of Great Britain’s self-governing 
colonies as it is, New Zealand has made 
practical trial of a great many experiments 
in social reforms which people elsewhere 
have been contented to talk about. In the 
more conspicuous of these successful experi¬ 
ments, is the prevention of strikes by the 
compulsory arbitration law. In the period 
of seven years since compulsory arbitration 
was put into practice, the country has pros¬ 
pered and profited by it to a remarkable 
degree. In every detail the prophecies of 
failure have been contradicted. In the be¬ 
ginning the opponents of the law declared 
that nobody would submit labor disputes to 


a court for settlement; but instead of that, 
everybody has been ready to appeal to the 
law at the first sign of diffculty. It was 
declared also that no one would submit to 
the judgments of the arbitration court ex¬ 
cept the ones who were favored by the de¬ 
cisions. Yet in practice it has proved that 
the rulings of the courts have been accepted 
by both parties alike. It was prophesied, 
last of all, that such an experiment would 
cause the withdrawal of capital, the destruc¬ 
tion of the credit of the country, and the 
collapse of its infant industries. Instead, 
exports have increased 35 per cent per cap¬ 
ita in the seven years, the number of per¬ 
sons employed in factories and workshops 



CAUGHT BY A SHARK; THE FATE OF A DIVING BOY. 

'At Aden on the Arabian coast, as in other tropical ports, boys come out to the steamers in harbor to 
dive for pennies which passengers throw into the water. Sharks infest the water. The snap¬ 
shot was taken just as a great shark seized a diving boy and the horrible scene 
is clearly depicted. The boy’s companion is horror-stricken, 
but the others do not know yet what has happened. 



467 


Sfotebuorthy Facts of A>ll Stations 


lias doubled, and the increase of wealth and 
prosperity has not been confined to a few 
capitalists, but the mass of the population 
has reaped the benefit. In the seven years 
the number of persons with money in the 
savings bank has increased from 150,000 to 
240,000, and the savings have increased 
from $20,000,000 to $35,000,000. 

Of course not all of these improved con¬ 
ditions can be credited solely to the arbitra¬ 
tion law, for New Zealand is progressive in 
its legislation in other ways. Nevertheless 
this law has been a most effective influence 
in removing the causes of strife between 
employer and employees, and New Zealand 
has become virtually a country without 
strikes. New Zealand likewise has an old 
age pension law, government life insurance, 
compulsory sale of real estate when wanted 
for settlement and postal savings banks. 

Four out of six state Parliaments of Aus¬ 
tralia have adopted similar laws after ob¬ 
serving the good effects of the New Zealand 
act. It is declared by New Zealanders that 
in the seven years this great social and eco¬ 
nomic experiment has substituted peace and 
good feeling for industrial war and bitter¬ 
ness; has converted a large majority of its 
bitterest opponents into supporters; has 
steadily and with amazing rapidity in¬ 
creased the production of the colony and 
the wealth of all classes of its people; and 
finally has so impressed the people of the 
countries nearest to it and best able to judge 
of its effects, that they are one by one adopt¬ 
ing its provisions for themselves. Inasmuch 
as the relations of capital and labor form 
one of the most conspicuous problems which 
we have to face in this country, it is impor¬ 
tant to observe the results of such experi¬ 
ments elsewhere as may throw light upon 
our own puzzles. 


TUTUILA, OUR SAMOAN ISLAND 

One of the smallest of American island 
possessions in the tropics, although not the 
least interesting, is Tutuila, in the Samoan 
group. There is one feature about the 
American ownership of this little island in 
the South Pacific which makes it note¬ 
worthy among all our outlying depend¬ 
encies. This is that the people are without 
exception friendly to the United States, 
their friendship having been established 
during years of international jealousies and 
strife over the possession of the group, dur¬ 
ing which time this country always stood 
for the natives themselves, as against those 
who would absorb their country. 

The Samoan Islands lie some 2,400 miles 
southwest of Honolulu and 1,600 miles 
northeast of Auckland, New Zealand. 
Apia, on Upolu, the largest island, has been 
the capital of the group and the chief com¬ 
mercial town, being the port of call for 
steamships and the place where all of the 
white traders made their headquarters. At 
the same time it was the center of the fac¬ 
tional fights between the rivals for the Sa¬ 
moan throne, and consequently for the 
machinations of the powers seeking foot¬ 
hold there. Robert Louis Stevenson, who 
sought the restoration of his health in this 
balmy island, and remained there until his 
death, has written of these political strug¬ 
gles in a book called “Eight Years of 
Trouble in Samoa.” Here in the harbor of 
Apia occurred that disastrous hurricane 
fifteen years ago, which resulted in the loss 
of three German and three American men- 
of-war, and the death of a large number 
of sailors of the two navies. 

But now apparently the warlike troubles 
of the Samoans are over. They have lost 


468 


JVotetvorthy Facts of All Stations 


their political identity as a nation, as the 
price of peace and protection from two 
great governments. The United States ac¬ 
quired the little island of Tutuila, and to 
Germany the rest of the group was ceded. 
It is on our American island that we al¬ 
ready had important rights gained by the 
treaty with the Samoans themselves thirty 
years ago. Here is the harbor of Pango- 
Pango, the best harbor, so navigators de¬ 
clare, of any in the Pacific Islands. Here 
we established a coaling station and a naval 
supply station. Here, too, is the port of 
call for transpacific steamers plying be¬ 
tween San Francisco and Australia. As 
the years pass, therefore, Apia will lose its 
importance to Americans and Pango-Pango 
will rise. The island of Tutuila has an 


area of about seventy square miles and a 
population of 4,000. Tropical vegetation 
of all kinds grows luxuriantly, and the 
only commerce of importance is the export 
of tropical fruits and their products, most 
important of which is copra, the dried meat 
of the cocoanut, from which cosmetics and 
toilet preparations are made. 

J* V* 

HAWAII, “ THE PARADISE OP 
THE PACIFIC ” 

Among its other great possessions the 
United States now claims ownership of the 
largest of all volcanoes in the world. Out 
in the Pacific Ocean, 2,000 miles south¬ 
west of San Francisco, lies the Hawaiian 
group of thirteen islands, the eight larger 



GRASS THATCHED HOUSE IN TAHITI—SOUTH PACIFIC OCEAN. 










JWotebvorthy Facts of All JVations 


of which are inhabited. Here in the tropics 
are the first of the American possessions in 
the Pacific to be reached by the traveler 
visiting Asia or Australia. They lie in 
placid waters, and the tropic breezes that 
blow around them are balmy, but their his¬ 
tory has been disturbed by many a conflict 
until the time they came into American 
ownership. It was here that Captain Cook, 
the great English navigator, lost his life 
at the hands of the natives, shortly after he 
first reached the islands in 1778. The na¬ 
tive royal house lost its control in 1893, 
when the last queen, Liliuokalani, was de¬ 
posed and the republic succeeded the mon¬ 
archy. 

The American influence has been strong 
in the islands for many years and their 
trade has been almost entirely with this 
country. Successive efforts to arrange an 
annexation failed in turn, until in 1898, 
during the Spanish-American war, the is¬ 
lands were formally annexed to this coun¬ 
try. A year later Hawaii was created a 
Territory of the United States and the 
Honorable Sanford B. Dole, who was the 
President of the Republic, was made the 
Governor of the Territory. Honolulu, with 
a population of some 40,000, is the largest 
city, the capital, and the chief commercial 
port. The products of the islands are those 
common to the tropics, but the chief indus¬ 
try is the raising of sugar. The sugar pro¬ 
duction for 1901 was valued at more than 
$27,000,000. The other articles of export 
are coffee, hides, fruits, wool and rice, but 
the total of these does not amount to 
$1,000,000. The population of the terri¬ 
tory has been decreasing ever since the dis¬ 
covery of the islands, until about ten years 
ago, since which time it has increased rap¬ 
idly by immigration. The total population 


469 

now is nearly 160,000. Of these the native 
race and the Chinese, Japanese and Portu¬ 
guese form by far the larger portion, and 
the natives are steadily diminishing in num¬ 
ber. 

Here in the Hawaiian Islands are the 
largest of all volcanoes in the world, both 
active and extinct. Mauna Loa, Mauna 
Kea, and Kilauea are the greatest of these, 
and the eruptions which occur at intervals 
are splendid spectacular sights which at¬ 
tract visitors in great number from the 
United States to witness the display. 
Mauna Loa is 13,670 feet above the sea 
level and has several craters in the great 
basin of the top, the terminal one being a 
little more than a mile and a half across, 
a veritable sea of molten rock, by far the 
largest in the world. Eruptions sometimes 
take the form of enormous fountains. One 
in February, 1859, was a sheaf of white-hot 
fluid lava two hundred feet or more in di¬ 
ameter and about 300 feet high, which illu¬ 
minated the country around to a distance 
of 150 miles. 

^ ^ 

THE LEPER ISLAND OF MOLOKAI 

A land where one does not have to pay 
taxes or rents, and where a beneficent gov¬ 
ernment provides cottages and rations, 
herds and clothing, and where not only 
blankets but even medical attendance are 
without cost, is not this a veritable Utopia? 
Yet such a land is our nearest neighbor in 
the Pacific, and is only some 2,000 miles 
distant. As one’s steamer leaving San 
Francisco approaches the Hawaiian Is¬ 
lands, before it can drop anchor in the beau¬ 
tiful harbor of Honolulu, it must needs 
pass Molokai. 

And Molokai ? Why, that is the fifth is- 


470 


flotebvorthy Pacts o_f Alt flattens 


land in size of the entire group of the Ha¬ 
waiian or Sandwich Islands, and is some 
forty miles in length with an area of about 
200,000 acres. On its eastern side are ele¬ 
vations of fully 2,500 feet, while on its 
western slopes they diminish to a height of 
about 1,000 feet. Its valleys are beautiful 
and are tilled with deer. A herd of spotted 
deer, presented by the Mikado of Japan 
some thirty years ago, were placed by the 
King of the Hawaiian Islands on Molokai, 
and now number some 3,000, roaming at 
will over a large part of the’island. Here 
are many kinds of the most luxuriant trop¬ 
ical vegetation, the balmiest air, the most 
invigorating sea-breezes, even such spicy 
breezes as blow soft o’er Ceylon’s isle. 

But though every prospect pleases, few 
persons can be induced to make their home 
on Molokai. The entire population is only 
some three thousand, and at the last census 
1,120 of these were lepers. Possibly no¬ 
where in the world is the census more care¬ 
fully taken and more accurately known than 
is the case here in the northern part of the 
island. Molokai, as is well known, is the 
name for the leper colony of Hawaii. The 
lepers do not occupy all the island, but only 
a grassy plain, a mile in length, on the north 
side of the island, and yet separated wholly 
from the rest of the island and its popula¬ 
tion by a precipice fully a thousand feet 
high, which can be scaled at only one point, 
and here it is securely guarded. 

Despite their freedom from taxation and 
rents, their ample supplies of food and 
clothing, their abundant herds of cattle and 
horses, and their fertile fields which re¬ 
quire so little labor, the lepers are virtually 
life-prisoners, shut in by the ocean on one 
side and by the impassable mountain on the 
other. Most of the lepers are natives, but 


foreigners are found among the colonies, 
and all who once come to this part of Molo¬ 
kai, save to bring supplies or to inspect, as 
the Board of Health twice each year, do so 
with the expectation of never returning. 
At a cost of some $10,000 per month, the 
Hawaiian government maintains this open- 
air leper hospital in order to perfectly quar¬ 
antine and thus finally stamp out leprosy 
among the Sandwich Islanders. Sheltered 
from the strong sea wind, this plain of Kal- 
aupapa would make an ideal place of resi¬ 
dence, alike for its beautiful surroundings 
and the salubrity of its climate; and here 
everything is done, compatible with pre¬ 
venting the spread of the disease, to make 
its unhappy victims contented. 

S 

ROBINSON CRUSOE’S ISLAND, 
JUAN EERNANDEZ 

Juan Fernandez, of Robinson Crusoe 
celebrity, is a small island in the South 
Pacific, some four or five hundred miles 
west of Valparaiso. Besides the name by 
which it is more usually known, it is also 
called Mas-a-Tierra (nearer-the-mainland), 
to distinguish it from another island nearlv 
a hundred miles farther west, and hence 
bearing the name of Mas-a-Fuera (farther- 
off-shore). It has one anchorage, Cumber¬ 
land Bay, and there, facing the sea, is the 
settlement, consisting of a few huts and a 
ruined fort. The island appears to be of 
volcanic origin; and the huge masses of 
rock, piled one upon the other, rising to a 
height of nearly 3,000 feet, present a very 
picturesque appearance from the sea. Gen¬ 
tler attractions are, however, not wanting; 
there are at least two valleys rich in vege¬ 
tation, and smiling with the luxuriance of 
an almost tropical fertility. 


JV otebvorthy Facts of All JWat ions 


The chief interest of Juan Fernandez 
lies not in its external features, hut in its 
eventful history, and in the legends which 
have gathered round its name. That name 
is derived from a hardy Spanish sailor who 
discovered it about the year 1503, and 
promptly obtained a grant of his “find” 
from the Spanish government. Here, like 
his more famous successor, Selkirk, he lived 
for a time “monarch of all he surveyed.” 

When next the curtain lifts, the island 
appears as the shelter of the hold bucca¬ 
neers. It lay conveniently near to the Span¬ 
ish settlements, for on Spain the buccaneers 
made war with savage ferocity. 

In October, 1704, the “Cinque Ports” 
galley, one of Dampier’s squadron, called 
at Juan Fernandez. There was a quarrel 
between Captain Straddling and his sail¬ 
ing master, Alexander Selcraig, or Selkirk, 
a native of the little fishing town of Largo, 
in Fifeshire, who refused to serve longer 
with his captain, and asked to be put on 
shore. When, however, his wish had been 
complied with, and he was left alone on 
the beach with some scanty stores, his heart 
misgave him, and he sought earnestly per¬ 
mission to return once more on board. But 
the brutal commander only made this 
change of resolution a subject of mockery, 
and left him to the charms of solitude. 
These Selkirk “enjoyed” for nearly four 
years and a half, till he was taken off in 
February, 1709, by Captain Wood Rogers 
of the “Duke” privateer. Selkirk was ap¬ 
pointed mate of the “Duke,” and died 
(1723) lieutenant of the royal ship “Wey¬ 
mouth.” A monument was erected to his 
m emory in his native place in 1885. 1 wo 

circumstances have conspired to confer on 
this young Scotchman a kind of immortal¬ 
ity ; Cowper made him the mouthpiece for 


471 

a charming poem; and Defoe’s immortal 
story of Robinson Crusoe was suggested bv 
his adventures, although the island of To¬ 
bago, off the mouth of the Orinoco, more 
nearly fits the geography of the story. 

The Spaniard Ulloa, who visited the is¬ 
land in 1743, urged the Spanish govern¬ 
ment to fortify the island and convert it 
into a penal settlement and his advice was 
followed. When the South American rev¬ 
olution broke out, many of the Chilean and 
Peruvian patriots were condemned to exile 
here. At the end of the revolutionary wars 
the Chileans took over the settlement, and in 
1819 established another penal colony. 
Again, in 1828 and 1833, convict settle¬ 
ments were formed; but the cruelties prac¬ 
ticed on the prisoners led to outbreaks, suc¬ 
cessful in two instances. At length in 1835 
the great earthquake destroyed the fortifica¬ 
tions, and the convict establishment was 
finally abandoned. But the traveler who 
climbs the brow of a hill fronting the har¬ 
bor, barely half a mile from the landing 
place, will still find the melancholy traces 
of these habitations of cruelty. The face 
of the cliff is excavated to a distance of 
several hundred feet, and long winding pas¬ 
sages lead to the dark and dripping cells. 

Since 1835, the Chilean government has 
leased the island to private speculators; 
and in 1868 it was purchased by Robert 
Wehrdan, a German engineer, who has es¬ 
tablished a small but thriving colony. In 
addition to tillage and stock-raising, hunt¬ 
ing and fur-sealing, some trade is carried 
on with passing ships, especially whalers, 
which often put in for water. In the same 
year the British ship “Topaze” visited Juan 
Fernandez, and erected a tablet to the mem¬ 
ory of Alexander Selkirk at a spot known 
as “Selkirk’s Lookout.” 


472 


JVotebvorthy Facts of All JVattons 


IN THE FALKLAND ISLANDS 

One of the most remote and least known 
of the island colonies of Great Britain is 
the little archipelago called the Falkland 
islands. These islands are situated far 
in the South Atlantic ocean, about 300 miles 
east of the Straits of Magellan and about 
the same distance from the southernmost 
tip of South America. The islands were 
discovered in 1592, and belonged succes¬ 
sively to France and Spain before becoming 
finally a British possession in 1833. The 
area of the group is 6,500 square miles, of 
which East Falkland contains 3,000 and 
West Falkland 2,300 square miles. The re¬ 
maining 1,200 square miles are divided 
among about 100 small islands. The is¬ 
land of South Georgia, lying some 900 
miles east of the Falklands, with an area of 
1,000 square miles, but virtually uninhab¬ 
ited, is attached to the same colony for gov¬ 
ernment purposes. 

The Falkland islands are treeless, but are 
well covered with grass. The climate is 
healthful, though bleak, and the cold winds 
and fogs from the Antarctic ocean fre¬ 
quently enshroud the islands. The temper¬ 
ature in the summer ranges from forty de¬ 
grees to sixty degrees, and in the winter 
falls much lower. The highest elevation is 
Mount Adam, 2,315 feet. Sheep farming 
is the leading industry, the flocks number¬ 
ing about 750,000. Wool, hides and tal¬ 
low are exported, and provisions, wearing 
apparel, timber and machinery are im¬ 
ported. The population numbers about 
2,100 and the chief town, Stanley, has 
something more than 700 inhabitants. The 
government is administered as that of a 
crown colony by a governor sent from 
England, who is paid a salary of $.6,000 a 


year. He is assisted by an executive coun¬ 
cil and a legislative council. The little col¬ 
ony is fairly prosperous, with exports 
amounting annually to more than $600,- 
000, and imports about half as much. 
There are government and religious schools, 
with a total of some 250 scholars. There 
is a volunteer military company of forty- 
four members, and a postal -savings bank 
with more than 300 depositors. The colony 
is attached to the International Postal 
Union, and about 15,000 letters and post 
cards pass through the mails annually. 
Three or four vessels call every month, 
mostly for the exports of wool and hides to 
be shipped, although some of them are whal¬ 
ing vessels, cruising in the Antarctic ocean. 
The government of the colony lives within 
the income from import duties and rents of 
crown lands, and altogether the people of 
the islands do not feel either isolated or in 
ill luck in their far away island home. 

£ Jt 

EASTER ISLAND AND ITS 
STRANGE RUINS 

Easter island is considered to be the lone- 
somest island in the world, by those who 
have cruised every ocean. Its name was 
given to it by the explorer who discovered 
it on a certain Easter Sunday, some centu¬ 
ries ago, but it is also the most eastern is¬ 
land of all in the South Pacific ocean. It 
is distant from the South American repub¬ 
lic of Chile, to which it belongs, about 
2,000 miles, and from its nearest island 
neighbor in any direction, more than 1,000 
miles. Isolated thus as it is, it is seldom 
visited either for business or pleasure, al¬ 
though the few scientists who have jour¬ 
neyed to the island on voyages of discovery 


JVoteicvorthy Facts of All Rations 


473 


report it to be one of the most strikingly in¬ 
teresting places in the world. 

Easter island is hardly more than the cra¬ 
ter of an extinct volcano, yet its valleys are 
very productive and the people are easy¬ 
going and indolent. Lying so far out in the 
South Pacific ocean, and just outside the 
tropics, the climate is mild and equable. 
On this remote island are some of the most 
remarkable stone ruins known in the world. 
They appear in the shape of large stone 
houses with walls five or six feet thick, 
making a remarkable contrast 
with the light huts of reeds built 
by the natives to-day. These 
houses have been lined with 
large, flat stone slabs, on which are 
painted and sculptured figures of 
fabulous birds and animals, and 
huge geometrical figures. Xear 
these houses the rocks are carved 
with odd human faces, sea turtles, 
and all sorts of devices and in¬ 
scriptions. These ruins are quite 
as interesting as those of Egypt or 
Central America, and the people 
who dwell upon Easter island 
now not only know nothing of 
them, but have no traditions to 
account for their presence. 

In addition to these ruins, giant monu¬ 
ments have been found cut from solid rock, 
usually in the form of a human bust and 
head. These line every prominent head¬ 
land where suitable rock for carving could 
be found. Toward the east are immense 
w T alls and terraces, the stones of which are 
large and ingeniously fitted together with¬ 
out cement. The terraces are usually lined 
with statues, one of which is thirty-seven 
feet high, and cut out of red stone found 
only at a point three miles distant. How 


was it transported and set up ? Who were 
the sculptors ? Is this lonely island a foot¬ 
step of some ancient American family on 
its w r ay across the Pacific toward Asia, or is 
it an antique camping ground of some col¬ 
ony from Thebes and Xineveh on their way 
to America, who drew their artistic inspira¬ 
tion from the sculptures of the Xile or Eu¬ 
phrates ? How shall such questions be an¬ 
swered ? If the truth about the past of this 
mysterious island is ever learned, some 
strange puzzles will be solved. 


THE MUTINEERS OF THE 
“BOUNTY” 

One of the most interesting colonial ex¬ 
periments the world has ever seen was that 
which followed the famous mutiny on board 
the ship “Bounty,” more than 100 years 
ago. The mutineers, under the leadership 
of a man named Fletcher Christian, turned 
the captain and the officers of the ship 
adrift in midocean and landed on Pitcairn 
island, which is several hundred miles 
southeast of the Society group. They were 



STRANGE STONE FIGURES ON EASTER ISLAND. 









474 


fifotekoorthy Facts of Alt JVfations 


not heard of for many years, until by 
chance a ship called at the island and found 
it peopled with industrious, thrifty and 
peaceful settlers, living in contentment, and 
holding themselves in this isolation as a 
British colony. The original mutineers had 
married with the native women whom thev 
had taken to the island. It was too late to 
punish any one for the mutiny so long past, 
and the settlers were left to live in peace 
upon the island which they had made their 
home. 

Some time later, Pitcairn island was so 
unfortunate as to experience a disastrous 
hurricane, which destroyed houses and 
crops and left the islanders in great distress. 
The island itself, indeed, is little more 
than an immense rock with not much 
ground available for cultivation. About 
the middle of the nineteenth century, Great 
Britain ceased to use the Australian colo¬ 
nies as a place for the exile of criminals 
from England, and so vacated Norfolk is¬ 
land, which lies northwest of New Zealand, 
and had been the settlement for hundreds 
of the worst criminals. Great Britain, 
therefore, sent a ship to Pitcairn island and 
took the colonists from there to Norfolk 
island, a fertile and beautiful place, where 
they were given the use of all the buildings, 
prison and otherwise, that had been so for¬ 
tunately vacated. 

The Pitcairn islanders, however, did not 
rest contented there. They were homesick 
for their lonesome rock more than 2,000 
miles to the eastward, and finally the 
greater number of them returned to it, a 
few years later, where they still live as one 
of the happiest, most peaceful and industri¬ 
ous colonies to he found anywhere in the 
w T orld. Some of them still remain on Nor¬ 
folk island. Both these islands are at¬ 


tached for government purposes to Austra¬ 
lia. Norfolk island has an area of ten 
square miles and a population of 750, while 
Pitcairn island, with an area of three 
square miles, has a population of 120. 

^ & j* 

FRENCH ISLANDS IN THE 
PACIFIC OCEAN 

All of the European colonial powers in 
the last century have become rivals for is¬ 
land possessions in the South Pacific ocean, 
although Great Britain is far ahead in 
the race for the tropical archipelagoes. 
France stands second in the contest, with 
some half a dozen island groups scattered 
throughout the Pacific. The best known of 
these French colonies are New Caledonia, 
the Marquesas islands, and Tahiti in the 
Society group. 

New Caledonia was discovered by Cap¬ 
tain Cook, the great navigator, who was 
afterwards murdered by natives in the Ha¬ 
waiian islands. From the time of the dis¬ 
covery, in 1774, until the middle of the 
next century, it was apparently regarded as 
not a desirable island to steal from the na¬ 
tives. The soil offered but little induce¬ 
ment, and the presence of mineral treas¬ 
ures was not suspected. Some French mis¬ 
sionaries had labored among the natives, 
and this gave the excuse to France for seiz¬ 
ing and colonizing the island in 1853. The 
real purpose of the French in hoisting their 
flag here was to establish a penal colony for 
convicts, as England had done with Aus¬ 
tralia and Tasmania. The introduction of 
a criminal population made the work of the 
missionaries doubly difficult, hut the con¬ 
victs themselves, under the direction of the 
authorities, were required to cultivate the 


JVotebvorthy Facts 

island resources so that the colony became 
somewhat productive and prosperous be¬ 
fore many years had passed. 

The area of the island is about 6,000 
square miles, and its length from northwest 
to southeast is nearly 250 miles. Attached 
to it for government purposes are the Isle 
of Pines, the Loyalty archipelago, 
the Huon islands, the Chesterfield 
islands and the Wallis archipel¬ 
ago, all unimportant groups be¬ 
longing to France in that part 
of the Pacific ocean. The popu¬ 
lation of New Caledonia is some¬ 
thing less than 55,000, of whom 
the natives number nearly 30,- 
000, the convicts more than 10,- 
000, and the military about 1,500. 

Coal and other minerals are 
worked, rough ore, nickel, chrome 
and cohalt being largely exported 
to Eurojie and Australia. About 
1,900 square miles are set aside 
for natives and colonists; 600 

square miles of land suited for 
agriculture or pasturage remain 
uncultivated; the rest is mostly 
forest or mountain. Wheat, 
corn, and other cereals are culti¬ 
vated, as are also pineapples, 
coffee, sugar, cocoanuts, cotton, 
manioc, vanilla, grapes and other 
minor tropical products. There 
are 125,000 head of cattle. Ac¬ 
cording to French statistics, the 
annual trade of France with New Cale¬ 
donia is about $4,500,000. The capital of 
the island is Noumea, with a population of 
7,000. It is connected with France by 
steamship lines which pass through the 
Suez Canal and call at the southern ports 
of Australia before ending their voyage at 


of All JVations 475 

Noumea. It also has a cable connection 
with the Australian continent. 

The natives of New Caledonia are a 
strong, well-built race, dark in color, with 
short, curly hair. When discovered they 
were industrious and peaceable, although 
they practiced cannibalism. Captain Cook 


says: “They were courteous and friendly 
and not addicted to pilfering. They showed 
no fear of white men and never the slight¬ 
est sign of hostility.” Their soil being thin, 
they were forced to industry and careful 
cultivation, and raised the bread fruit, their 
chief food, with great success. The coast 



TAHITIAN YOUTH WITH TROPICAL FRUITS. 

The young man is carrying plantains, taro roots and pineapples, with 

bread-fruit at his feet. 




476 


JVotebuorlhy Fads of All Rations 


natives are noted fishermen. The natives 
build high, conical houses of reed frames 
with close thatching of palm leaves. They 
are among the most peculiar dwellings that 
have been found in the Pacific islands. 

New Caledonia lies about half way be¬ 
tween New Zealand and New Guinea, and 
some 700 miles off the coast of Australia. 
Nearly 3,000 miles to the eastward are the 
other important French islands in the Pa¬ 
cific. There are a great number of small 
islands belonging to the French in this 
archipelago, of which Tahiti is the best 
known. It has an area of 412 square miles 
and a population of about 10,000. There 
is a governor for all of these smaller is¬ 
lands, who resides at Papeete, the chief 
town of Tahiti, and there is also a general 
council, elected by universal suffrage. The 
commerce of these islands annually 
amounts to nearly $2,000,000. The chief 
exports are mother-of-pearl, copra, cotton, 
vanilla, sugar, coffee and oranges. 

Tahiti was the first Christianized of the 
South Sea islands, and is now a pleasant and 
peaceful place in which to dwell. Its cen¬ 
ter is a magnificent mountain system, and 
its fertile land is in the valleys that lie be¬ 
tween the mountains and along the sea 
shore. The natives dwell in separate homes 
instead of in villages. They are of a race 
resembling the Hawaiians and are athletic 
and of a light brown color. Their mouths 
are large, noses somewhat flat and teeth 
very white and even. They dress well in 
a fine bark cloth, resembling paper. The 
climate is warm, but healthy. All the 
houses are lightly and airily built, the floors 
covered with mats, and the roofs thatched 
with palm. 

A large part of the trade of Tahiti and 
the neighboring islands is carried on by 


way of the United States. The French 
government subsidizes a mail steamer 
which makes a trip once a month between 
San Francisco and the island capital, so 
that passenger and freight traffic is carried 
on in a regular and comfortable way. It 
affords one of the most attractive voyages 
into the tropics that any American traveler 
could select. 

S <£ 3 

FIJI AND ITS PEOPLE 

For many years in the early history of 
explorations in the Pacific ocean, and, in¬ 
deed, until the middle of the nineteenth 
century, Fiji, to most readers, was a syno¬ 
nym of savage violence and cannibalism. 
Within half a century this island group has 
been changed from savagery to peace and 
order, as one of the prosperous colonies of 
the British empire. Fiji comprises a group 
of islands lying some 500 miles west and a 
little south of our own American island 
of Tutuila in the Samoan group. It is al¬ 
most directly west of the Society islands, in 
which is the French island of Tahiti, and 
consequently well within the tropics. 

The islands exceed 200 in number, about 
eighty of which are inhabited. The largest 
is Viti Levu, with an area of 4,250 square 
miles, or about the same as Jamaica. The 
total area of the group, however, is nearly " 
twice that much. The capital, Suva, is on 
the south coast of the largest island, and is 
a prosperous and picturesque little city 
with a white population of nearly 1,000, 
in addition to the natives. The total pop¬ 
ulation of the group is about 125,000, of 
whom the natives number about 100,000, 
the rest being divided between Europeans, 
laborers who have been imported from In¬ 
dia, and other Polynesian islanders. Nearly 


JVotetvorthy Facts of All JVations 


477 


the entire population lias adopted Chris¬ 
tianity, and the schools and churches are 
well attended. The principal products are 
sugar, bananas, cocoanuts and cattle, al¬ 
though other minor tropical fruits and veg¬ 
etables are produced for home consumption. 
The annual exports are about $2,500,000 
and the imports about half as much. The 
islands are administered by a governor sent 


from Great Britain, an executive council 
and a legislative council. Xo military 
forces are kept in the colony, which is the 
best evidence that it is peaceable and or¬ 
derly. 

Under their native kings the Fiji islands 
were always engaged in internal warfare, 
and finally the last native monarch, Thak- 
ombau, in 1874, yielded their independence 
and signed the treaty by which they were 


given to Great Britain. The islands are 
visited twice a month by trans-Bacific 
passenger steamers sailing between Canada 
and the Australian colonies, and by other 
local steamers which connect them with 
Australia, Xew Zealand and Samoa. Al¬ 
though they are no longer isolated, they 
have not lost their picturesque forms of 
native life, and, accessible as they are, form 


one of the most interesting places for tour¬ 
ists’ attention. 

& jt jt 

THE ISLAND OF GUAM 

The island of Guam, the largest in the 
Marianne or Ladrone archipelago, was 
ceded by Spain to the United States in 1898 
as one of the results of the Spanish-Amer- 
ican war. It is a fertile island, thickly 



AN AFTERNOON TEA IN THE SOUTH PACIFIC, ISLAND OF TAHITI. 
















478 


J'fotetvorthy Facts of A It /Nations 


wooded and well watered, about thirty-two 
miles long and 100 miles in circumference. 
The population of the island is about 9,000, 
of whom 6,000 live in Agana, the capital. 
The inhabitants are mostly immigrants, or 
the descendants of immigrants from the 
Philippines, the original race of islanders 
having become extinct. The recognized lan¬ 
guage has been Spanish for many years, 
but English is also spoken. On the island 
are eighteen schools, and seven-tenths of the 
islanders can read and write. 

The island of Guam has a distinct value 
to the United States as a coaling station, a 
port of call, and a station for a trans-Pacific 
telegraph cable. About half way between 
Guam and the Hawaiian islands is Wake 
island, also belonging to the United States, 
and intended likewise as a station for the 
trans-Pacific cable. These three stations be¬ 
come very convenient as steps on the way 
between San Francisco and Manila. 

The capture of Guam by the first mili¬ 
tary expedition sent from the United States 
to the Philippines in the summer of 1898 
had some phases of humor about it. The 
people there had no knowledge that war 
had been declared between the United 
States and Spain, or even that hostilities 
were impending. When the ancient fort 
outside the harbor was bombarded they took 
it to be a friendly salute, and sent word out 
to the ships, apologetically explaining that 
they appreciated the courtesy, but had no 
powder with which to reply to the salute. 
Not until then did the governor know that 
lie and his island were captured. When 
the ships sailed on to Manila they took 
with them the governor and other officials 
as prisoners, leaving the island affairs to be 
directed bv the one American citizen who 

c/ 

lived there, a young man of Spanish birth 


who had once lived in Chicago long enough 
to become naturalized. 

£ & £ 

TASMANIA, PAST AND PRESENT 

Although seldom visited by travelers 
from the United States, the British island 
colony of Tasmania has a peculiar interest 
in its history and in its life and industries 
to-day, which makes it worthy of special at¬ 
tention. The island lies some 200 miles 
south of southeastern Australia, from which 
it is separated by Bass Strait. It is about 
the size of Ireland or Ceylon, and has a 
population of approximately 150,000. The 
island was discovered by Tasman in 1642, 

and bv him was named Van Diemen’s 
«/ 

Land, in honor of the other famous Dutch 
navigator who had preceded him in Pacific 
explorations. The island was left un¬ 
touched by the European colonial powers 
until the beginning of the last century. 

In 1804 Great Britain established a 
penal colony there, and from that time till 
1813 it was merely a place of transporta¬ 
tion from Great Britain and from New 
South Wales, of which colony it was a de¬ 
pendency until 1825. The first free settlers 
found it the prison of the worst convicts 
from England and Australia. The most 
shocking brutalities were practiced on the 
helpless outlaws by their guards. Years 
went by, during which the island obtained 
shocking notoriety throughout the world for 
the horrible offenses practiced there. Finally 
the free settlers increased in number to such 
an extent that they were influential in in¬ 
ducing Great Britain to terminate the pol¬ 
icy of criminal exile. Transportation ceased 
in 1853, and three years later the island 
was created a self-governing colony and the 
name was changed to Tasmania in order to 


JVotetvorlhy Facts of All JVations 


479 


escape the shadow that was associated with 
the older name. 

Rudyard Kipling, in one of his poems, 
has characterized the past and the present of 
Tasmania in a quatrain of peculiar force 
and beauty: 

“Man’s love first found me; man’s hate 
made me hell; 

For my babes’ sake I cleansed those in¬ 
famies. 

Eager for leave to live and labor well, 

God flung me peace and ease.” 

So the island has become to-day one of 
the most placid, peaceful and happy of all 
the colonies of Great Britain. Its area is 
about 26,000 square miles, and its surface, 
in general, is mountainous, with the highest 
point, “Cradle Mountain,” extending to a 
height of 5,069 feet. The Derwent, Esk' 
and Huon are the most important rivers. 
The climate is mild and delightful, with an 
average summer temperature of sixty-two 
degrees, and in winter of forty-seven de¬ 
grees. The rainfall is moderate and well 
distributed throughout the year, so that 
neither droughts nor floods trouble the peo¬ 
ple. There are extensive forests, abounding 
in beautiful cabinet woods and other valu¬ 
able timbers. The cultivated area is ap¬ 
proximately 550,000 acres, the chief prod¬ 
ucts being wheat, oats and hops. 

An important industry is found in the 
raising of fruit, and one great region in the 
southern part of the island is known as “Ap- 
pleland,” so numerous are the orchards. In¬ 
asmuch as fruit here in the southern hemi¬ 
sphere comes into bearing at a season just 
opposite in the year to that when our own 
fruits are ripe, and the fruit-producing re¬ 
gions of the south are limited in area, the 
people of Tasmania are assured of the very 
highest prices for all that they raise. Dur¬ 


ing the season for apple shipments all of the 
largest steamers plying between Australia 
and Europe call at Hobart and take immense 
cargoes of these delicious Tasmanian apples 
to the markets of London and the continent. 
Other important exports are wool, gold, sil¬ 
ver, tin and hides. Fruit preserving, also, 
is a leading industry. The tin mines are 
of great value, hardly second to those of 
gold and silver. 

Tasmania is now one of the states of the 
Commonwealth of Australia. Its capital is 
Hobart, also the largest city, with a popu¬ 
lation of 25,000, wdiile Launceston, with a 
population of 17,000, is the second city. 
Education is compulsory. There are thir¬ 
teen superior schools or colleges in the col¬ 
ony, one university, two technical schools, 
and 450 public and private elementary 
schools. The little colony has forty public 
libraries and institutions of similar charac¬ 
ter, nineteen newspapers and other periodi¬ 
cals, and a postal savings bank. The rail¬ 
ways and telegraphs of the island belong to 
the government, and are operated in the 
public interest cheaply and satisfactorily. 
The scenery of the island is picturesque and 
beautiful, being pastoral in the agricultural 
regions and rugged among the mountains. 
Tasmania is the home of the tree fern, 
which is cultivated as a plant of great beau¬ 
ty in our conservatories. Whole forests of 
it cover the mountain sides in this south¬ 
ern island which looks off toward the Ant¬ 
arctic ocean. There are said to be no rich 
people and no poor ones in Tasmania, but 
the whole population enjoys a reasonable 
degree of comfort and prosperity. This 
is the condition considered most favorable 
for true happiness in any community, and 
Tasmanians are well contented in their 
little island. 



By Courtesy of the Santa Fe Railway. THE GRAND CANYON OF THE COLORADO RIVER IN ARIZONA. 

















book: iv 


AMAZING WONDERS OF NATURE 


GREENLAND AND ITS GLACIERS 

When the hymnist wrote of Greenland’s 
icy mountains he embodied in a phrase the 
extremes which nature exhibits in that in¬ 
hospitable land. Eric the Red, after being 
driven from Iceland for the murder of a 
brother chief, spent three years in exploring 
the more promising parts of Greenland, 
and, so grateful was he to this land of 
refuge, and so much brighter were the pros¬ 
pects here than in lava-stricken Iceland, 
that in contrast he gave it the name Green¬ 
land. 

In 1901 there were but 309 persons of 
foreign parentage in Greenland, and the re¬ 
mainder of the inhabitants were natives 
fewer in number than ten thousand. 

The center and the north and east are 
so covered with the ice accumulations of 
ages that no idea can be formed of the na¬ 
ture of the land. From the mountains there 
run down to the sea vast streams of ice 
which plow into the sea and become ver¬ 
itable ice-mountains, having indescribable 
elements of beauty. These great icebergs 
.are cut into such forms by wind and water 
as to keep the imagination busy with colos¬ 
sal images—caverns that seem limitless, 
cathedral spires and gothic arches, zigzag 
clefts as if made by earthquakes, all with 
changing hues that defy the brilliant 
■changes cf tJbe opal and the colors of the 
.rainbow,. 


Usually a great river oi roaring water 
pours from underneath the sea cf ice. Some¬ 
times the icy lake spreads out in a 
valley several miles across, in which the ice 
is a thousand feet deep, and then it moves 
on through a gorge cutting its way with 
irresistible jiower. 

Denmark has never received much value 
from its possession of Greenland, and it is 
doubtful if this great island will ever con¬ 
tribute much more than it does now to the 
human race. 

e* j* jt 

ICELAND AND ITS GEYSERS 

Iceland is indubitably one of the most 
interesting spots on the face of the globe. 
Though as large as Ireland, it is in the 
interior a frightful desert; and it is 
only populated on its southwestern side by 
about 75,000 souls. Surrounded by stormy 
seas, which are generally covered with ice, 
this island,—with its tall, bare mountains, 
crowned with eternal snows and ice; its 
numerous precipices; its enormous lava 
fields, and the ever-present traces of fright¬ 
ful earthquakes and desolating eruptions ;• 
without a tree, and, with the exception of 
the seaboard valleys, without vegetation,— 
produces a startling effect on the traveler. 

The geyser district lies at the foot of a 
steep but not very lofty hill, in a plain 
about ten miles in width, doubtless the bed 




48 ^ 


^/Jmazing XOonders of feature 


of an old fiord, which runs down to the 
sea, and resembles an outspread green car¬ 
pet of marshy pasturage. It is watered by 
the Tugn flyot and several smaller streams, 
which fall into the Hvita at the end of the 
valley. In the northeast the plain is bor¬ 
dered by the Blafell, a lofty extinct volcano, 
whose summit is partially veiled by clouds, 
and whose steep sides, denuded of all vege¬ 
tation, display caverns and ravines filled 
with masses of snow. Round the plain are 
also other masses of jagged mountains, 
which, in the interior of the island, are 
piled up in gigantic forms; while Ilecla, 
covered with its mantle of snow, proudly 
looks down upon the whole scene. The ele¬ 
vation of the springs above Reykjavik is, 
according to Bunsen’s calculations, about 


360 feet. The principal springs are situ¬ 
ated here close together, the two extremes 
being hardly 600 feet apart. 

The most noted of Iceland’s geyser 
springs is that of Strokkur. Preced¬ 
ing each eruption there is the hollow 
sound of some vast drum struck by a thun¬ 
derbolt, then a mighty pillar of steam and 
spray rises with incredible force to the 
clouds. Following this a solid body of 
water rises to the height of 800 or a thorn 
sand feet. This eruption rarely occupies 
more than six minutes. 

The population of Iceland is quite sta¬ 
tionary at 75,000, and their exports are 
chiefly sheep, wool, dried fish, oil, eider 
down, moss and seal skins. The only wild 
animal is the arctic fox. 



“OLD FAITHFUL,” A GIANT GEYSER OF YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK. 













483 


yimazing tOonders of feature 


THE GREAT LAVA DESERT 0E 
ICELAND 

In the central region of North Iceland 
is the most extensive solid lava desert in 
the world. On clear days the inhabitants 
living at the edge of the rocky tract of bar¬ 
renness can see in the great distance thin 
streams of smoke arising as if from the 
chimney-tops of a city. This has es¬ 
tablished a firm conviction in the minds of 
the natives that a strange race of beings 
inhabit fertile valleys that lie between the 
volcanic peaks. The country abounds in 
stories of adventures with those imaginary 
people. 

In 1876 the Danish government sent a 
scientific exploring party over the wastes 
and the myths were exploded as far as the 
more intelligent class of persons was con¬ 
cerned. However, the lava bubbles and vol¬ 
canic outbursts have left such curious shapes 
and figures all over the dreary wastes that, 
if the imagination is allowed the least free¬ 
dom, almost anything from the most hid¬ 
eous prehistoric creatures to well-arranged 
modern cities can be conjured up through 
the naked eye. Though a good field glass 
may dispel the given illusion, at the end of 
the range of the glass there will be another 
fully as startling. 

£ 

THE GULF STREAM 

Among the wonders of physical geog¬ 
raphy few are more interesting in their 
relation to this country than what is known 
as the Gulf Stream. This is an oceanic 
current of great extent, which takes its rise 
in the Gulf of Mexico, whence it derives 
its name. The peculiar formation and po¬ 
sition of this gulf render it a receptacle for 
fhe waters of the Atlantic, which sweep 


across the northeastern coast of South 
America; and, on arriving in the Gulf, 
they become warmed to a much higher tem¬ 
perature than is anywhere found in the 
surrounding ocean. The summer tempera¬ 
ture of the waters in the Gulf is about 
eighty-eight degrees, while in the open At¬ 
lantic, in the same latitude, it is only sev¬ 
enty-eight degrees. 

Thus warmed, the waters pass out of the 
Gulf northward, in a deep and strong cur¬ 
rent, between the coast of Florida on the 
one side and the islands of Cuba and the 
Bahamas on the other. The stream pro¬ 
gresses here with a velocity of five miles 
an hour. It rolls like a mighty river along 
the shore of North America, widening as it 
flows, until it nears the banks of New¬ 
foundland, where it is turned aside, partly 
by the formation of the coast, which here 
projects boldly out, and partly by the en¬ 
counter with strong and adverse currents 
from the North Atlantic. At the point 
where it is turned aside it stretches almost 
across the Atlantic; the current itself, ac¬ 
cording to some, being about two hundred 
miles in width, and the warm waters of the 
stream extending in all more than twice 
that distance. In the latter part of its 
course it leaves behind it that remarkable 
drift of sea-weed known as the Sargasso 
Sea. 

Crossing the Atlantic eastward, towards 
the islands of the Azores, the main stream 
gradually becomes lost, and its current 
spent; but a portion of it continues north¬ 
ward towards the British Islands. Long 
after the current itself is lost the neighbor¬ 
ing seas continue very sensibly affected by 
the warm waters which it has brought down. 

It is important to bear in mind the dis¬ 
tinction between the actual current of the 


484 


Imazing XOonders of feature 


Gulf Stream and the heated waters which 
are brought down by its agency. The range 
of the latter extends some hundreds of miles 
after what is properly termed the Gulf cur¬ 
rent has ceased. 


THE MAELSTROM 

The Maelstrom is a whirlpool off the 
coast of Norway, between the islands of 
Loffoden and Moskoe; and because of its 
proximity to the latter is sometimes called 
the Moskoestrom. Many stories have been 
written about it which border on the con¬ 
fines of the marvelous rather than of the 
truth. Poets have been busy with the fact 
of its existence, and ancient legends have 
told with wonderful exactness how heroes 
have dived into the vortex in order to show 
their zeal for their lady loves, and how vir¬ 
tue and courage have come unharmed out of 
the great depths, while wickedness and vice 
have so weighted men that they have been 
overwhelmed in the whirlpool. Old-world 
thought led to the belief that at the spot 
where the Maelstrom was there was a great 
hole in the earth, through which the water 
poured, and that those things or men which 
were engulfed in the pool were either passed 
through the earth to its other side or were 
returned broken and drowned to the place 
whence they came by a return coil in the 
mysterious water spiral. Water jotuns, or 
water giants, were of course supposed to 
preside over the whirlpool, and to arrange 
according to the dictates of their own fancy 
who should be saved and who destroyed. 
One hero whom they permitted to re-visit 
the upper world was speechless ever after, 
unable, by sign or word, to give an account 
of the marvelous things he had seen. Many 


a ship was sucked down into the watery 
grave, many a fair cargo lost, and yet the 
water-demon was not satisfied; no amount 
of sacrifices seemed to propitiate the hun¬ 
gry ocean gnomes. 

Modern science, with its secret-searching 
light, has scared the water-demon from his 
lair, and has given an explanation of the 
causes of the whirlpool, quite incompatible 
with the existence of such a contrivance as 
the Maelstrom was represented to be. When 
the configuration of the land between 
Droutheim and the North Cape is seen it 
will not surprise any one that the rush of 
the tide, cooped up as it is in its passage 
through the Loffoden Islands, should result 
in a wash of the whirlpool kind. The strong 
tide flowing down from the northern sea is 
caught in a rocky angle, which causes a 
kink in the stream, twisting it round with 
violence enough to cause the Maelstrom, the 
most dangerous whirlpool in the world. The 
whirlpool is thus described bv an American 
writer: “I had occasion, some years since, 
to navigate a ship from the North Cape to 
Droutheim, nearly all the way between the 
islands, or rocks, and the main. On inquir¬ 
ing of my Norwegian pilot about the practi¬ 
cability of running near the whirlpool, he 
told me that with a good breeze it could be 
approached near enough for examination 
without danger, and I at once determined 
to satisfy myself. We began to near it about 
10 a. m. in the month of September, with 
a fine leading wind N. W. Two good sea¬ 
men were placed at the helm, the mate on 
the quarterdeck, all hands at their stations 
for working the ship, and the pilot standing 
on the bowsprit between the night-heads. I 
went on the main topsail-yard with a good 
glass. I had been seated but a few minutes 
when my ship entered the dish of the whirl- 


485 


tmazing XOonders o_f feature 


pool. The velocity of the water altered her 
course three points towards the center, al¬ 
though she was going eight knots through 
the water. This alarmed me extremely for 
a moment. I thought that destruction was 
inevitable. The vessel, however, answered 
her helm sweetly, and we ran along the 
edge, the waves foaming round us in every 
form while she was dancing gaily over 
them. The sensations I experienced are 
difficult to describe. Imagine an immense 
circle running round, of a diameter of a 
mile and a half, the velocity increasing as 
it approximated towards the center, and 
gradually changing its dark blue color to 
white,—foaming, tumbling, rushing to its 
vortex; very much concave, as much so as 
the water in a funnel when half run out; 
the noise too, hissing, roaring, dashing,—all 
pressing on the mind at once, presented the 
most awful, grand, solemn sight I ever ex¬ 
perienced. We were near it about eighteen 
minutes, and in sight of it two hours.” 

& $• & 

THE SPECTRE OF THE BROCKEN 

The beautiful, deceptive phenomenon 
known as the mirage is of three distinct 
kinds. First, there is that form of it where 
some distant object, below the line of the 
horizon, and consequently out of the range 
of vision, seems to he lifted up into mid-air, 
and to hang suspended there,—sometimes 
in its natural position, sometimes upside 
down, and sometimes both ways at once; 
the image in this latter case being doubled, 
like a ship and its reflection in the water. 
Secondly, there is that form of it where 
some object high up in the air, such as a 
cloud or a village-on a hill, seems to be 
brought down and to lie floating in a vast 


lake stretching miles away at the spectator’s 
feet. Thirdly, there is that less frequent 
form of it, where the setting sun appears to 
fling huge shadows of terrestrial objects far 
out into space. 

The mirage, in which the object is 
brought down instead of being elevated, is 
most frequently seen in the arid deserts of 
Lower Egypt, where it often proves cruelly 
deceptive to the thirsty traveler. Dotted 
about the waste are elevations, on which the 
natives have built their villages, in order 
that they may he safe from the flood during 
the periodical inundations of the Nile. In 
the heat of the day the mirage brings down 
an image of the sky upon the level, some 
few miles in front of the caravan, and pro¬ 
duces the effect of a broad expanse of water, 
in which each village, brought down also, 
appears as an islet. Lured on by the re¬ 
freshing prospect, man and beast push hope¬ 
fully forward, often miles out of their 
track, to find the waters and islands con¬ 
stantly receding from their view, until the 
evening comes, and they vanish altogether. 
So complete is the illusion that not only 
experienced and scientific travelers, but 
even the Arabs themselves, are often de¬ 
ceived by it. 

The third kind of mirage is seen only 
from the top of the Brocken, the highest 
summit of the Harz Mountain range in 
Hungary. It is there known as the Brock- 
engespenst, or “Spectre of the Brocken;” 
and very spectre-like it looks in the red 
evening sun. You no^ sooner step out upon 
the plateau on the top of the hill than your 
■shadow, grim and gigantic, is apparently 
flung right out against the eastern sky, 
where, with all visible space for a play¬ 
ground, it flits swiftly from place to place, 
following your every movement. It is only 


486 


1 mazing ^Oonders of ffalure 


in tlie evening just before sunset that the 
phenomenon is visible, so that the shadow 
is doubly exaggerated, first by the distance 
and level of the sun and then by the dis¬ 
tance of the surface upon which it is pro¬ 
jected. 

Each of these different kinds of mirage 
has its own separate cause, though they all 
depend for their existence upon a special 
state of the atmosphere. Before the phe¬ 
nomenon is possible the air must be divided 
into strata of different degrees of density. 
That done, the mirage follows, sometimes 
by refraction, sometimes by reflection, 
sometimes by the projection of shadows. 

& 3 

FAMOUS FOUNTAINS OF 
PALESTINE 

» 

Nearly every pool or spring about Jeru¬ 
salem is of sacred historical note in some 
form of legend or story. The best known of 


these is the Pool of Betliesda. It lay close 
by the wall of the city at the sheep’s gate 
and the word meant “house of mercy or 
place of flowing water.” Porches and colon¬ 
nades were in bible times built about it so 
that the people could protect themselves 
from the sun. 

It was believed by the people that at fre¬ 
quent intervals an angel came down and 
troubled the waters, after which they had 
healing qualities. Here is where Christ 
told the sick man to take up his bed and 
walk. 

This pool is now called Birkeh Israel and 
the gate near by is called St. Stephen. Little 
regard is paid to it by the natives and it is 
in ruins. 

Ain Selwau is the name now given to the 
fountain by which the Lord stood when lie 
said, “If any man thirst, let him come to 
me and drink.” It is mentioned by the 
prophet as “the waters of Shiloah that go 



AMERICAN TOURIST PARTY IN PALESTINE. 













1 mazing XOortders of JValure 


487 


softly.” It was to this pool that Christ 
sent the blind man to be healed. 

A church was built over it in the middle 
ages, but it w r as destroyed by the Moham¬ 
medans. On its banks stands a mulberry 
tree said to mark the spot where the prophet 
Isaiah was slain by Manasseh. 

In a shallow vale by the Jaffa gate be¬ 
yond the olive groves near Jerusalem is 
Birkeli el Mamilla, which was known as the 
fountain of Gihon to which Solomon rode 
on King David’s mule, when Zadok the 
priest took the horn of oil out of the 
tabernacle, and annointed Solomon, as the 
people cried, “God save King Solomon.” 
Rear by this ruined fountain is the potter’s 
field bought with the blood money of Judas. 

Over toward Jericho is the fountain of 
Elias, much famed for its healing power 
in bible times; further on in the fertile val¬ 
ley of Kedron, on the boundary line between 
Judah and Benjamin, is the most famous 
pool of modern Palestine. Its Arab name 
means Fountain of the Mother of Steps. 
The Jews call it En Rogel; that is, to tread, 
from the custom of treading linen in the 
water. This pool is 360 feet in length and 
130 feet in width. Here is where Jonathan 
remained when he sent the little maid to 
bear a message to David, who had fled from 
the power of his son Absalom. 

It w T as from the Roman tower Antonio, 
near by, that St. Paul made his memor¬ 
able speech to the Jews. This tower is still 
standing, though half in ruins. Here St. 
James w T as slain. 

The Christians have named this the 
Fountain of the Virgin, for here the mother 
of Jesus came with other Jewish girls to 
cleanse the linen. To this day the beautiful 
stream of pure water flowing from this 
spring is used for the same purpose, and 


troops of large-eyed oriental girls are seen 
working about the pool and stream just as 
has been done here by the girls of Jeru¬ 
salem for two or three thousand years. 

& £ & 

SAGHALIEN, A PARADOX OF 
CLIMATE 

Saghalien belongs to Russia, and is sep¬ 
arated from the mainland of Eastern Asia 
by the Gulf of Tartary. 

The island is bathed by two cold ocean 
currents, and in winter nothing protects it 
against the icy northwest winds coming 
from Siberia. At the sea level the snow 
falls continually, and stays on the ground 
till the end of May, and the seashore is very 
cold. Further inland, however, especially 
as we go higher up, the climate is modified 
—just the opposite to what is observed else¬ 
where. It has often been observed in Siberia 
and in Central Europe that in winter the 
cold is greater in the plains and the valleys, 
and that the highlands have a sensibly 
milder temperature; it is as if the denser 
cold air accumulated in the lowlands. This 
fact is very often observed in our climate; 
there are several very good examples of it; 
all the trees and shrubs of a valley have 
been known to be killed bv frost, while 
above a certain level, very clearly marked 
out, on the hill or the mountain, the vegeta¬ 
tion has not suffered at all. The cold air 
often flows from the summits toward their 
bases. This is what takes place at Saghal¬ 
ien. The cold air accumulates in the low 
regions of the island and on the coast; the 
higher regions have a more elevated tem¬ 
perature. So it happens that the lower 
parts have an arctic vegetation, while the 
intermediate altitudes have the vegetation 


488 


^yimaztng bonders of jVaitire 


of a temperate zone, sometimes almost 
sub-tropical. The birch, the ash, the pine, 
the fir abound in the low regions and form 
often impenetrable forests, but toward the 
center of the island appear bamboos, 
hydrangeas, azalias and other plants that 
one is greatly surprised to meet, and whose 
presence can be explained only by the alto¬ 
gether abnormal climatic conditions of the 
island. 

& 3 & 

THE ARABIAN DESERT 

Arabia meets Palestine on the north, and 
from these lands have flowed the influence 
of Moslem and Christian well-nigh covering 
the world. As Jerusalem is the sacred city 
of many millions of Christians, so is Mecca 
the sacred city of many millions of Mo¬ 
hammedans. Not only have two of the 
great religions come from this small terri¬ 
tory of habitable land, but it was once the 
garden from which came the seed of civili¬ 
zation. 

Poets have sung of these lands, romancers 
have written of them and pious priests have 
glorified them till in our imagination they 
are the realms of pearl and amber, redolent 
with the fragrance of aromatics, spices, 
frankincense and myrrh. 

The poets have been the geographers, and 
on epic authority we are assured that it is 
a paradisiac region laden with the inspira¬ 
tion of divine perfumes. 

“To them who sail 

Beyond the Cape of Hope, and now are 
past 

Mosambic, off at sea northeast winds blow 
Sabean odors from the spicy shores 
Of Araby the blest; and many a league, 
Cheered with the grateful smell, old Ocean 
smiles.” 


Here in truth is the dream-land of the 
w T orld, replete with scenes made awesome 
through sacred song and story. 

Strange remnants of Christian and Mos¬ 
lem occupation still remain almost un¬ 
changed. 

About nine days of camel travel into the 
desert from Suez brings the traveler to 
one of these remnants, a spot of impressive 
loneliness and desolate grandeur at the foot 
of Sinai. It is the convent of St. Catherine, 
made like the stronghold of a castle with 
battlements on which are mounted ancient 
guns. The approach of strangers is guarded 
with all the ceremony of medieval times, 
when the least relaxation of caution or vig¬ 
ilance might mean destruction. Those ap¬ 
proaching come up through the groves of 
cypress trees to the massive stone walls, 
where there is nothing but silence and no 
moving creature is to be seen. Back of the 
convent the perpendicular sides of the rocky 
cliffs rise to the height of a thousand feet 
and add to the solemnity of the scene. 

After repeated calls a port hole is opened 
about 30 feet above the heads of the visit¬ 
ors, the face of a monk appears, and, after 
surveying the visitors stolidly for a few 
minutes, he lowers a rope from a windlass. 

The letter of introduction from the con¬ 
vent at Cairo, which is indispensable, is 
fastened to the cord and it is drawn up. 

This much of the customs has yielded to 
the improvement of government and the 
safety of modern times; they no longer 
draw the visitors up by the windlass, but 
after reading the letter a gate is at last 
opened and the visitor allowed to enter the 
court. Moses being a holy man alike to 
Christians and Mohammedans, there are 
both chapels and mosques ,about the place 
where the commandments were given. How- 


489 


^flmazing *COonders of ffature 


THE GREAT 
TREES OF 
CALIFORNIA 

All the world has 
heard of the big trees 
of California, and 
those astonishing- 

O 

groves of forest giants 
which have attracted 
strangers from far and 
near to view their won¬ 
ders. California is a 
state of great things, 
with its coast-line as 
long as that which 
stretches from Massa¬ 
chusetts to Georgia, its 
mountains which are 
surpassed on this con¬ 
tinent only by a few 
Alaskan peaks, its 
gold mines, its orange 
groves, and its smiling 
valleys devoted to farm¬ 
ing, all rivals in mag¬ 
nitude as the sources 
of greatest wealth, and 
its Yosemite Valley 
with the great cataract 
that plunges 1,500 
feet sheer in one of 
its three downward 
leaps and its colossal 



TWO GIANTS IN COMPARISON. 

Masonic Temple, Chicago, 302 feet in height and Big Tree, 400 feet high. 
This ingenious picture, in which the artist shows one of the big trees apparently 
growing in a city street, de; icts how nature’s work overtops that of man. 


ever, with sectarian perversity the Christian domes, spires and arches of pure granite, 
has decided on one mount as the scene of the contrasted with soft tones of green forest 
handing down of the law to Moses and the and silver lake. Of all these wonders the 


Mohammedans another. 
Mount Koreb is the one 
generally agreed upon 
by Christendom. 


great trees themselves of the Mari¬ 
posa and the Calaveras groves are, 
perhaps, the most 
conspicuous and 

the most widely 
*/ 

known objects o f 
curiosity. They are 
oldest living 


the 
















490 


mazing XOonders o_f JVature 


things in the world. The best scientific esti¬ 
mates place the age of the oldest at about 
5,000 years, and thus make them survivors 
of the Miocene period. It taxes the im¬ 
agination to conceive the age that this means 
and the natural history of our globe which 
these grizzly giants have witnessed. With 
the danger of their complete extinction 
threatened as it seems to be, they become 
doubly interesting to us all. 

Students of the groves declare that these 
big trees of California are not akin to any 
other trees now growing, except some of 
their own neighbors. Only by comparison 
with certain fossil remains of cone-bearing 
trees was the proper relationship found, and 
the kings of the forest were discovered to be 
species of the genus Sequoia. In deference, 
therefore, to the name of our greatest citi¬ 
zen these greatest of trees were named Se¬ 
quoia Washingtoniana. Popularly speak¬ 
ing, however, the name Sequoia Gigantea 
has come to be accepted as the characteriza¬ 
tion of these monsters. 

It was just about the time of the rush of 
the forty-niners to California in the days of 
gold discoveries that these trees were found. 

• According to the scientists, the Sequoias 
covered great areas of America and Europe, 
far back in the mysterious, moist days of 
the Miocene period when all vegetation took 
strange, gigantic forms. When the age of 
ice came and our continents were swept by 
the glaciers that have left their tracks in 
every direction some of these ancient forms 
of vegetable life were exterminated, some 
were left as fossils and a few have come 
down to us in visible forms upon the sur¬ 
face of the earth as living things. 

These two groves of big trees may be 
considered as small islands, upon which 
they were left in safety after the great up¬ 


heavals of nature that passed around them. 
Here they have survived through all inter¬ 
vening thousands of years, so that today 
they have the distinction of being virtually 
the only survivors of a geologic age that is 
past. In addition to the two most famous 
groves, the Mariposa and the Calaveras, 
there are some other tracts in California 
which contain groves of Sequoias, although 
not the largest ones. Altogether there are 
200,000 or 300,000 of the species, but of 
those remarkable for their great size not 
more than 500. 

A common height for the pines, firs and 
cedars, which grow in the same forests, 
themselves noteworthy specimens of their 
own variety, is from 175 to 200 feet, but 
these are overtopped at least a full hundred 
feet by the big Sequoias that grow beside 
them. There are trees in the Mariposa 
groves which are nearly thirty feet through, 
and a great many between ten and twenty 
feet. Inasmuch as the largest trees are still 
standing, it is impossible to count their 
rings and measure their age exactly. But 
one tree that was cut down was found to be 
2,200 years old, and another that had fallen 
to the force of the winds showed an age of 
4,000 years. It is a fair estimate, there¬ 
fore, that the larger ones still are at least 
5,000 years old, and this agrees with the 
calculations as to the period whence they 
date. 

Mr. John Muir, who has studied the trees 
and mountains and glaciers of the west with 
affectionate energy, calls attention to the 
vitality and vigor of these trees, and the 
fortunate way in which nature has pro¬ 
tected them. The bark is thick and fibrous, 
and all but fireproof, so that forest fires 
have not been able to destroy the trees. The 
wood, too, does not decay, and fungus does 


401 


% _flmazing tOonders of feature 


not, therefore, thrive upon it. Even the 
trees that have fallen have lain sound for 
centuries. 

The threat of extinction of the great trees 
comes from two causes. They are not in¬ 
clined to rear new trees from seedlings, to 
reproduce their own groves, and the fine old 
trees themselves in many instances have been 
attacked by the lumbermen holding the land 
upon which they grow. The Mariposa grove 
is now owned and protected by the State of 
California, and there is an effort under way 
to purchase the Calaveras grove as a gov¬ 
ernment park. But by far the greater num¬ 
ber of the big trees- are on land owned by 
the lumber companies, and many of them 
are at work on the Sequoia timber. The 
people of California are becoming aroused 
to the great value of these forest giants, as 
sources of interest for the tourists who flock 
to their state, and it is to be hoped that the 
vandalism which is threatening the exist¬ 
ence of some of the finest specimens will be 
put an end to by the influence of public 
opinion and the purchase of the property 
for permanent preservation. The wood is 
not particularly valuable as timber, and it 
seems a manifest truth that the big trees, 
considered entirely as an investment for the 
state, would yield more as living curiosities 
than as lumber piles. 

^ £ 

HOW GLACIERS AND ICEBERGS 
ARE MADE 

Great mountains of snow and ice, which 
float down into the North Atlantic Ocean 
from the Arctic regions to threaten the 
safety of vessels crossing from America to 
Europe, are among the most peculiar and 


interesting of the works of nature. The 
land of their birthplace in the far north is 
not reached by many travelers, except the 
Arctic explorers themselves, but instead of 
the traveler coming to the iceberg the ice¬ 
berg comes to the traveler, thus reversing 
the famous experience of Mahomet and the 
mountain. 

The coasts of Greenland are the birth¬ 
place of the greatest icebergs that come into 
the Atlantic Ocean. They are produced 
from the glaciers which fill the vallevs of 
this frozen land. 

The story of the glaciers, from which ice¬ 
bergs are but offshoots, is an interesting one. 
A great weight of snow pressing downwards 
through crooked mountain valleys is 
squeezed between the rocky walls and grad¬ 
ually converted into ice. The great bodv 
of the glacier, which is neither snow nor ice, 
but both, creeps along and molds itself to 
its bed. But in changing its shape and 
slope its surface is broken by deep crevasses, 
which begin as simple cracks. These crev¬ 
asses are caused by the tension or pull of 
the lower mass of ice upon the upper, and 
consequently they generally occur trans¬ 
versely or obliquely up-stream. Dirt accu¬ 
mulates in the crack until the whole mass 
closes by being pushed into a new position. 
Elevations in the bed of the glacier thus 
leave a permanent record in the ice which 
breaks above them. This record is carried 
on the center of the stream, which moves 
faster than the margin, and consequently 
these dirt-lines, which mark the former 
crevasses, gradually become bow-shaped, un¬ 
til they almost touch each other at the mar¬ 
gin. Viewed from above, the effect is very 
striking, and these dirt-bands, as one may 
call them, appear sometimes like the 
graining on a slab of oak. When the 


492 


^/Imazing 'GOonders of J^aiure 


crevasse fills with snow instead of dirt the 
bands are white instead of grey. The newly- 
fallen snow on the mountain tops is grad¬ 
ually made firm by pressure. Slowly, al¬ 
most imperceptibly, it begins to glide down 
the slopes; air, before imprisoned, escapes, 
and the snow hardens. After a time the 
mass reaches a steep slope, confined in a 
valley, and then pressed down from behind 
and from the sides, it changes into clear, 
blue ice, streaked with little veins where the 
air has not been expelled. And so a little 
tongue of ice begins creeping down the val¬ 
ley until it swells into a great river, termi¬ 
nating in a vertical wall hundreds of feet 
in height. As the long, sinuous hand of ice 
continually creeps down from the mount¬ 
ains the topmost portion moves faster than 
the ice below, and finally a piece breaks off, 
either on the mountain side or in the sea, 
if the flow has traveled so far. In this way 
the smaller icebergs are formed. 

“Calving” of icebergs, as the breaking off 
of blocks from the parent glacier is called, 
is produced by the action of the tide. Up¬ 
ward and downward pressure, exerted by 
water at the rise and fall of the tide, on 
submerged portions of the glacier front, 
forces off a strip of ice, which floats away 
as a berg. 

The Humboldt Glacier, sixty miles in 
length, is the most celebrated in Greenland, 
and has a perpendicular face of 300 feet. 
The glacier was discovered by Dr. E. K. 
Kane, U. S. N., in 1853. We take the lib¬ 
erty here to quote from Dr. Kane’s book, 
“Arctic Explorations,” his striking descrip¬ 
tion of it. “My recollections of this glacier 
are very distinct. The day was beautifully 
clear on which I first saw it, and I have a 
number of sketches made as we drove along 
the view of its magnificent face. They dis¬ 


appoint me, giving too much white surface 
and badly fading distances, the grandeur of 
the few bold and simple lines of nature be¬ 
ing almost entirely lost. I will not attempt 
to do better by florid description; men only 
rhapsodize about Niagara, and the Ocean. 
My notes speak simply of the dong, ever- 
shining line of cliff diminished to a well- 
pointed wedge in the perspective,’ and again 
of The face of glistening ice, sweeping in a 
long curve from the low interior’; the facets 
in front of the cliff rose in solid glassy wall 
three hundred feet above water-level, with 
an unknown, unfathomable depth below it, 
and its curved face, sixty miles in length, 
from Cape Agassiz to Cape Forbes, van¬ 
ished into unknown space at not more than a 
single day’s railroad travel from the Pole. 
The interior with which it communicated, 
and from which it issued, was an unsur¬ 
veyed mer de glace, an ice-ocean to the eye, 
of boundless dimensions. It was in full 
sight—the mighty crystal bridge which con¬ 
nects the two continents of America and 
Greenland. I say continents, for Greenland, 
however insulated it may ultimately prove 
to be, is in mass strictly continental. Its 
least possible axis, measured from Cape 
Farewell to the line of this glacier, in the 
neighborhood of the 80th parallel, gives a 
length of more than twelve hundred miles, 
not materially less than that of Australia 
from its northern to its southern cape. Im¬ 
agine, now, the center of such a continent, 
occupied through nearly its whole extent by 
a deep, unbroken sea of ice, that gathers 
perennial increase from the water-shed of 
vast snow-covered mountains and all the 
precipitations of that atmosphere upon its 
own surface. Imagine this, moving onward, 
like a great glacial river, seeking outlets at 
every fiord and valley, rolling icy cataracts 


1 mazing XVonders of feature 


493 


into tlie Atlantic and Greenland seas; and 
having at last reached the northern limit of 
the land that has borne it up, pouring out a 
mighty frozen torrent into unknown Arctic 
space. It is thus, and only thus, that we 
must form a just conception of a phenom¬ 
enon like this great glacier. I had looked, 
in my own mind, for such an appearance, 
should I ever be fortunate enough to reach 
the northern coast of Greenland. But now 
that it was before me, I could hardly realize 
it. I had recognized, in my quiet library 
at home, the beautiful analogies which 
Forbes and Studor have developed between 
the glacier and the river. But I could not 
comprehend at first this complete substitu¬ 
tion of ice for water. It was slowly that the 
conviction dawned on me that I was looking 
upon the counterpart of the great river sys¬ 
tems of Arctic Asia and America. Yet here 
were no water feeders from the south. 
Every particle of moisture had its origin 
within the Polar circle, and had been con¬ 
verted into ice. Here was a plastic moving, 
semi-solid mass, obliterating life, swallow¬ 
ing rocks and islands, and plowing its 
way with irresistible march through the 
crust of an investing sea.” 

The glaciers from which the bergs break 
off crop out all along the Greenland coast. 
On the other side of America, on the Alas¬ 
kan coast, are other great glaciers, one of 
them, the Muir Glacier, being frequently 
visited by summer tourists in excursion par¬ 
ties up the Alaskan coast. But these Alas¬ 
kan glaciers do not send their iceberg chil¬ 
dren far down into the track of vessels in 
the Pacific Ocean, as do those of Greenland 
into the Atlantic. 

Up to the middle of August travelers 
crossing the Forth Atlantic are very likely 
to see the fragments of these great moun¬ 


tains of ice which have floated down from 
Baffin Bay and have not yet entirely melted 
under the influence of the warm weather. 
During some seasons these icebergs form a 
source of considerable danger to ships, and 
more than one collision between a great At¬ 
lantic liner and these navigators from the 
Arctic have been reported in the list of ma¬ 
rine disasters in recent years. Frequently 
the icebergs bring with them a local fog 
which screens them for miles around like 
a low hanging cloud. This results from the 
contact between the warm, moist air rising 
from the ocean, and the cold rays radiated 
from the great body of ice. When a ship 
enters a fog in the Worth Atlantic, at such 
a season, the navigator watches for icebergs 
quite as carefully as for other vessels. lie 
has two sources of warning when danger 
threatens. From the iceberg itself, the 
sound of the steamer’s whistle is echoed 
back to him so that he may judge the direc¬ 
tion of the berg and may estimate its dis¬ 
tance by the time required for the return of 
the echo. As he draws nearer, steaming 
slowly through the fog, a delicate thermom¬ 
eter prepared for the purpose on the bridge 
of the vessel, responds to the cold given off 
from the frozen mass, and the mercurv falls 
rapidly. It is at such times that the skill 
and caution of an able navigator are dis¬ 
played. 

Let us trace the history of one of these 
great icebergs from the time it has broken 
loose from the parent glacier to float away 
into the waters of Baffin Bay, Davis Strait 
and Smith Sound. Seven-eighths of the 
weight of the iceberg is under water and 
one-eighth of it above. When we see an 
iceberg which extends a hundred feet, or, 
perhaps, much more above the water, we 
know that it is practically seven times as 


494 


1 mazing XDonders of JVature 


great below the surface. This suggests the 
enormous mass of ice and indicates the dan¬ 
ger which it threatens to a colliding vessel. 
The current acting upon this mass under 
water causes irregular pieces to be detached. 
Thus the balance of the berg is changed, 
and it turns over sufficiently to restore its 
equilibrium, with the heaviest part once 
more hanging downward in water. It thus 
floats, moving with the current generally 
southward, the sun’s rays, wind and frost 
changing the exposed surface and the out¬ 
line of the berg itself. When the warmer 
currents of water are reached in lower lati¬ 
tudes melting takes place, till the bergs 
finally disappear altogether in the Gulf 
Stream. 

It is this melting of icebergs as they 
move southward into the warm water that 
has built up from the floor of the ocean 
that remarkable tract known as the Grand 
Banks of Newfoundland. The glaciers of 
Greenland carry with them as they move 
toward the sea great quantities of stone and 
sand, gathered as debris from the mountain 
valleys where they were formed. The ice¬ 
bergs breaking away from the glaciers and 
floating southward into the Atlantic carry 
with them these same fragments, and as 
they melt ultimately deposit the debris upon 
the floor of the ocean. This process contin¬ 
uing through centuries upon centuries, they 
have built in the Atlantic a great plateau, 
surrounded by deep water, rising within a 
few hundred feet of the level of the sea. 
This peculiarly submerged plateau lying to 
the southeast of Newfoundland covers an 
area of some 200 by 400 miles. On these 
Grand Banks are the favorite fishing 
grounds of the fleets that sail from Massa¬ 
chusetts and Newfoundland every year for 
cod and mackerel. The greater Atlantic 


liners usually pass to the south of the Grand 
Banks in order to avoid the fogs, the ice¬ 
bergs and. the fishing vessels which obstruct 
the more northern route. But in early sum¬ 
mer the tourist on a vessel sailing from a 
Canadian port and crossing the Grand 
Banks can hardly fail to have the pleasure 
of seeing one or more of these great travel¬ 
ers from the Arctic, as well as numbers of 
the fishing schooners themselves, working 
in these shallower waters. 

We observe that the ice of the bergs looks 
like great masses of chalk or loaf sugar, 
varnished, if you please, or glistening like 
powdered glass. At times it is pure white,, 
at others it looks greenish, and we note that 
this greenish tone is caused by the reflection 
of light upon masses of ice under water, 
thrown back upon the exposed surface. The 
shadow side, away from the sunlight, is a 
beautiful blue, traceable to the reflection 
from the sky. We also see icebergs of a 
beautiful blue color, and these are built up 
of ice formed from fresh water, the water 
melting upon the surface of the glaciers, 
due to evaporation, rain and melting snow, 
being different from ice or frozen water, 
containing salt, in that being much thinner 
or porous, it absorbs light. Charming cobalt 
blue bands are sometimes seen running: 
through bergs, and these are the streams of 
fresh water frozen before the berg was 
formed, invaluable as the fresh water sup¬ 
ply of the Arctic ships. 

Let us look at that great glacier with ir¬ 
regular front, as high as a six-story house, 
with a length of a mile and a half. We 
are steaming about four miles awav, and 
the day is beautifully clear, with bright 
sunshine. The air is crisp, like one of our 
winter days, the water calm as a mill pond, 
and a great silence reigns. Floating pieces 


495 


^ftmazing XOonders of J^alure 


of ice called floebergs and icepans, with a 
seal lying asleep upon them, float by. Arctic 
birds, the puffin, eider duck, mollomokes 
and kittiwakes, fly past; a charming tran¬ 
quillity rests over all and we feel at peace 
with all the world. A great boom is heard, 
like the report of a big gun, echoed and re- 
re-echoed till it dies 
away. We look toward 
the glacier. A mass 
of the ice, as large as 
eight city houses, is 
slowly detaching and 
sliding away, sinking, 
sinking very slowly, 
pushing in front of 
it a high green wave 
of water, which ap¬ 
proaches like a wall. 

As we look the mass 
turns over, and as a 
portion rises the water 
is thrown off in a great 
cataract. The mass 
sinks out of sight, now 
it rises again. It rocks 
from side to side, sinks 
again, nearly out of 
sight; rises again, turns 
a little, and thus for twenty minutes it 
keeps moving. The waves have reached our 
ship, and we rock, heave and dip under 
their influence. At last the berg has set¬ 
tled quietly, and is floating with the 
tide. A beautiful blue cave is visible, 
a great turret at one end, a sloping 
mass rising toward the opposite. A 
great concave channel slanting along its 
base shows the former action of the water 
line. This berg will float southward, grad¬ 
ually melting, changing its form, becoming 
srogller, and finally mingling with the wa¬ 


ters of the Atlantic. Thus an iceberg is 
born and dies. 

J* jt 

TRINIDAD AND ITS 

BITUMINOUS LAKE 

Columbus discovered Trinidad in 1498, 


and gave it that name because of the three 
mast-like mountains on it which appeared 
to rise directly out of the sea. With the 
island of Tobago it forms the British crown 
colony of Trinidad. Trinidad has 1,754 
square miles and its chief town has the 
singular name Port of Spain. At the near¬ 
est point it is only 9 miles across the Gulf 
of Paria to the mainland of Venezuela. 

Hear the village of La Brea is a strange 
fresh-water lake of about 300 acres, the sur¬ 
face of which is covered with pitch. The 
asphalt bubbles up in the center and hard- 












496 


Imazing 'Wonders o_f feature 


ens upon tlie surface, from which it is taken 
for export. The deepest soundings have 
never been able to reach any bottom, al¬ 
though the surface of the lake is only 80 
feet above sea level. 

On the shore nearest the lake a great deal 
of bitumen is throwil up by the sea. The 
pitch on the side of the lake next to the sea 
is never hard, but on the other side it hard¬ 
ens to a great depth and is rent in fissures 
twenty or thirty feet across. This part of 
the lake, from which about 100,000 tons 
are annually exported, consists of 110 acres. 

It is estimated that this lake alone would 
pave all the streets of the world, and that 
the supply is inexhaustible for all human 
purposes. 

Jt & & 

DEATH VALLEY 

Away out in California, near the south¬ 
ern extremity of Nevada, far from any 
railwav and lying in the heart of a barren, 
desert country, is that fatal depression 
marked on all maps by the name which it 
has long justified, “Death Valley.” The 
gloomy history of the place for many a 
year has deterred even the most curious of 
visitors to the neighborhood from attempt¬ 
ing to traverse its barren expanse. And 
yet Death Valley is being explored in all 
its parts. Tell that to a Californian and he 
will laugh at you. “It is impossible,” lie 
will jeer. “The fools who try to ask that 
mouth of hell for its mysteries will die. 
Death Valley cannot be explored.” 

But Death Valley is being explored. 
And the explorers are not plainsmen inured 
to hardship, but college professors from 
the East. They come from Boston and 
Chicago, and are botanists, biologists, and 
mineralogists. Tell that to a Californian, 


and he will say that you are insane or they 
are. 

Death Valley comes by its name honestly. 
It is the most hideous and most fatal spot 
known to man. No spot in Asia or Africa 
is so destructive to life. No depression on 
earth i$ so far beneath sea level. No other 
place on earth is so hot. No other desert 
is dryer. 

At one point in the Valley, where the 
depression is 200 feet beneath the level of 
the sea, and the width across seven miles, 
a mountain rises on one side to the height 
of two aniles, and on the other side is an¬ 
other mountain 8,000 feet high. The sides 
of the two mountains are almost sheer. 
Into this pit, with its bottom of borax dirt, 
waterless, the sun beats directly down in 
summer, and not a breath of wind is ever 
felt on its floor. 

That seven-mile stretch between Euneral 
Peak and Telescope Peak is the crudest 
and most horrible spot on the face of the 
whole earth. No man could be alive in 
it in summer for half an hour. The tem¬ 
perature has never been taken. In other 
parts of Death Valley 137 degrees has been 
observed and recorded, but no record has 
ever been made of the summer heat of that 
terrible seven-mile stretch. 

Death Valley is a land of paradoxes. In 
the summer it kills off the healthy who so 
much as approach it. In the fall it heals 
and restores the sick who invade it. 

John B. Spears wrote of it: “It is a 
place where rain-storms are well nigh un¬ 
known, and yet one where the effects of 
cloudbursts are almost unparalleled. It is 
the hottest place on earth, and yet ice often 
forms there. It is a place where the air be¬ 
comes so arid that men have died through 
lack of moisture when abundant water was 


mazing X&Jonders o_f attire 


497 


at hand, and yet the stopping place of hun¬ 
dreds of duck, geese, and other fowl. It is 
a region where the heds of lakes are found 
on the pointed peaks of the mountains. It 
is a region where a mountain system of the 
most gorgeous colored rocks is known as 
the Funeral Range. It is a rent in the 
earth, the bottom of which, in spite of the 
washings, probably is deeper below the level 
of the sea than that of any other valley 
in the world.” 

Death Valley has mines and marshes and 
borax beds. For this reason the exploring 
party is invading a part of the valley hith¬ 
erto let alone, for the Los Angeles, San 
Pedro and Salt Lake Railway is running a 
new line across the desert country, north of 
the valley. The road will make somebody 
rich who owns part of Death Valley and 
keeps away from it. And it will kill lots 
of men who own nothing of it and go into it. 

The bottom of the valley is made of great 
acres of saline deposits, beds of borax and 
salt, which, under a strong sunshine, pre¬ 
sent a ghastly appearance with their glist¬ 
ening whiteness. The bedrocks are shale 
and schist left from the Jura-Triassic pe¬ 
riod, but a most extensive volcanic eruption 
has so scattered and demoralized the vari¬ 
ous formations, that widely different de¬ 
posits are often found within a few feet 
of one another. There are dozens of craters 
of extinct volcanoes in the valley, and with 
their blackened ruins and coating of dark 
cinders, acres of area, the general whiteness 
of the valley bottoms stands out all the 
more lonely and ghastly. 

Death Valley lies in Inyo County, many 
miles from the nearest railroad, 350 miles 
from the Pacific Ocean, and close beside 
the Revada-California state line. It is a 
part of the Mojave and Colorado deserts, 


and is the quintessence of all that is mel¬ 
ancholy, grim, and withered in desert char¬ 
acteristics. The valley proper is about one 
hundred miles long and fifty miles wide. 

The mirages of Death Valley are the 
most remarkable in the world. Every day 
in any season one sees among the parched 
hills and scaled mountain sides, phantasmic 
pictures, miles in area, of foaming moun¬ 
tain streams, sylvan shades, alfalfa fields, 
and browsing cattle-scenes, reflected from 
the sides and tops of the Sierras. Oeca- 
sionailv scenes from the Pacific Ocean may 
be reflected in the mirages, and sailing 
ships and tossing waves may he seen amid 
the shimmering, desolate sand hills and al¬ 
kali canons of Death Valley. The Indians 
call the mirages the Big Spirit’s pictures. 
Sometimes in the hottest weather the 
mirage will remain floating wonderfully 
distinct in the valley for a day at a time, 
hut generally it lasts only a few minutes. 
Then the phantasma vanishes in a twink¬ 
ling, to he soon succeeded by another, until 
as manv as seven different mirages have 
been seen there in one day. 

Sand storms are a serious thing on the 
Colorado and Mojave deserts, but nowhere 
do they approach the deadliness of the sand 
storm in Death Valley. The simoons of 
the Arabian Deserts are well known in lit¬ 
erature, but the explorers of Death Valley 
sav the simoons are mere babes bv the side 
of a howling gale of hot sand in this place. 
The hot air rising from the canons and the 
bottom of the valley encounters the cold 
atmospheric currents from the Sierras and 
Rockies, and the rushing of the cooler air 
into the valley instantly creates a storm 
undreamed of in any other part of the 
world. For hours at a time the sand storm 
rages, occasionally for a day and a night. 


498 


mazing T&Jonderf of JWature 


Nothing alive can brave the hurricane. 
The man who will keep close within a tent, 
with his head wrapped in a blanket, will 
survive, but he will suffer with the heat al¬ 
most as severely as if in an oven, and for 
days thereafter with pain from smarting 
nostrils and inflamed ears and eyes. Old- 
time plainsmen who know about all the 
hardships a man’s anatomy can experience, 
are a unit in saying that the desert sand 
storm, more particularly a Death Valley 
sand storm, is the most trying physical or¬ 
deal. The mountains which bulwark Death 
Valley show the terrific erosion of their 
flinty faces by successions of these tem¬ 
pests. Here and there are starved grease- 
root plants, like stunted, starved trees that 
have been half-buried in the sand during 
v these storms. Many a man who has been 
a desert teamster or a mining prospector 
has suffered chronic inflammation of the 
eyes by reason of having experienced one 
of these whirlwinds of alkali sand. 

The nearest water course to Death Val¬ 
ley is the Amargosa River, a little stream 
that trickles down in an enormous bed from 
away up among the mountains in Nevada. 
Centuries ago the Amargosa was a mighty, 
roaring torrent that eroded granite rocks 
and ate a river bed half a mile wide for 
over eighty miles. The Amargosa touches 
the extreme southwestern end of Death Val¬ 
ley, and in this locality lizards and venom¬ 
ous crawling things may be occasionally 
seen darting from under the rocks. In the 
same locality tiny rivulets of heavily 
charged borax water issue from the base 
of ancient volcanoes and form in pools. 
Hundreds of acres of the purest borax are 
created here by the intense evaporation, 
and large fortunes have been made bv Cali- 
fornians, Avho haul the nroduct across the 

/ x 


desert to the railroad station in Mojave. 

Death Valley gets its name from its 
ghastly aspect, its desolation, and its deadly 
effect upon many a venturesome or igno¬ 
rant mining prospector who has attempted 
to cross it in the summer, and who has died 
of thirst there. Among all the tales of grim 
hardships and dreadful suffering by emi¬ 
grants to California before there were rail¬ 
roads west of the Missouri River, none is 
sc pitiful as that of the party who got lost 
in Death Valley in 1849. There were five 
hundred emigrants in a caravan at Salt 
Lake City in August of that year. All 
were going to the gold fields of California. 
A division of opinion arose as to the safest 
and easiest trail across the trackless plains 
and the Sierras to the new El Dorado. 
Some two hundred of the party struck out 
for the southeast and found the old Santa 
Fe trail, which finally led them to southern 
California. The rest went plodding in a 
caravan across the wastes of southern Utah. 
There was nothing to show them the way 
through the lifeless, roasting valley, past 
the bald mountains, and then westward over 
the towering Sierras. 

The caravan was in the land of thirst. 
For four months the starving, half-crazed 
men and women wandered hither and yon 
through the region of horror, seeking some 
pass between the mountains to the Pacific 
Ocean. Mirages led them vainly away 
from the trail. Their wagons fell apart 
from dryness, and horses daily fell under 
the withering heat. The oxen fell, and 
the stalwart men sickened and died in the 
camps. One day nine young men became 
separated from the main party, and years 
later their whitened bones were found in 
an extinct volcano crater, where they had 
crawled in their delirium and weakness. 


Imazing XOonders of laturp 


499 


For days the gaunt, weak men in the 
party went without food. The days w T ere 
too hot to he out in the sun, and they con¬ 
fined their efforts to the nights for finding 
paths that might lead out of the roasting 
tomb. 

At last eighty-two of the original party 
—now mere skeletons and so weak they 
could scarcely walk—found a passageway 
through the Funeral Mountains, and sum¬ 
moning all their little remaining strength, 
managed to get up and out of Death Val¬ 
ley into the cool and well-watered region of 
southern California, beyond the Sierras. 
One of the party, the Rev. J. W. Grier, 
weighed 188 pounds when he left Salt Lake 
City, and wdien he reached Los Angeles 
eighteen w T eeks later his weight was down 
to 92 pounds. Two of his brothers and 
one of his sisters-in-law T died during the 
awful journey. 

The story of the destroyer is not told 
without an account of Lieutenant Wheeler. 
Wheeler was a young officer fresh from 
West Point, who, immediately upon his 
graduation, in 1870, w r as assigned to a one- 
company post in western Nevada. After 
going through the loneliness of a .Nevada 
winter in his little post, under direct com¬ 
mand of his captain, a former West Point 
instructor, with whom he had quarreled at 
the academy, Wheeler came to an open per¬ 
sonal breach with his captain in the spring 
and vowed henceforth he would speak no 
words to his superior other than those en¬ 
joined upon him by the military regula¬ 
tions. The captain, resenting his subor¬ 
dinate’s silence, piled upon him every dis¬ 
agreeable, onerous and unnecessary duty 
conceivable. 

In July, 1871, his captain ordered 
young Wheeler to take two men and search 


for the most direct path across Death Val- 
. * ^ heeler marched off in the direction 

of the mantrap, and when he arrived at the 
edge of the valley of destruction he sought 
a guide. A halfbreed Mexican and Indian 
volunteered for $20 to steer the party 
across. “Here is your money,” shouted 
Wheeler, “and now I'll hold you to what 
you said. Start across.” 

The halfbreed, frightened at the earnest¬ 
ness of the man whom he had expected to 
hoodwink, began to hack and fill on his 
offer. “Fix bayonets,” ordered Wheeler to 
his two men. They did so. “Now march 
that man across that pit in front of you.” 

Toward nightfall the three started, the 
two soldiers with fixed bayonets, the guide 
in front of them. The next morning the 
two soldiers came hack separately. One 
was utterly raving and permanently insane. 
The other, suffering from sun-stroke, drank 
a few drops from Wheeler’s canteen, then 
lay down to rest in a boulder’s shade. In 
the afternoon he was dead. Wheeler was 
never sane after his all-night vigil waiting 
by the side of Death Valley for his two 
men to come back. The guide wandered 
off from the two soldiers and was never 
seen alive again, although his wife identi¬ 
fied his bones the following winter by 
means of a string of beads which he wore 
around his neck. 

-jt 

BORAX AND ITS PRODUCTION 

Every man who went to California in the 
early ’50s hoped to have a gold mine of his 
own, where he could settle down and be¬ 
come as wealthy as a national bank with 
little or no exertion. But unfortunately 
nature has not provided enough gold mines 


500 


^/tmazing XOonders of feature 



ifi o 


> 2 


£ 3 X 


c f- 


QJ O 


£3 ft 


C12 


JZ o 


OO o 


~ ft 


nd - 


o> ^ 


Qj 




OO 


o 


TO T3 


to go all around. Consequently it was not 
long before the country was flooded with 
a tatterdemalion swarm of men, half 
miners, half tenderfeet, who, instead of 
being their own millionaires, were seeking 
an opportunity to relieve the ache under 
their belts. They were also bent on discov¬ 
ering something—that is what they had 
come for—and if it couldn’t be a gold 
mine it might be a silver mine, a diamond 
drift or anything—they cared very little 
what. And that is how the vast borax de¬ 
posits of the region came to be unearthed. 

Previous to that time borax came mostly 
from Asia, and it was an expensive and 
little known commodity, sold from some 
small glass bottle on the apothecary’s shelf. 
But within ten years after the time the dis¬ 
appointed gold miners found the deposits 
of borax it had become almost as common as 
table salt. Today the w 7 ork of digging, 


transporting and refining it has grown to 
be a vast industry. 

Borax was discovered out west by a man 
with an idea. Dr. John A. Veatch was a 
good deal of a geologist, and when he went 
west to look for gold and saw the vast 
stretches of parched and bitter alkaline 
plains he concluded from his knowledge of 
rock formations that borax could be found 


somewhere in the region. 


So he began to 


look for it deliberately, and one day early 
in 1856 his prospecting spade struck a 
small deposit in a dried lake bottom. It 
was not worth much, but it set a great crowd 
of miners peering about in the hope of find¬ 
ing better deposits. A few years after, 
some prospectors discovered that the bot¬ 
toms of several California lakes were full 
of borax crystals, and from mining in the 
earth they began pumping water out of 
huge caissons set in the mud and then dig¬ 
ging the earth up inside them and washing 






Si mazing onders of JVature 


501 


out the crystals. Although the borax thus 
found was not pure it could he used for 
manufacturing fluxes of various sorts, and 
the substance Avas greatly cheapened. 

But the greatest discovery was made in 
that great, hot region, “Death Valley,” in 
California. It was made in a most ro¬ 
mantic waA r . In-1880 Aaron Winters lived 
«/ 

with his wife, Rosie, in a gulch known as 
Ash WeadoAvs, not far from the deadly 
mouth of Death Valley.' lie was so fond 
of his Avife that he would not alloAv her to 
be long absent from him, although their 
little hut on the side of the mountain Avas 
100 miles from the nearest neighbor in a 
Avild, rugged, forsaken country. One dav 
a desert tramp came along and stopped OA^er 
night at the Winters home and told the 
hunter about the borax deposits of Xevada. 
When he went aAvay Winters thought that 
he had seen deposits of the kind described 
on his explorations doAvn into Death Val¬ 
ley. Accordingly the strange couple Avent 
together to make the search, having pre¬ 
viously provided themselves with certain 
test chemicals, which, when combined Avitli 
borax and ignited, Avould produce a green 
flame. 

Having procured a piece of the substance 
Avhich he believed to be borax, Winters and 
his wife waited for nightfall to make the 
test. How would it burn ? For years they 
had lived like Piutes on the desert, entirely 
without luxuries and often wanting for the 
A r erv necessities of life. Would the match 
change all that ? Winters held the blaze to 
the substance with a trembling hand, then 
shouted at the top of his voice: “She burns 
green, Rosie! We’re rich! We’re rich!” 

They had found borax. The mine was 
sold for $20,000, and Winters took Rosie 
to a ranch in Hevada, but she could not 


stand prosperity, and a feAV years later she 
died. 

Borax crystals are no longer dug even in 
California and Hevada, because the sub¬ 
stance has been found in much more conve¬ 
nient form for refining in combination with 
lime. In this state it occurs in mountain 
strata, and it has to be mined exactly like 
silver or copper, but the cost is far greater. 
In the first place the region is totally desti¬ 
tute of water and fuel of any kind, both of 
which have to be transported long distances. 
Indeed, so dry is the country that work¬ 
men frequently go insane, and both men 
and horses perish miserably from thirst if 
Avater is not kept constantly at hand. 

Besides all of the difficulties, accentuated 
by the necessity of having the finest ma¬ 
chinery and skilled labor, all of the ore has 
to be transported for scores of miles over 
the desert before it reaches the railroads. 

This Avork is mostlv done bA r the aid of 

«/ «/ 

huge wagons with broad-tire wheels, weigh- 
ing about 8,000 pounds each and having a 
carrying capacity of 20,000 pounds. To 
each Avagon several teams of horses and 
mules are hitched, and the long trip across 
the desert and through perilous mountain 
passes begins. One of the wagons in the 
train is provided Avith a tank of Avater, for 
it would be impossible to travel without it. 
The drivers are rugged, fearless men, par¬ 
taking of the characteristics of the country. 
They can SAvear as artistically at their 
mules as anv teamsters in the Avorld, and 
can drink as much whisky, but they are 
withal a hearty, hospitable set. 

On reaching the railroad the ore from the 
great wagons is loaded on box-cars and 
transported several hundred miles to the 
refineries, one of the largest of which is lo¬ 
cated on San Francisco bay. Here the 


502 


^/tmazing *COonders of JV attire 


rough, broken masses of brown rock are un¬ 
loaded at the door of a long, slied-like build¬ 
ing, and the process which is to transform 
it into beautiful crystals of borax is soon 
under way. The crude material first passes 
between the jaws of a rock-breaker, from 
which it comes out in small, pebble-like 
pieces. Then it goes into the hopper of a 
machine not unlike an old-fashioned buhr- 
stone flour-mill, where it is thoroughly pul¬ 
verized. It now has about the appearance 
of buckwheat flour, and is ready for the 
final process of separating the borax. 

To accomplish this it is thrown into a 
great steam chest or pressure boiler, called a 
digester, and carbonate soda in a fixed pro¬ 
portion is added. When heat is applied in 
the furnace below and the mass within the 
boiler is churned with plungers, the diges¬ 
tion in the big stomach begins. The car¬ 
bonic acid in the carbonate of soda sudden¬ 
ly deserts the soda, and unites after many 
spurts and fizzings with the lime in the 
borax ore, which is nothing more than bo¬ 
rate of lime. Then the boracic acid in the 
ore finds more attractive company with 
the deserted soda, and in the united state 
becomes bichlorate of sodium, which is onlv 
the aristocratic name for borax. It is still 
in solution, however, and as soon as it cools 
off it is run into great vats filled with a 
myriad of steel rods. On these rods the 
borax crystallizes just as rock candy clings 
to a string. When the borax is all out of 
solution the rods are withdrawn from the 
water, and the crystals of borax scraped 
off. By dissolving them again and recrys¬ 
tallizing, a purer form of borax is secured. 
When powdered it is ready for the market. 

Borax is used in hundreds of different 
ways, and, as people become more famil¬ 
iar with it, the demand grows greater. The 


great packers consume large quantities in 
the dry packing of meat for export, and 
iron and glass workers and enameling fac¬ 
tories use it constantly as a flux. 

But the greatest portion of the whole 
amount is consumed in the household. ISTot 
being a patented commodity it sells at its 
real market value, which is about 7 cents a 
pound. Its alkaline properties make it val¬ 
uable for softening hard water, and for 
cleaning woodwork. Almost every house¬ 
wife is familiar witli it. It is also used in 
various wavs as a medicine and in the 
toilet. It is also said to be death on insects 
of all kinds. 

An artificial ivorv, called lactitis, is now 
made of skimmed milk coagulated, mixed 
with borax, and submitted to tremendou 
pressure. This substance is used for confix, 
billiard balls and other articles. 

& Jt 

THE GRAND CANYON OF 
ARIZONA 

Travelers agree that the Grand Canyon 
of Arizona, formed where the Colorado 
river has carved a great channel for itself 
across the northwestern part of that terri¬ 
tory, is the most wonderful of all scenic 
displays in the world. For many years this 
amazing chasm was unknown to white men 
or unvisited by them, but in more recent 
times trails were cut and then roads, and 
now a railway has been built until it may 
be viewed with entire comfort and ease by 
any one who takes the transcontinental 
journey by way of the railway which 
reaches the brink of the canyon. As access 
became easier and travelers began to in¬ 
crease in number, the beauties and gran¬ 
deur of the place became better known. 


mazing XOonders of ffature 


503 


To-day it is tlie favored destination of 
geologists, artists and explorers who find no 
other scene so worthy of their attention in 
all the world. Some of the most eminent 
literary men and graphic lecturers have 
journeyed thither, and their accounts, al¬ 
though falling far short of giving a com¬ 


plete idea of the wonders of the place, are 
the next thing to a personal journey of 
investigation. 

The first real exploration of the Grand 
Canyon was made by Major J. W. Powell 
in 1869, and since that time no other ex¬ 
ploration has equaled his journey in dar¬ 
ing or surpassed it in achievements. He 


has published a book of great value, de¬ 
scriptive of that exploration and others 
which he made in succeeding years. The 
artist George Wharton James, some years 
later, lived for a considerable period on the 
brink of the Canyon and in its depths, 
studying its varied moods and painting it 


in intimacy, with the result that he too 
issued a beautiful volume which serves as 
the best reference book and guide to the 
region. Other minor books have been pub¬ 
lished, including artistic and valuable 
guides issued by the railway company. 
Magazine articles have been contributed by 
such authors as C. F. Lummis, Harriet 



By Courtesy of the Santa Fe Railway. 

IN THE GRAND CANYON OF ARIZONA. 

Showing the Colorado River in the inner gorge at the foot of Bright Angel Trail. 









504 


^/Imazing XOonders of feature 


Monroe, Joaquin Miller, Hamlin Garland, 
Charles Dudley Warner and others. Poets, 
too, as well as painters and photographers, 
have lent their art in the effort to interpret 
and picture the glories of the Canyon. It 
is a subject of never failing interest and 
one to which no one has yet done justice. 

Few men have known the Grand Can von 

*/ 

of Arizona better than did C. A. Higgins, 
who camped in it, traveled all its trails, 
and studied it in every one of its chang¬ 
ing conditions. An artist by temperament, 
he saw the spendid scene in all its signifi¬ 
cance, and with a graphic pen told what 
he saw in modest fashion. The account 
which follows is condensed from an article 
by Mr. Higgins. 

“The Colorado is one of the great rivers 
of North America. Formed in southern 
Utah by the confluence of the Green and 
Grand, it intersects the northwestern cor¬ 
ner of Arizona, and, becoming the eastern 
boundary of Nevada and California, flows 
southward until it reaches tidewater in the 
Gulf of California, Mexico. It drains a 
territory of 300,000 square miles, and, 
traced back to the rise of its principal 
source, is 2,000 miles long. At two points, 
Needles and Yuma on the California 
boundary, it is crossed by a railroad. Else¬ 
where its course lies far from Caucasian 
settlements and far from the routes of com¬ 
mon travel, in the heart of a vast region 
fenced on the one hand by arid plains or 
deep forests and on the other by formid¬ 
able mountains. 

“The early Spanish explorers first re¬ 
ported it to the civilized world in 1540, 
two separate expeditions becoming ac¬ 
quainted with the river for a comparatively 
short distance above its mouth, and an¬ 
other, journeying from the Moki Pueblos 


northwestward across the desert, obtaining 
the first view of the Big Canyon, failing in 
every effort to descend the canyon wall, and 
spying the river only from afar. Again, in 
1776, a Spanish priest traveling southward 
through Utah struck off from the Virgin 
River to the southeast and found a practi¬ 
cable crossing at a point that still bears the 
name ‘Vade de los Padres.’ 

“For more than eighty years thereafter 
the Big Canyon remained unvisited except 
by the Indian, the Mormon herdsman and 
the trapper, although the Sitgreaves expedi¬ 
tion of 1851, journeying westward, struck 
the river about 150 miles above Yuma, and 
Lieutenant Whipple in 1854 made a survey 
for a practicable railroad route along the 
thirty-fifth parallel, where the Santa Fe 
railway has since been constructed. 

“The establishment of military posts in 
New Mexico and Utah having made desir¬ 
able the use of a waterway for the cheap 
transportation of supplies, in 1857 the War 
Department dispatched an expedition in 
charge of Lieutenant Ives to explore the 
Colorado as far from its mouth as naviffa- 
tion should be found practicable. Ives as¬ 
cended the river in a specially constructed 
steamboat to the head of Black Canyon, a 
few miles below the confluence of the Vir¬ 
gin River in Nevada, where further navi¬ 
gation became impossible; then, returning 
to the Needles, he set off across the country 
toward the northeast. He reached the Biff 

O 

Canyon at Diamond Creek and at Cataract 
Creek in the spring of 1858, and from the 
latter point made a wide southward detour 
around the San Francisco Peaks, thence 
northeastward to the Moki Pueblos, thence 
eastward to Fort Defiance, and so back to 
civilization. 

“That is the history of the explorations 


Imazing XOonders of feature 


505 


of the Colorado up to forty years 'ago. Its 
exact course was unknown for many hun¬ 
dred miles, even its origin being a matter 
of conjecture. It was difficult to approach 
within a distance of two or three miles from 
the channel, while descent to the river’s 
edge could be hazarded only at wide inter¬ 
vals, inasmuch as it lay in an appalling fis¬ 
sure at the foot of seemingly impassable 
cliff terraces that led down from the bor¬ 
dering plateau; and to attempt its naviga¬ 
tion was to court death. It was known in a 
general way that the entire channel be¬ 
tween Nevada and Utah was of the same 
titanic character, reaching its culmination 
nearly midway in its course through Ari¬ 
zona. 

“In 1869 Major J. W. Powell undertook 
the exploration of the river with nine men 
and four boats, starting from Green Piver 
City, on the Green Piver, in Utah. The 
project met with the most urgent remon¬ 
strance from those who were best ac¬ 
quainted with the region, including the In¬ 
dians, who maintained that boats could not 
possibly live in any one of a score of rapids 
and falls known to them, to say nothing of 
the vast unknown stretches in which at any 
moment a Niagara might be disclosed. It 
was also currently believed that for hun¬ 
dreds of miles the river disappeared wholly 
beneath the surface of the earth. 

“Powell launched his flotilla on May 24, 
and on August 30 landed at the mouth of 
the Virgin River, more than one thousand 
miles by the river channel from the place 
of starting, minus two boats and four men. 
One of the men had left the expedition by 
way of an Indian reservation agency be¬ 
fore reaching Arizona, and three, after 
holding out against unprecedented terrors 
for many weeks, had finally become 


daunted, choosing to encounter the perils 
of an unknown desert rather than to brave 
any longer the frightful menaces of that 
Stygian torrent. These three, unfortun¬ 
ately making their appearance on the pla¬ 
teau at a time when a recent depredation 
was colorably chargeable upon them, they 
were killed by Indians, their story of hav¬ 
ing come thus far down the river in boats 
being wholly discredited by their captors. 

“Powell’s journal of the trip is a fascin¬ 
ating tale, written in a compact and modest 
style, which, in spite of its reticence, tells 
an epic story of purest heroism. It defin¬ 
itely established the scene of his explora¬ 
tion as the most wonderful geological and 
spectacular phenomenon known to man¬ 
kind, and justified the name which had 
been bestowed upon it—the Grand Canyon, 
sublimest of gorges, Titan of chasms. 
Many scientists have since visited it, and, 
in the aggregate, a large number of unpro¬ 
fessional lovers of nature; but until a few 
years ago no adequate facilities were pro¬ 
vided for the general siglit-seer, and the 
world’s most stupendous panorama was 
known principally through report, by rea¬ 
son of the discomforts and difficulties of the 
trip, which deterred all except the most 
indefatigable enthusiasts. Even its geo¬ 
graphical location is the subject of wide¬ 
spread misapprehension. 

“Its title has been pirated for application 
to relatively insignificant canyons in dis¬ 
tant parts of the country, and thousands 
of tourists have been led to believe that 
they saw the Grand Canyon, when, in fact, 
they looked upon a totally different scene, 
between which and the real Grand Canyon 
there is no more comparison Than there is 
between the Alleghenies or Trosachs and 
the Himalayas.’ There is but one Grand 


506 


Imaxing ^Oonders of JSfature 


Canyon. Nowhere in the world has its like 
been found. 

“Stolid, indeed, is he who can front the 
awful scene and view its unearthly splen¬ 
dor of color and form without quaking knee 
or tremulous breath. An inferno, swathed 
in soft celestial fires; a whole chaotic un¬ 
derworld, just emptied of primeval floods 
and waiting for a new creative word; elud¬ 
ing all sense of perspective or dimension, 
outstretching the faculty of measurement, 
overlapping the confines of definite appre¬ 
hension ; a boding, terrible thing, unflinch¬ 
ingly real, yet spectral as a dream. The 
beholder is at first unimpressed by any de¬ 
tail ; he is overwhelmed by the ensemble of 
a stupendous panorama, a thousand square 
miles in extent, that lies wholly beneath 
the eye, as if he stood upon a mountain 
peak instead of the level brink of a fearful 
chasm in the plateau, whose opposite shore 
is thirteen miles away. A labyrinth of 
huge architectural forms, endlessly varied 
in design, fretted with ornamental devices, 
festooned with lacelike webs formed of 
talus from the upper cliffs, and painted 
with every color known to the palette in 
pure transparent tones of marvelous deli¬ 
cacy. Never was picture more harmoni¬ 
ous, never flower more exquisitely beauti¬ 
ful. It flashes instant communication of 
all that architecture and painting and 
music for a thousand years have gropingly 
striven to express.. It is the soul of Michael 
Angelo and of Beethoven. 

“A canyon, truly, hut not after the ac¬ 
cepted type. An intricate system of can¬ 
yons, rather, each subordinate to the river 
system in the midst, which in its turn is 
subordinate to the whole effect. That river 
channel, the profoundest depth, and ac¬ 
tually more than 6,000 feet below the point 


of view, is in seeming a rather insignificant 
trench, attracting the eye more by reason 
of its somber tone and mysterious sugges¬ 
tion than by any appreciable characteris¬ 
tic of a chasm. It is perhaps five miles dis¬ 
tant in a straight line, and its uppermost 
rims are nearly 4,000 feet beneath the ob¬ 
server, whose measuring capacity is en¬ 
tirely inadequate to the demand made by 
such magnitudes. One can not believe the 
distance to be more than a mile as the crow 
flies, before descending the wall or attempt¬ 
ing some other form of actual measure¬ 
ment. 

“Mere brain knowledge counts for little 
against the illusion under which the organ 
of vision is here doomed to labor. Yonder 
cliff, darkening from white to gray, yellow 
and brown as your glance descends, is taller 
than the Washington monument. The 
Auditorium in Chicago would not cover 
one-half its perpendicular span. Yet it 
does not greatly impress you. You idly 
toss a pebble toward it, and are surprised 
to note how far the missile falls short. By 
and by you will learn that it is a good half 
mile distant, and when you go down the 
trail you wfill gain an abiding sense of its 
real proportions. Yet, relatively, it is an 
unimportant detail of the scene. Were 
Vulcan to cast it bodily into the chasm 
directly beneath your feet, it would pass 
for a boulder, if, indeed, it were discover¬ 
able to the unaided eye. 

‘ “Yet the immediate chasm itself is only 
the first step of a long terrace that leads 
down to the innermost gorge and the river. 
Roll a heavy stone to the rim and let it go. 
It falls sheer the height of a church or an 
Eiffel Tower, according to the point se¬ 
lected for such pastime, and explodes like 
a bomb on a projecting ledge. If, happily, 


^tmazing *€£)onders of JSattire 


507 


any considerable fragments remain, they 
bound onward like elastic balls, leaping 
in wild parabola from point to point, snap¬ 
ping trees like straws; bursting, crashing, 
thundering down the declivities, until they 
make a last plunge over the brink of a 
void; and then there comes languidly up 
the cliff sides a faint roar, and your boulder 
that had withstood the buffets of centuries 
lies scattered as wide as Wycliffe’s ashes, 
although the final fragment has lodged 
only a little way, so to speak, below the 
rim. Such performances are frequently 
given in these amphitheaters without hu¬ 
man aid, by the mere undermining of the 
rain, or perhaps it is here that Sisyphus 
rehearses his unending task. Often in the 
silence of the night some tremendous frag¬ 
ment has been heard crashing from terrace 
to terrace with shocks like thunder peal. 

“The spectacle is so symmetrical, and so 
completely excludes the outside world and 
its accustomed standards, it is with diffi¬ 
culty one can acquire any notion of its im¬ 
mensity. Were it half as deep, half as 
broad, it would be no less bewildering, so 
utterly does it baffle human grasp.” 

Within the last few years a hotel has 
been built on the very verge of the canyon, 
and a railway has been built which connects 
directly with the transcontinental trains at 
the station of Williams, Arizona. This 
makes the journey available for any trav¬ 
eler, and since the train service to the rim 
of the canyon was established, visitors 
have multiplied rapidly. This is one of 
nature’s marvels which can not be spoiled 
by the arrival of numbers or the building 
of hotels, so enormous is it, and with the 
Colorado river still roaring in its channel, 
continuing the mighty work of erosion, we 
may presume that the Grand Canyon of 


Arizona will remain as long as the world 
lasts, carving a deeper gorge, century by 
century, inspiring profound emotions in 
the beholders after generations have passed. 

jt jt jc 

THE DAKOTA “BAD LANDS” 

Hardly more than half a century ago, 
some of our greatest statesmen earnestly 
opposed any legislation or expenditure for 
the development or the exploration of 
the great region of the United States 
west of the Mississippi river. Even 
Daniel Webster, when the first transcon¬ 
tinental railway was under discussion in 
Congress, declared that he would never vote 
to appropriate one cent to connect the east 
with the Pacific coast, across thousands of 
miles of utterly worthless, uninhabitable 
desert country. A few government explor¬ 
ing parties had traversed the great west 
and reported on it, and accounts of various 
regions had come from daring pioneers and 
explorers who had forced their way be¬ 
yond the frontier, out of sheer joy of life 
in the wilderness. This was virtually the 
extent of knowledge of what is now the 
prosperous and populous land of the west. 

Such areas as what we know as the “Bad 
Lands” of Dakota, the “Terres Mauvaises” 
of the French voyageurs, went far to justify 
the bad name which was ascribed to the 
entire country before it was realized that 
these peculiar formations were but a small 
portion of the whole. We can well spare 
a little of the vast domain which our coun¬ 
try holds between the Mississippi and the 
Pacific to display the varied works of na¬ 
ture in different humors. The mountain 
ranges, the canyons, the waterfalls, the glow 
of color on the rock walls of cliff and gorge 


508 


mazing ^Oonders o_f feature 


—these all have their value as truly as do 
the wide and fertile prairies or the mighty 
forests. The Yosemite Valley, the Yellow¬ 
stone National Park, the Grand Canyon of 
Arizona, the Garden of the Gods and the 
Bad Lands of Dakota are wonderful and 
beautiful instances of the variety of na¬ 
ture’s impulses and works when forces are 
unrestrained. 

The Bad Lands occupy a large part of 
southwestern South Dakota, between the 


Missouri river and the Black Hills. They 
are tracts of barrenness, reminders of a 
prehistoric age, and of special interest to 
the geologist, as the place of deposit for 
petrifactions, which they have hidden aw T ay 
for ages under as forbidding ground as can 
well be imagined. They are a picture of 
desolation, seamed and gashed by the ele¬ 
ments, ribbed and trussed by strata of fos¬ 
sils great and small, which seem to hold 
the sterile soil together, while cactus and 
sage-brush are the only visible forms of 


vegetation. The richness of the fossil beds 
has attracted the attention of many scien¬ 
tific expeditions since access to this strange 
region became easy. The great universi¬ 
ties of the east and west send parties of 
their geological students here every year, 
under the leadership of their professors, to 
delve into the mysteries of the past as they 
are indelibly recorded in the eternal rock. 

But the scientific visitor is not the only 
one well repaid by a journey to the Bad 

Lands. Nature’s freak¬ 
ish humor here has 
made a multitude of 
interesting things even 
in the worst of the bar¬ 
renness and desolation. 
Grotesque carvings in 
the rocks; the tangle 
of canyons, cliffs and 
buttes ; the glow of 
varied color that meets 
the eye; the pure air 
and the beautiful sun¬ 
sets, all unite to make 
the region one of great 
interest even to the lay¬ 
man. 

Historically the Bad 
Lands are closely as¬ 
sociated with the Black Hills, which are 
their neighbors. During the period of 
frontier warfare, when the gold discoveries 
around Deadwood had stimulated the in¬ 
vasion of white men to violate their 
treaties with the Indians, these regions were 
citadels for the savages. Among the laby¬ 
rinths of the hills and gulches .they could 
evade pursuit or plan their raids to best 
advantage. Custer, Llarney, Miles and the 
other great campaigners of the west found 
their task a difficult one to conquer the red 





509 


Imaxing XOonders o_f feature 


enemy in such a country and establish him 
in peace on the reservations to the east of 
the Black Hills. Here was where Sitting 
Bull fought some of his greatest fights. 
How the Bad Lands and the Black Hills 
alike are regions of peace, the'latter busy 
with mining and commerce, the former left 
in virtual solitude except for the visits of 
interested geologists and tourists. 

& 

CRATER LAKE, AN OREGON 
WONDER 

The great west has furnished the world 
with some of the most marvelous of the 
works of nature. Stupendous canyons and 
gorges, big trees thousands of years old, 
cataracts hundreds of feet in height, moun¬ 
tain ranges, plains, deserts, salt lakes, gey¬ 
sers and other natural objects in endless 
varietv, attract the traveler from afar. Lit- 
tie known, and difficult of access because 
of its distance from a railway and its 
rugged surroundings, is Crater Lake, in the 
state of Oregon, one of the most wonderful 
of all the sights beheld by the energetic 
traveler. 

Crater Lake is situated in the heart of 
the mountains of southwestern Oregon, 
about seventy miles from the California 
line, and twice as _far from the Pacific 
ocean. It is necessary to drive eighty miles 
from the nearest railway station to reach 
it, and though the highway is a good mili¬ 
tary road running to Port Klamath on the 
Klamath Indian reservation, not many 
travelers make the journey. It was discov¬ 
ered on June 12, 1853, by a party of pros¬ 
pectors. The Indians of southern Oregon 
have known of it for ages, but until recent 
years none have seen it, for the reason that 


a tradition, handed down from generation 
to generation, described it as the home of 
myriads of sea-devils, and it was consid¬ 
ered certain death for any brave even to 
look upon it. The lake was first explored 
in 1886 by officers of the United States 
geological survey. W. G. Steel of Port¬ 
land, Oregon, long an officer of the Oregon 
Alpine Club, accompanied the expedition 
to the lake, which he had visited the previ¬ 
ous year, and after a period of exploration 
wrote an account of the wonders of the 
place, from which the following facts have 
been drawn. 

The lake is almost egg-shaped, ranging 
northeast and southwest, and is seven miles 
long by six in width. The surface of the 
water is 6,251 feet above sea level, and it 
is completely surrounded by a wall of 
cliffs from 500 to more than 2,000 feet 
high, which are scantily covered with con¬ 
iferous trees. At times, when gazing from 
the surrounding wall, the skies and cliffs 
are seen perfectly mirrored in the smooth 
and glassy surface over which the mountain 
breeze creates scarce a ripple, and it is 
with great difficulty the eye can distinguish 
the line dividing the cliffs from their re¬ 
flected counterfeits. 

• To the southwest is Wizard Island, 845 
feet high, circular in shape, and slightly 
covered with timber. In the top of the 
island is a depression or crater—the 
Witches’ Cauldron—100 feet deep and 
475 feet in diameter. This was evidently 
the last smoking chimnev of a once miglitv 
volcano. The base of the island is covered 
with very heavy and hard rocks, with sharp 
and unworn edges, over which but few 
visitors have clambered. Farther up are 
deep beds of ashes, and light, spongy rocks 
and cinders, giving evidence of intense 


510 


mazing 'tOond.ers of JValure 


heat. Within the crater, as without, the 
surface is entirely covered with volcanic 
rocks. 

Directly north of the island is Liao Lock, 
a grand old sentinel, reaching to a perpen¬ 
dicular height above the surface of the lake 
of more than 2,000 feet. From the top of 
it you can drop a stone and it will grow 
smaller and smaller, until your head be¬ 
gins to swim and you see the stone become a 
mere speck and fade entirely from view; 
and at last, nearly half a mile below, it 
strikes the unruffled surface of the water 
and sinks forever from sight in the depths 
of an almost bottomless lake. 

There is probably no other point of in¬ 
terest in America that so completely over¬ 
comes the ordinary Indian with fear as 
Crater Lake. From time immemorial, no 
power has been strong enough to induce 
him to approach within sight of it. For a 
paltry sum lie will engage to guide you 
thither, but before vou reach the mountain 
top will leave you to proceed alone. To 
the savage mind it is clothed with a deep 
veil of mystery, and is the abode of all 
manner of demons and unshapely mon¬ 
sters. 

When the exploration of the lake was 
made, boats had to be built in Portland, 
Oregon, transported 340 miles by rail, and 
then carried to the lake on wagons, 100 
miles into the mountains, where they were 
launched over sheer cliffs 1,000 feet high. 
Soundings were made all over the lake, and 
the greatest depth found was 2,008 feet, 
while 600 feet was the depth of the shal¬ 
lowest water. The shore is entirelv encir- 
cled with precipitous cliffs, coming down 
at but one place as low as 500 feet above 
the water. On one side, however, it was 


possible to make trails to the water’s edge. 
Grottoes, bays, islands, cliffs and many 
strange formations help to magnify the 
beauty of the scene. 

In closing his account of this phenome¬ 
non, Mr. Steel says in part: “Crater 
Lake is but a striking memento of a dead 
past. Imagine a vast mountain, six by 
seven miles through at an elevation of 8,000 
feet, with the top removed and the inside 
hollowed out and filled with the clearest 
water in the world to within 2,000 feet of 
the top; then place a round island in one 
end, 845 feet high, in which dig a circular 
hole tapering to the center like a funnel, 
100 feet deep and 475 feet in diameter, 
and you have a perfect representation of 
Crater Lake. The surface of the water is 
twenty-three feet higher than the summit of 
Mount Washington. What an immense 
affair. it must have been, ages upon ages 
ago, when, long before the hot breath of a 
volcano soiled its hoary head, standing as 
a proud monarch, with its feet upon earth 
and its head in the heavens, it towered far, 
far above the mountain ranges, aye, looked 
far down upon the snowy peaks of Hood 
and Shasta, and snuffed the air beyond the 
reach of Everest. Then streams of fire 
began to shoot forth, great seas of lava were 
hurled upon the earth beneath. The ele¬ 
ments seemed bent upon establishing hell 
upon earth, and fixing its throne upon this 
great mountain. At last the foundations 
gave way and it sank forever from sight, 
down, down, down, deep into the bowels 
of the earth, leaving a great black, smoking 
chasm, which succeeding ages filled with 
pure, fresh water, giving to our day and 
generation one of the most beautiful lakes 
within the vision of man.” 


Imazing XVonders of Mature 


511 


CAUSE OF EARTHQUAKES AND 
VOLCANOES 

The great phenomena of nature in the 
course of ages undergo many modifica¬ 
tions. We do not expect that there will 
ever again be an age of ice and glaciers, 
a carboniferous age, an age of gigantic 
animals and reptiles, nor yet a general 
flood over the continents. And yet some 
of the great forces of nature, hardly sec¬ 
ond in magnitude to these manifestations, 
repeat themselves at frequent intervals. 
Volcanoes and earthquakes, for instance, 
in some parts of the globe recur with great 
frequency, while elsewhere, though they 
may be virtually unknown, slight shocks 
are sometimes felt. It often happens that 
just as the world has settled to a belief that 
the day of great disasters is past, some vast 
catastrophe occurs which destroys life and 
property through a large area, and proves 
that these internal forces have been hut 
slumbering and are not extinct. Such was 
the circumstance with the terrible erup¬ 
tions of May 8, 1902, in the West Indies. 
Mount Pelee, on the island of Martinique, 
and La Soufriere on the island of St. Vin¬ 
cent suddenly burst their bounds, and al¬ 
most in an instant destroyed thousands of 
lives and at least one beautiful and pros¬ 
perous city. It has been many years since 
the world has seen a catastrophe equal to 
this, and it will be long before mankind 
rests again in such complacent assurance 
that there is no danger in living under the 
shadow" of a sleeping volcano. 

The earth, like the human body, is sub¬ 
ject to constitutional derangements. The 
fires and the impurities of the blood mani¬ 
fest themselves in the shape of boils and 
eruptions upon the human body. The in¬ 


ternal heat of the earth, and the chemical 
changes which are constantly taking place 
in the interior of the globe, manifest them¬ 
selves outwardly in the form of earth¬ 
quakes and volcanoes. In other v 7 ords, a 
volcano is a boil or eruption on the earth's 
surface. 

Scientists have advanced many theories 
concerning the primary causes of volcanoes, 
and many explanations relating to the 
igneous matter discharged from their cra¬ 
ters. Like the doctors vdio disagree in the 
diagnosis of a human malady, the geolo¬ 
gists and volcanists are equally unable to 
agree in all details concerning this form of 
the earth’s ailment. After all theories re¬ 
lating to the cause of volcanoes have been 
considered, the one that is most tenable, 
and is sustained by the largest number of 
scientific men, is that which traces vol¬ 
canic effects back to the old accepted 
cause of internal fires in the center of the 
earth. Only in this w r ay can the molten 
streams of lava emitted by volcanoes be 
accounted for. The youngest student of 
familiar science knov T s that heat generates 
an upv-ard and outward force, and, like 
all forces, it follows the path of least re¬ 
sistance. This force is always present in 
the internal region of the earth, which for 
ages upon ages has been gradually cool¬ 
ing from its poles toward the center. When 
conditions occur by which it can out¬ 
wardly manifest itself, it follows the nat¬ 
ural law and escapes vdiere the crust of 
the earth is thinnest. 

But something more than the mere pres¬ 
ence of internal fire is necessary to account 
for volcanic action, although it mav, in a 
large degree, account for minor seismic 
convulsions in the form of an earthquake. 
The elements which enter into the source 


512 


^yimazing XOonders o_f feature 



WATER LIME 


v fluid ,*#?$ 
OR SEMI-FLUID J 
CAVA 


of a volcanic eruption are fire and water. 
The characteristic phenomenon of a vol¬ 
canic eruption is the steam which issues 
from the crater before the appearance of 
the molten lava, dust, ashes and scoria. 
This accepted theory is plainly illustrated 
in the eruption of a geyser, which is mere- 


simplest form, is likewise illustrated in a 
boiler explosion. Observations of the most 
violent volcanic eruptions show them to 
be only tremendous boiler explosions at 
a great depth beneath the earth’s surface, 
where a great quantity of water has beer* 
temporarily imprisoned and suddenly coa¬ 


ly a small water volcano. The water basin 
of a geyser is connected by a natural bore 
with a region of great internal heat, and 
as fast as the heat turns the water into 
steam columns of steam and hot water are 
thrown up from the crater. 

One form of volcanic eruption, and its 


verted into steam. In minor eruption** 
the presence of steam is not noticeable in 
such quantities, which is simply because 
the amount of imprisoned water was small 
and the amount of steam generated was 
only sufficient to expel the volcanic dust 
and ashes which formed beneath the 


The water percolating through the crevices reaches the molten rock, when steam is generated and 

the pressure blows the head off the mountain. 


DIAGRAM SHOWING CAUSE OF A VOLCANO. 


(/'COfJt OF LA 1 /A AND ASHES 
W^'WH/CH ACTS ASA STOPPER 
*.\ AND PREVENTS ERUPTIONS 

UR OCR ordinary pressure 


water LINE 























yimazing XOonders of JV attire 


513 


earth’s surface and the internal fires of the 
volcano. The flow of lava which follows 
violent eruptions is expelled by the out¬ 
ward and upward force of the great inter¬ 
nal heat, through the opening made by the 
steam which precedes it. 

The two lines of volcanoes, one north 
and one south, the other east and west, 
which intersect in the neighborhood of the 
West Indies, follow the course where the 
crust of the earth is thinnest, and where 
great bodies of water lie on shallow parts 
of the ocean bed. The terrific heat of the 
earth’s internal fires is sufficient to cause 
crevices, leading from these bodies of wa¬ 
ter to the central fires of the volcano, and 
the character of the volcanic eruption is 
determined largely by the size of the crev¬ 
ices so created and the amount of water 
which finds its way through them. The 
temperature of these internal fires can 
only be guessed at, but some idea may be 
formed of their intense heat from streams 
of lava emitted from the volcano. These 
will sometimes run ten or twelve miles in 
the open air before cooling sufficiently to 
solidify. From this it will be seen that 
the fires are much hotter than are required 
merely to reduce the rock to a liquid form. 
From this fact, too, may be seen the in¬ 
stantaneous action by which the water 
seeping or flowing into the heart of the 
volcano is -converted into steam and a tre¬ 
mendous explosive power generated. 

At a depth of about thirty miles, the 
internal heat of the earth is probably great 
enough to melt all known substances. Con¬ 
finement may keep in a rigid condition 
the material which lies beneath the solid 
erust, but if an avenue of escape is once 
opened the stuff will soften and ooze up¬ 
ward. There is a growing tendency, more¬ 


over, to recognize the importance of gravi¬ 
tation in producing eruptions. The weight 
of several miles of rock is almost incon¬ 
ceivable, and it certainly ought to compel 
potentially plastic matter to rise through 
any crevice that might be newly formed. 
Some authorities regard this as the chief 
mechanical agent in an eruption, at least 
when there is a considerable outpouring of 
lava. 

As to the extent to which water oper¬ 
ates, there is some lack of harmony among 
volcanists. Some point to the fact that 
many volcanoes are situated near the 
coasts of continents or on islands where 
leakage from the oeean may possibly occur. 
Others regard water as not the initial fac¬ 
tor, but an occasional though important re¬ 
inforcement. They suggest that when the 
molten rock has risen to a considerable 
distance it encounters water, and steam is 
then suddenly generated. The explosive 
effects which ensue are of two kinds. By 
the expansion of the moisture which some 
of the lava contains the latter is reduced to 
a state of powder and thus originate the 
enormous clouds of fine dust which are 
ejected. Shocks of greater or less violence 
are also produced. The less severe ones 
sound like the discharge of artillery and 
give rise to tremors in the immediate vi¬ 
cinity. In extreme cases enough force is 
developed to rend the walls of the volcano 
itself. 

The precise manner in which the plas¬ 
tic inside of the terrestrial shell gets access 
to the surface is not entirely clear. Never¬ 
theless it is possible to get some light on 
the matter. It is now well known that in 
many places there are deep cracks or faults 
in the earth’s crust. Some of them in the 
remote past have been wide and deep 


514 


^/I mazing tOonders of JVature 


enough to admit molten material from be¬ 
low. The Palisades of the Hudson are be¬ 
lieved to have been formed by such an 
intrusion, the adjacent rock on the eastern 
face having since been worn away by the 
water or other agents. It has been observed 
that many volcanoes are distributed along 
similar faults. 

The existence of a chain of volcanic 
islands in the West Indies suggests the 


probability that it follows a crack of great 
antiquity, though the issue of lava and 
ashes for several centuries may have been 
limited to a few isolated points. Just how 
these vents have been reopened is one of 
the most difficult questions still left for 
investigation. Given a line of weakness 
in the rocks though, and a susceptibility to 
fresh fracture is afforded. 

There are two great circles of volcanoes 


about the earth. One girdles the earth north 
and south, extending through Tierra del 
Fuego (called “land of fire” because of 
its volcanoes), Mexico and the West In¬ 
dies, the Aleutian islands and down the 
islands of the coast of Asia and the East 
Indies through Australia to the south pole. 
The other passes east and west through 
Hawaii, Mexico, the West Indies, Italy 
and Asia Minor. These two circles inter¬ 


sect at two points. One of these is in the 
West Indies, the scene of this recent ter¬ 
rible disaster, and the other is in the East 
Indies, where eruptions are frequent. It 
is just at these points of intersection of the 
two volcanic rings that we expect unusual 
volcanic activity, and it is there that we 
find it. All this is of interest, as showing 
that the earth is still in the process of form¬ 
ation, just as much as it was hundreds of 



Copyright, 1902, by The New York Herald Co. 

RUINS OF ST. PIERRE, MARTINIQUE. 
Showing steamship Roraima burning in the harbor. 








^/1 mazing XOonders of feature 


515 


centuries ago. We see the same thing in 
Tellowstone Park. There most decided 
changes have taken place even in the last 
few years. 

There has been more or less theorizing 
as to volcanic disturbances moving in> 
cycles, but it cannot be proved. There is 
no doubt, however, that eruptions some¬ 
times break forth simultaneously in widely 
distant portions of the earth. A sympa¬ 
thetic relation of this kind has long been 
known between Mount ITecla in Iceland 
and Mount Vesuvius in Italy, and it is 
very probable that the volcanoes of the 
West Indies have some such# sympathetic 
relation with the volcanoes of Central 
America and southern Mexico, which 
were in eruption about the same time. 

& <£ C* 

FAMOUS VOLCANIC AND EARTH¬ 
QUAKE DISASTERS 

The cataclysms of nature which we 
know as earthquakes and volcanoes are 
closely allied, although widely different in 
their effects. The terrible disasters of the 
past that have come down to us through 
the centuries, and those of more recent 
times, have sometimes been of one char¬ 
acter and sometimes of another, although 
always incited by the same internal con¬ 
vulsions of the earth. 

In the history of earthquakes nothing is 
more remarkable than the extreme fewness 
of those recorded before the beginning of 
the Christian era, in comparison with those 
that have been registered since that time. 
This may be partly accounted for by the 
fact that before the birth of Christ there 
was but a small portion of the habitable 
surface of the globe known to those who 


were capable of handing down a record of 
natural events. The vast increase in the 
number of earthquakes in recent times 
is, therefore, undoubtedly due to the en¬ 
largement of our knowledge of the earth’s 
surface and to the greater freedom of com¬ 
munication which we now have. 

Earthquakes might have been as fre¬ 
quent throughout the entire globe in an¬ 
cient times as now, but the writers of the 
Bible and the historians of Greece and 
Rome might have known nothing of their 
occurrence. Even at the present time an 
earthquake might happen in central Africa 
or in central Asia of which we would never 
hear, and the recollection of which might 
die out among the natives in a few goner- 
ations. In countries, too, which are thinly 
inhabited and where there are no large 
cities to be overthrown, even great earth¬ 
quakes might happen almost unheeded. 
The few inhabitants might be awe-struck 
at the time, but if they sustained no per¬ 
sonal harm, the violence of the commotion 
and intensity of their terror would soon 
fade from their memory. 

Doctor Daubeny, in his work on vol¬ 
canoes, cites an example of this complete 
oblivion even when the event must have 
occurred not far from the ancient center 
of civilization. The town of Lessa, be¬ 
tween Rome and ISTaples, and not far from 
Gaeta, stands on an eminence composed of 
volcanic rocks. In digging the foundation 
for a house at this place some years ago, 
there were discovered many feet beneath 
the present surface the remains of an 
amphitheater and a chamber with antique 
frescoes. Yet there is not only no existing 
account of the destruction of a town on this 
site, but not even a tradition of any vol¬ 
canic eruption in the neighborhood. 


516 


1 mazing XOonders of feature 


The earthquake which destroyed Sodom 
and Gomorrah is not only the oldest on rec¬ 
ord, but one of the most remarkable. It 
was accompanied by a volcanic eruption, 
it upheaved a district of several hundred 
square leagues, and caused the subsidence 
of a tract of land not less extensive, alter¬ 
ing the whole water system and the levels 
of the soil. The south of Palestine con¬ 
tained a splendid valley, dotted with for¬ 
ests and flourishing cities. This was the 
valley of Siddim, in which reigned the 
confederate sovereigns of Sodom, Gomor¬ 
rah, Adniah, Zeboiim and Zoar. They had 
joined forces to resist the king of the 
Elamites, and they had just lost the de¬ 
cisive battle of the campaign when the 
catastrophe which destroyed the five cities 
and spread desolation in the flourishing 
valley took place. As the sun arose the 
ground trembled and opened, red • hot 
stones and burning cinders, which fell like 
a storm of fire upon the surrounding coun¬ 
try, being emitted from the yawning 
chasm. 

This was a sudden volcanic eruption 
like that which destroyed in one night the 
cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum. When, 
after the disaster, the inhabitants of neigh¬ 
boring regions came to visit the scene of it, 
they found the whole aspect of the district 
altered. The valley of Siddim had ceased 
to exist, and an immense sheet of water 
covered the space which it once occupied. 
Beyond this vast reservoir, to the south, 
the Jordan, which formerlv fertilized the 
country as far as the Red Sea, had also 
disappeared. The whole country was cov¬ 
ered with lava, ashes and salt. x\ll the cul¬ 
tivated fields, the hamlets and villages had 
been destroyed. As it was upon the mor¬ 
row of the catastrophe, so the region has 


remained, with its calcined rocks, its blocks 
of salt, its masses of black lava, its rough 
ravines, its sulphurous springs, its boiling- 
waters, its bituminous marshes, its riven 
mountains, and its vast Lake Asphaltite, 
which is the Dead Sea. 

The destruction of Pompeii and Hercu¬ 
laneum by the eruption of Mount Vesu¬ 
vius on the 23d of August, A. D. 79, is the 
most interesting of all such disasters. We 
have the distinct advantage of detailed 
descriptions of it written by eminent his¬ 
torians and authors of the day, who were 
eye witnesses, and whose writings were 
preserved with care. In addition, within 
the last century Pompeii has been syste¬ 
matically excavated. The work has been 
slow, though continuous, and great prog¬ 
ress has been made in disinterring the 
buried city. To-day it is a municipal 
museum of the Roman Empire as it was 
eighteen hundred years ago. The archi¬ 
tecture is almost unmarred; the colors of 
decorated tiles on the walls are still bright; 
the wheel-marks in the roads are fresh 
looking. The picture of domestic life as 
it was is complete, except for the people 
who were destroyed or driven from the 
city. Ho other place in all the world so 
completely portrays that period of the past 
to us as does Pompeii, overwhelmed by 
Vesuvius, hidden for centuries, and now 
once more in view to the world to-day. 

Mount ZEtna, on the Italian island of 
Sicily, has been active for at least twenty- 
five centuries, with a historical record of 
seventy-eight distinct eruptions. Some of 
these have been disastrous in their destruc¬ 
tion of life and property, and many thou¬ 
sands of persons have been killed as a re¬ 
sult of these eruptions. 

Lisbon, the beautiful capital of Portu- 


517 


^jAmazing XOonders of feature 


gal, on the Tagus River, has been devas¬ 
tated by earthquakes and tidal waves more 
than once. I he greatest of these w r as the 
appalling disaster of 1755, when in a few 
moments 60,000 lives were lost, either by 
’the destruction of the city itself, in the 
falling buildings, gr by drowning in the 
tidal wave that swept over the shattered 


metropolis. The portion of the earth’s sur- 
face convulsed by this earthquake is esti¬ 
mated to have been four times greater than 
the -whole extent of Europe. The earth¬ 
quake was felt in the West Indies, Canada, 
Scotland, Sweden, Germany and Morocco. 

India, Turkey, Persia and Japan have 
been the scene of numerous destructive 


earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. Some 
of these have destroyed prosperous cities 
and thousands of lives. The last great 
earthquake in Japan was in 1891, when 
40,000 houses were thrown down and 
about 24,000 persons were killed and 
wounded. Owing to the frequency of 
earthquake shocks in Japan, the study of 


their causes and effects has had a great 
deal of attention there since the introduc¬ 
tion of modern science into the island em¬ 
pire. The Japanese have proved as ener¬ 
getic in this direction as they are in purely 
material progress on lines of western civil¬ 
ization, and already they are recognized as 
the most advanced of all people in the 



RUINS OF OZAKI, JAPAN, AFTER THE GREAT EARTHQUAKE. 












518 


^/Imazing 'COonders of feature 


world in their study of the phenomena of 
earthquakes and volcanoes. 

The greatest single volcanic explosion 
recorded in the history of the world oc¬ 
curred in 1883, beginning on the after¬ 
noon of Sunday, August 26, on the island 
of Krakatoa, in the Malay archipelago of 
the East Indies. Krakatoa is one of a 
group of volcanic islands in Sunda strait, 
between Sumatra and Java. The volcanic 
cone of this island had been agitated for 
some months prior to the date of the great¬ 
est eruption, and when, finally, nature’s 
forces exploded themselves without re¬ 
straint, all records had been broken. The 
entire series of grand phenomena extended 
over a little more than thirty-six hours. 
From sunset on Sunday till midnight the 
tremendous detonations followed each other 
so quickly that a continuous roar may be 
said to have issued from the island. The 
distance of ninety-six miles from Kraka¬ 
toa was not sufficient to permit sleep to the 
inhabitants of Batavia. All night volcanic 
thunders sounded like the discharge of 
artillery at their very doors. 

On the next morning there were four 
mighty explosions. The third one was of 
appalling violence and it gave rise to the 
most far reaching effects. The cloud of 
smoke, vapor and dust in the air was blown 
up to a height of seventeen miles into space. 
The volcanic ash which fell upon the 
neighboring islands within a circle of nine 
and a half miles radius was sixty-five to 
130 feet thick. Masses of floating pumice 
encumbered the strait, and the coarser par¬ 
ticles of this ash fell over a known area 
equal to the whole of the New England 
States, Hew York, Hew Jersey, Pennsyl¬ 
vania, Ohio, Indiana and Illinois. It is 
calculated that the matter so ejected must 


have been considerably over a cubic mile 
in volume. The sound itself of this horri¬ 
ble explosion was heard by trustworthy 
witnesses at various places to a distance of 
nearly 3,000 miles and the atmospheric 
wave caused by the mighty outburst 
passed seven times around the world and 
left its record on the instruments in va¬ 
rious observatories before it finally sub¬ 
sided. 

At least 36,000 lives were lost. The 
island itself was completely changed. The 
whole northern and lower portion of it 
vanished except an isolated rock ten yards 
square and projecting out of the ocean 
with deep water all around it. What a 
tremendous work this must have been is 
attested by the fact that where Krakatoa 
island, girt with luxuriant forests, once 
towered from 300 to 1,400 feet above the 
sunlit waters, it is now in some places 
more than 1,000 feet below them. Kra¬ 
katoa has gained undying fame as the 
island that blew its own head off. 

Under the American flag we are our¬ 
selves the possessors of some of the great¬ 
est active volcanoes in the world, and the 
greatest of all craters, the latter extinct, 
indeed, for many years, but with a latent 
j:>ower that no one could conceive should 
it once more be in activity. Hawaii, 
“Paradise of the Pacific,” raised by the 
fires of inner earth out of the depths of the 
ocean centuries ago, has become in recent 
years a smiling land of tropic beauty, and 
an American island possession. It is a 
land of great volcanoes, sometimes slum¬ 
bering and again pouring forth floods of 
molten fire to overwhelm the peaceful vil¬ 
lages and arouse the superstitious fears of 
the natives. Alaska, too, is a region of 
great eruptive activity, the Aleutian is- 


519 


^/tmazing ^Oonders of feature 


lands being raised from the bed of the 
Pacific by the same natural forces. 

The cities of Peru, Chile and the other 
South American republics have frequent¬ 
ly suffered earthquake shocks and tidal 
waves. Lima, Callao and Caracas have 
been devastated at different times. The 
Isthmus of Panama, the Central Ameri¬ 
can republics and Mexico have likewise 
suffered. The great mountain range which 
connects our own Rocky Mountains with 
the Andes by way of Mexico and Central 
America, is largely volcanic in its char¬ 
acter, and eruptions of greater or less vio¬ 
lence are not uncommon. Farther north 
in the United States the Rocky mountains 
and the Sierras have many volcanic peaks, 
happily extinct for many years. Even 
Mount Hood and Mount Ranier, near the 
cities of Portland, Oregon, and Tacoma, 
Washington, are well recognized as vol¬ 
canic, and, indeed, they emit smoke and 
sulphurous vapor at all times, though there 
has been no eruption within the memory 
of man. If they should awaken, the dan¬ 
ger to the populous cities of the northwest 
would be great. 

Most recent of all great volcanic erup¬ 
tions was that of May, 1902, in the Carib¬ 
bean Sea, when the islands of Martinique 
and St. Vincent were devastated and many 
thousands of lives were lost. The scenes of 
that terrible catastrophe, in which the city 
of St. Pierre was overwhelmed and 
hardly one person escaped alive, have 
been graphically recorded by the descrip¬ 
tive and scientific investigators who has¬ 
tened to the place, and by those who, upon 
ships in the harbors or in other places of 
partial safety, were eye witnesses. It 
would be a happy condition if we could be 
assured that never again would such a 


blighting disaster befall any community. 
But the irresistible forces of nature, al¬ 
though dormant, are never extinct, and it 
is impossible to promise immunity. 

c* <3* 

AROUND THE SOUTH POLE 

For centuries adventurous navigators 
have sought to explore the far north in the 
effort to discover the North Pole, and learn 
the conditions surrounding the polar re¬ 
gions. The South Pole has not attracted as 
much attention for various manifest reasons. 
The populated continents of Europe, Asia, 
and North America surround the North 
Pole, and offer means of comparatively close 
approach to it, so that the explorations can 
be made for a great distance by land, with 
some hope of escape in the event of disaster. 
There was a commercial reason, too, why 
the far north should be explored in the ef¬ 
fort to find a track for vessels desiring to 
pass from the Atlantic to the Pacific, either 
by a northwestern or a northeastern course, 
which would be many thousands of miles 
shorter than the great detour by way of 
Cape Horn or the Cape of Good Hope. In 
the far north, too, man, animals and some 
vegetation served to make explorations 
easier. The Lapp and the Eskimo, the 
fox and the deer, the bear and the muskox, 
were almost always to be found for assist¬ 
ance or for food. It is said that man has 
never yet gone northward so far as not to 
find vegetation of some kind, the humble 
flower, the hardy grass, the resolute lichen. 
Explorers have gone within 400 miles of 
the North Pole or beyond eighty-four de¬ 
grees north latitude. 

The South Pole and Antarctic regions 
present a striking contrast, being sur¬ 
rounded by great oceans, with South Af- 


520 


tmazing TGOonders of ftature 


rica, Soutli America, Tasmania and New 
Zealand, the nearest inhabited lands, long 
distances away. No plant life has been 
found south of gixty-four degrees south lat¬ 
itude, and the snow line descends to the 
water’s edge in every land within the Ant¬ 
arctic circle. No quadruped has been 


found south of sixty degrees south latitude, 
so that there is a belt outside of the Ant¬ 
arctic circle almost as wide as that within, 
which does not sustain animal life. The 
isolated islands discovered within the Ant¬ 
arctic regions are almost everywhere inac¬ 


cessible. The advance of explorers has 
been stopped by ice barriers in every di¬ 
rection, from 300 miles to 500 miles more 
distant from the Pole than has been at¬ 
tained in the Arctic regions. Icebergs from 
the Arctic ocean are carried as far south as 
the fortieth parallel, but bergs and floes in 

the Antarctic are found 
even in the summer 
ten or fifteen degrees 
nearer the equator. The 
Antarctic region as 
compared with the Arc¬ 
tic is remarkable for 
low temp eratures. 
South of the sixty-sec¬ 
ond parallel the mean 
temperature of the sea 
and air is always below 
the freezing point of 
fresh water. 

Few navigators have 
crossed the Antarctic 
circle, and fewer still 
have passed the seven¬ 
tieth parallel. Within 
the last few years, how¬ 
ever, there has been a 
revival of interest in 
Antarctic exploration, 
and four distinct voy¬ 
ages have been made in 
the effort to penetrate 
the mysteries of that 
dreary sea of ice. One 
of these was under 
British auspices, one 
was Swedish, and one was German. The 
course of these three is indicated on the 
accompanying sketch map, which gives a 
graphic idea of the world as it would look 
if we could see it from below. The other 
expedition, which was conducted by Bel- 



BIRD’S-EYE VIEW OF THE SOUTH POLAR REGIONS. 

Showing the southernmost inhabited lands, and the routes of recent exploring 

expeditions. 









521 


^/imazing 'tOond.ers o_f ffaiure 


gian explorers, was the first in the point of 
time of all these recent voyages and is not 
indicated on the map herewith. 

The famous predecessors of these most 
recent explorers were Captain Cook in 
1772, Weddell in 1823, and Ross in 1841. 
The latter sighted a land with mountain 
ranges extending to a height of 15,000 
feet, and traced the coast for 800 miles, 
naming it Victoria Land. He also discov¬ 
ered a great active volcano, 12,000 feet high 
and named it Mount Erebus. The islands 
which are named here in the far south are 
the South Shetlands, South Georgia, Vic¬ 
toria Land, Kerguelen island, Possession 
island, 'Alexander island and a few others 
even more obscure. The dangers of disas¬ 
ter in these explorations are great, and the 
hope of rescue in the event of calamity al¬ 
most nothing. The rewards of possible suc¬ 
cess in the Antarctic do not promise to be 
as great as those in the event of success in 
the far north. The Antarctic is an unin¬ 
habited, ice-bound, perpetually frozen re¬ 
gion, with nothing but the Aurora Australis 
and the active volcanoes to break the mo¬ 
notony, and no commercial reason to justify 
the loss of life and ships in the effort to win 
success. 

& «£* Jt 

MINES OF ICE IN ARIZONA 

Nowhere in the world does there exist an 
industry more unique than that put in 
operation in 1902 in northern Arizona, 
where elaborate plans were laid to utilize 
the product of the ice caves in existence 
there. Strange it seems, too, that in this 
land of great heat, where in some places ice 
is a priceless luxury, made so by excessive 
freight rates which prevail in the terri¬ 
tories, man’s ingenuity has not before con¬ 


ceived the idea of the wholesale appropria¬ 
tion of the relief which nature has pro¬ 
vided. 

Not until very recently has any attempt 
been made to take away the apparently in¬ 
exhaustible quantities of ice which have 
been found in the caves near Flagstaff. 
Now, however, it is intended to literally 
mine or quarry the ice, and the promoters 
of the scheme declare it will prove a great 
profit producer from the very outset, as 
they expect to secure ice enough not only 
to supply the scores of smaller stations, 
towns and lumber camps in that vicinity, 
but to provide a supply for the railroads of 
northern Arizona and New Mexico, even 
into California, as in the vast region of 
what was once the northern part of the 
great American desert ice factories have 
not as yet become common. Indeed, the 
factories at Los Angeles, Phoenix, Albu¬ 
querque and Las Vegas have for years sup¬ 
plied most of that district with ice, although 
at prices that necessarily were prohibitive, 
made so by the long railway haul. 

The main or best known ice cave lies at 
the head of Clark’s Valley, seventeen miles 
southwest of Flagstaff. Although others 
may be larger, they are not so accessible. 
A wagon road leads nearly to the cave. The 
people of the country think the cave was 
originally what is termed a “blow-out”— 
that is, a volcano vent made by water or 
gas, during some convulsion of nature, in 
the early history of our planet. There are 
many of these “blow-outs” of various size 
and extent scattered over Arizona. 

Until August, 1901, the main cave had 
only been penetrated to a depth of 200 
feet, and even that distance could be reached 
only by the possessors of small bodies. 
At that time E. R. Dulton, a young man 


^/imazing Wonders of feature 


522 

from New York, succeeded in creeping and 
crawling through, the narrow crevice at the 
200-foot point and over 100 feet further he 
found the cavity gradually widening until 
it grew into a cavern much larger than that 
near the surface. He found several smaller 
caves leading out of the large one, all in 
almost solid ice, and he believes that they 
lead far into the earth. > 

<jt jt & 

LITTLE PLANETS IN OUR SOLAR 
SYSTEM 

It is no surprising thing nowadays for 
the announcement to be made that another 


planet has been discovered. Time was, 
however, when such an announcement was 
received with much interest. It is well 
known that between the orbits of Mars and 
Jupiter there is a belt ring of tiny bodies, 
“pocket jJanets,” as Herschel called them, 
none with a greater diameter than 200 
miles, and some whose assigned diameter 


is less than seventeen miles. There are 
doubtless some even smaller—about large 
enough for a farmer’s cornfield, perhaps. 

So diminutive are these curious members 
of the solar system that even after one has 
been discovered it is quite likely to be lost. 
Of course it is possible to trace the move¬ 
ments of the asteroids as well as those of 
the larger planets, but the labor of doing so, 
especially of the many tiny ones of little 
practical interest, surpasses the ju’obable 
value of the result, and in consequence the 
orbits of most of them are not yet calcu¬ 
lated. The orbits of all these diminutive 
worlds lie in a belt about 100,000 miles 
wide and with a mean distance from the 

sun of about 250,000,- 
000 miles. 

At present more than 
250 of these little 
worlds have been dis¬ 
covered, and more are 
found nearly every 
year. How many there 
may be it is impossible 
to estimate. One as¬ 
tronomer thinks there 
may be as many as 150,- 
000 of them. The total 
number, whatever that 
may be, depends largely 
on whether or not there 
is any limit to their 
minuteness. If there is 
no such limit, that is, if some are very 
much smaller than those now known, too 
small to be seen with the telescopes now in 
use, there may be an indefinite number. 

Several theories have been advanced to 
account for the presence of the asteroids in 
that part of the solar system to which 
Bode’s law assigned a planet long before 























^flmazing 'COonders of feature 


523 


their existence was known. Others pro¬ 
posed the hypothesis that they had once 
formed a single planet, which had at some 
remote time been shattered by a great ex¬ 
plosion, the fragments continuing to re¬ 
volve about the sun in approximately the 
orbit of the original planet. 

The considerable variation in the eccen¬ 
tricity and inclination of their orbits, not 
to be accounted for by any present mode 
of calculation, and the greater probability 
of their separate formation just as were the 
other and larger planets according to the 
nebular hypothesis, has led to the general 
discarding of Olbers’ theory. 

Kone of the greater planets has orbits 
whose eccentricity much exceeds one-tenth 
the diameter or whose inclination to the 
ecliptic is greater than three degrees. Of 
many asteroids, however, the orbits are in¬ 
clined more than ten degrees and have an 
eccentricity in excess of one-fourth the 
diameter. 

According to the nebular hypothesis, 
which is at present generally accepted, the 
minor planets as well as the greater ones, 
were formed by the condensation of rings of 
cosmic matter surrounding the sun. In the 
case of the asteroids the ring instead of 
condensing into one mass condensed about 
many points, the result being a great num¬ 
ber of pigmy planets instead of a single 
large one, as in the case of the others. 

If all the minor planets now known 
were to be combined into one, its diameter 
would be less than 400 miles. A thousand 
more of them, supposing them of the aver¬ 
age size, would make the globe scarcely a 
hundred miles greater in diameter, and its 
mass would even then be less than one four- 
thousandth of the earth’s. 

Assuming the density of these little 


worlds to be approximately that of the 
earth, bodies on their surfaces would weigh 
very little. A man placed on one of them 
could easily jump to a height of sixty feet, 
and in a day he could walk entirely around 
his little world with less exertion than is 
required for his morning walk on this 
planet. 

Though astronomers had from the time 
of Ivepler believed a planet would be 
found with an orbit between those of Mars 
and Jupiter, the discovery of the first as¬ 
teroid, Ceres, which is also one of the larg¬ 
est, was quite accidental. In the year 1800 
an association of astronomers was formed 
for the express purpose of searching for the 
supposed planet, and each member was al¬ 
lotted a particular portion of the heavens, 
which he was to search carefully. 

On January 1, the first day of the new 
century, Piazzi, an Italian astronomer, not a 
member of the society, and not particularly 
interested in its object, was searching for 
a star that had been, by the error of the 
printer, placed in Wollaston’s catalogue. 
While looking for this star which did not 
exist he found another not previously 
known to be there. Examining it the next 
night, he found that it had changed its po¬ 
sition and must therefore be a planet. 
When its orbit had been calculated it was 
found to be the planet sought. Considera¬ 
ble surprise was therefore occasioned when, 
two years later, another was found in the 
same region of the solar system, and still 
greater was the surprise as still others were 
found at intervals. Kow the reported dis¬ 
covery of another planet attracts scarcely a 
passing notice. Scientists learn more about 
this world and the universe every day, and 
it is no longer well to be surprised about 
anything. 


524 


^/tmazing *C£)onders of feature 


GREAT CAVES OF THE WORLD 

It will be long before- the wonders of 
nature are all revealed to man, for in addi-‘ 
tion to those which tempt travelers to re¬ 
mote and almost inaccessible parts of the 
world, there are others continually being 
discovered beneath the surface of the earth. 
Caverns have always had a mysterious in- 
terest wherever discovered. Their dark¬ 


ness, the unknown depths to which they 
may lead, the dangers of exploration in 
them, all appeal strongly to the seeker 
after the marvelous. They are almost al- 
ways the result of the action of water. 
Those upon the seashore are hollowed out 
* by the action of the waves, either by means 
of the constant battering of the surf, or the 
dissolving of some of the elements in the 


rock. Those which are found inland, 
among the mountain ranges or elsewhere, 
come in like fashion from the percolation 
of water from the rocks above, and the 
gradual chemical processes that take place. 

The most famous cavern of the former 
class is the Blue Grotto of Capri. This is 
found in the island of Capri in the Medi¬ 
terranean Sea, not far from hfaples. It 
can be reached only when the water is com- 

paratively calm, by 
small boats which 
follow around the 
rocky coast and 
pass directly into 
the grotto under 
an arch which 
spans the channel. 
Once within, a suc¬ 
cession of vaulted 
arches forms the 
roof of the grotto, 
which extends for 
a considerable dis¬ 
tance into the is¬ 
land. Of course 
the sea within is 
calm, except when 
storms outside 
send their w T aves 
through the arched 
entrance and make 
the passage im¬ 
possible. The rocks which form the roof 
are of a peculiarly beautiful blue in color 
and covered with glittering crystals. The 

light which passes through the entrance and 

reflects from the surface of the water seems 
to be multiplied many times, and gives the 
grotto a striking beauty. When artificial 
lights are used at night or to heighten the 
effect by day, the color effects are mag- 



, BLUE GROTTO OF CAPRI, ITALY. 











^flmazing onders of feature 


525 


nificent and the fame of the grotto is well 
justified. 

The largest cavern commonly visited and 
conveniently open to tourists, if not the 
largest in the world, is Mammoth Cave in 
Kentucky. Two hundred miles of ave¬ 
nues, passages and vaulted chambers are 
opened to visitors and it is well known that 
the cave is hy no means fully explored. 
From a descriptive sketch by Dr. R. 
Ellsworth Call, a careful student of the 
Mammoth Cave and its conditions, the 
following facts of interest have been se¬ 
lected : 

Mammoth Cave owes its discovery to aii 
accident, so the story goes, which happened 
in the year 1809. It is the old story of a 
hunter and a bear, the pursuer and the pur¬ 
sued. The hear was wounded and sought 
its lair in a vain endeavor to escape. 
Hutchins, for such was the hunter's name, 
lost no time in acquainting others with 
this important discovery, and Mammoth 
Cave became both a fact of history and 
science. It is strange to relate that its 
first exploitation was connected with 
simply mercenary motives and that salt¬ 
peter intended for use in gunpowder, and 
connected with the War of 1812, was the 
incentive that led to more complete exami¬ 
nation. The men who mined the salt soil, 
rich in niter, are the men who first gave 
to the outside world any reliable informa¬ 
tion of the great extent of this now fa¬ 
mous world’s wonder. 

Within the cavern the changes which 
have occurred since the days of saltpeter 
are few. There is only that change which 
comes from wider acquaintance with the 
windings of the chambers into those that 
are new and formerly unknown, a change 
which makes the visitor despair of ever 


fully unraveling all the passages and crev¬ 
ices along which he journeys or through 
which he crawls. Bridges over rivers and 
stairs leading up impassable cliffs, the iron 
guards along places of danger, alone tell 
the visitor of the' work of man. 

It is impossible to mention all the ob¬ 
jects of interest to visitors in this most 
gigantic cavern. The Fairy Grotto, the 
Gothic Avenue, Martha’s Vineyard, Crys¬ 
tal Avenue, Echo River, Gorin’s Dome, the 
Giant’s Coffin, the Corkscrew, the Standing 
Rocks, the Rotunda, Audubon’s Avenue, 
Spark’s Bower, Lover’s Leap, the Ruins of 
Karnak, Shelby’s Dome, and a multitude of 
other sjDecial sights are shown to every vis¬ 
itor. 

The Echo River is one of the most re¬ 
markable features in this most remarkable 
group of wonders. Only a small portion of 
its whole course is* accessible to visitors, 
hut this part is truly wonderful. At times 
the river flows with almost imperceptible 
current, while at other times it fills quite 
to the top the great River Ilall, blotting 
out the Dead Sea and the River Stvx, borh 
of which are really parts of the under¬ 
ground stream. It is traversed hy boats 
for a distance of half a mile, and the ride 
over its clear waters is one of the unique 
experiences of the world. Xo where else 
can it be duplicated. The voyager passes 
under a low arch for a short space, and 
then the roof rises rapidly away from the 
water and he enters upon his subterranean 
water journey in real fact. Xearly all the 
river is one vast resonator. Its branching 
avenues and side crevices, its lofty roof of 
limestone rock, its ancient battlemented 
shores, all serve as reflectors of every 
sound, no matter how slight, and send it 
back intensified a thousand times, with its 


526 


^Slmazing tOonders o/* feature 


roughness blended into one sweet volume 
of glorious harmony. 

Perhaps visitors to Mammoth Cave are 
most impressed with the lofty domes and 
deep pits which are found in some portions 
of this underground domain. Of those 
that are accessible to the visitor without 
great danger and fatigue, the best known 


are Gorin’s Dome, the Bottomless Pit, 
Mammoth Dome, Napoleon’s Dome, the 
Maelstrom and Scylla and Charybdis, all 
but two of which are situated in that in¬ 
tricate and wonderful portion called the 
Labyrinth. The first named is viewed 
through a natural circular opening in the 
wall, quite three-fourths of the way from 


the bottom. Illuminated by the guide from 
a point still above that at which the visitor 
is situated, the effect through the brilliant 
lights on the walls beyond, white as ala¬ 
baster, folded in a thousand curious and 
fantastic forms, is indescribably grand 
and impressive. Coupled with the great 
size of the space, everywhere shading off 
into infinite gloom, is the roar of fall¬ 
ing water or the splash of Lilliputian 
cascades if seen in the dry season. 
Below, but beyond observation, is a 
portion of Echo Biver into which 
from a station high above it is possi¬ 
ble to throw stones, the fall of which 
awakens ten thousand sounds and 
echoes. Stalactite matter of purest 
white, lends a variety to the vertical 
walls. Not far away is the Bottom¬ 
less Pit, and above it, rising sheer to 
the topmost level of the cavern, is 
Shelby’s Dome. . Its bottom, for not¬ 
withstanding its name it has one,' is 
nearly two hundred feet below the 
level at which the observer stands. 

Of all the pits which the visitor 
sees, that called Mammoth Dome is 
the largest and most impressive. 
From the top to the bottom the dis¬ 
tance is nearly 280 feet, while at the 
end the Ruins of Karnak stand out 
in bold relief. These giant columns 
closely resemble the works of art of 
some long lost underground race. 

Far from the Mammoth Cave of Ken¬ 
tucky, in the Black Hills of South Dakota, 
is another great cavern called the Wind 
Cave, which was discovered in 1877. Three 
thousand rooms have been discovered in it, 
varying in size from an ordinary bedroom 
to more than three acres, and over a hun¬ 
dred miles of passages have been explored 



THE BOTTOMLESS PIT, MAMMOTH CAVE. 












^flmazing XOonders of feature 


527 


without finding the end. Out of fourteen 
different routes, three have been opened to 
the public. Its geological formation is a 
puzzle to the student, as the formations 
have no parallel in other well-known caves, 
and seem to upset many well-established 
theories. Another mystery is the fact that 
at times the wind blows into the cave at 
the mouth and at other times blows out, 
but when blowing a gale it is felt only at 
the entrance. 

Other caverns, large and small, have 
been discovered in the United States, in¬ 
cluding some of great interest in Colorado, 
and others in New Mexico. This country 
is not unique in such works of nature, hut 
we seem to have by far the largest and most 
beautiful of all, and Mammoth Cave is by 
all means the most famous and the most 
commonly visited. 

Jt j* & 


THE LAND OF THE MIDNIGHT 
SUN 


The entire Arctic and Antarctic regions 
may be properly called the “Land of the 
Midnight Sun,” for at the poles darkness 
rules for six months in the year, and just 
within the Arctic and Antarctic circles the 
,sun may actually be seen at midnight. In 
practice, however, the north coast of Nor¬ 
way has become known by this phrase, for 
it is the most accessible place where the 
striking and picturesque phenomenon of 
sunshine at midnight can be seen. To 
reach the polar region elsewhere means a 
genuine Arctic voyage,, attractive enough 
for the explorer, but quite out of the ques¬ 
tion for the casual tourist. To see the mid¬ 
night sun off the coast of Norway, however, 
it is necessary only to buy a ticket and 


board one of the fine vessels, built like 
great yachts, which make a voyage to the 
North Cape and beyond every summer, 
from various European ports. The entire 
coast of Norway, skirted during these voy¬ 
ages, is characterized by bold and beauti¬ 
ful scenery, with great cliffs, deep inlets or 
fjords, and mammoth glaciers. Water¬ 
falls tumble from the heights above, and 
the life of the people in the little Norwe¬ 
gian villages is no less picturesque than the 
natural beauties of the region. 

Hammerfest, the most northern town of 
Europe, is the metropolis of the Arctic re¬ 
gions, and the port from which many polar 
exploring expeditions have taken their de- 

r 

parture from civilization. During the two 
summer months, the sun remains continu¬ 
ally above the horizon and the climate be¬ 
comes very warm. Even in the winter, 
when darkness rules for two months, tho 
weather is mild enough to permit the fish¬ 
eries to be carried on as usual. 

Then comes the North Cape, the extrem- 
est point in Europe, looking out over the 
Arctic Ocean. It is a dark, gray, slate 
rock, furrowed with deep clefts, rising 
nearly 1,000 feet abruptly from the sea. 
The traveler lands on the east side of the 
Cape, where a path has been constructed 
over the green, mossy slope to the top. 
Here the hour of midnight is awaited, 
when the northern sun, creeping along the 
horizon, and the immeasurable ocean in 
apparent contact with the skies, form the 
grand outlines in the sublime picture pre¬ 
sented. With the North Cape ends the 
island belt, and the coast is washed di¬ 
rectly by the sweeping waves of the Arctic 
Ocean. Beyond is the region of mystery, 
which is gradually being penetrated year 
after year, a few miles at a time, by those 


528 


^/.1 mazing XOonders o_f JVature 



persevering explorers wlio are seeking the 
pole. 

Says an appreciative writer, speaking of 
conditions in this far-northern region: 
“The polar night in the highest latitudes 
begins in October and lasts until nearly 
February. Then the sun appears each day, 
at first for a moment only, and then longer 
and longer, till by May it does not set at 
all. For three months there is perpetual 


living has been making preparation for 
this. The sea animals, except the few 
hardy enough to brave the ice-covered 
depths, have departed. The birds and 
many land animals have moved southward, 
where food and shelter are surer. The peo¬ 
ple, all Eskimos, have given up their seal 
hunts in the extreme north, and have built 
their winter huts out of ice blocks in some 
favored nook, or contiguous to some well- 


THE MIDNIGHT SUN, OFF THE NORTH COAST OF NORWAY. 


day. For three months more the days 
rapidly shorten. By the time October is 
past, darkness is on again and the Pole is 
wrapped in long night and inclement win¬ 
ter. Nature then takes on its fantastic 
ice forms. Freezing is sudden and per¬ 
sistent. Storms are violent and of long 
duration. The seas are ice-bound, the rivu¬ 
lets locked in silence, the land covered with 
an immense depth of snow. Everything 


known resort of the seal or walrus. In these 
they doze away their tedious winter exist¬ 
ence, warmed and lighted by lamps burn¬ 
ing fat, and fed by blubber, which is mostly 
eaten raw. If they open for a moment a 
window or doorway, the confined air of 
their huts is immediately precipitated in 
the form of a shower of snow. 

“When the sun reappears, to shine per¬ 
petually for the summer months, the 
























Imazing onders of feature 


529 


change is great. Weak as its rays are, they 
constantly serve to break up the strongest 
ice fields and loosen the stoutest packs. 
There is a commotion in the frozen seas 
more dangerous than a tempest. The ice 
groans and labors. It cracks with thun¬ 
derous reports. Huge mountains topple 
and fall. And then, when fields and floes 
are sufficiently broken to obey the currents, 
whole areas, large as a state, float away, 
bearing unlucky ships or whatever they 
may have imprisoned. By the end of June 
the ice of the Arctic sea is commonly di¬ 
vided and scattered. Then there is exces¬ 
sive moisture everywhere, and thick fogs 
hang over land and water, almost inces¬ 
santly. But in July the water no longer 
chills the atmosphere and precipitates 
moisture. It is a bright month and in 
sheltered spots the heat may become exces¬ 
sive. This heat, together with the absence 
of man and the loneliness of nature, is 
taken advantage of by myriads of animals 
from the air, land and sea. They congre¬ 
gate in the cliffs to lay eggs and hatch 
broods, gather in quiet nooks to bring forth 
their young, or swarm in shoal waters to 
spawn. 

“Do not expect to find much verdure in 

the Arctic region. Even before you enter 

the Arctic circle vou will notice that trees 
«/ 

have been getting smaller in size, and that 
onlv the hardier ones, as the birches and 
pines, exist at all. Passing on, the trees 
disappear entirely except in sheltered spots. 
About the Pole is an immense zone desti¬ 
tute of all trees. The only vegetation con¬ 
sists of lichens, mosses and a few varieties 
of stunted grasses, with here and there, in- 
protected places, a trailing plant or two. 
Though nature generally wears a more 
stern and forbidding aspect on advancing 


toward the Pole, yet these high latitudes 
have many beauties of their own. Noth¬ 
ing can exceed the beauties of an Arctic 
sunset, clothing the snow-clad mountains, 
fantastic ice shapes and clear skies with all 
the glories of color, nor can anything be 
more serenely beautiful than the clear, 
starlit night, illuminated by the moon, 
which is seen like a shield of burnished sil¬ 
ver through the highly rarefied air, and 
circles for days around the horizon, never 
setting until she has run her long course 
of brightness. 

“But of all the magnificent spectacles 
that relieve the gloom of the Arctic winter, 
there is none so gorgeously resplendent as 
the Aurora Borealis. It bursts with the 
suddenness of a storm, as indeed it is an 
electrical storm, upon the northern hori¬ 
zon, and speeds to the zenith in a great 
arch of flame, heaving and waving to and 
fro, sending out flashing beams, playing 
the tricks of meteors in color and velocity. 
Then there is a gathering of splendors in 
the center of the magnificent arch. The 
brilliancy of the meteoric streams grows 
more intense. The red color of their base, 
the green of their middle, the yellow of 
their tips become deeper and more vivid. 
They dart with greater vivacity through 
the skies; the earth itself is clothed with a 
magical light; the sea, where unfrozen, 
and the ice fields, gleam with a strange and 
weird beauty. Heaven and earth tremble 
in their outlines as if all were unreal, and 
night hides the charm of the spectacle by 
her imposing silence. Gradually the crown 
fades, the brilliant bow dissolves, the 
streams shorten, the meteoric play is less 
vivid and frequent, the storm subsides, and 
the gloom of winter succeeds the midnight 
magnificence.” 


530 


^flmazing onders of J^alure 


NIAGARA FALLS 

The tremendous cataract of Niagara 
Falls, with the wonderful rapids above and 
below, has been recognized for centuries as 
one of the greatest natural wonders of the 
world. From the time of the first discov¬ 
ery by Europeans until to-day, Niagara has 
been sought by travelers who thought them¬ 
selves well repaid for a journey of any 
length when they stood for their first view 
of the Falls, upon the verge of the preci¬ 
pices that look upon it. 

The earliest account which we have of 
the Falls was written by the missionary 
priest, Father Louis Hennepin, and printed 
in his “New Discovery” in 1697. It would 
be difficult to find a more picturesque trav¬ 
eler’s tale than the good priest told as it 
is quoted herewith, and he may be par¬ 
doned his extravagances when we remember 
that he had never seen anything of the sort 
before. 

“Betwixt the lakes of Ontario and Erie, 
there is a vast and prodigious cadence of 
water, which falls down after a surprising 
and astounding manner; insomuch that the 
universe does not afford its parallel. ’Tis 
true, Italy and Suedland boast of some such 
things, but we may well say they are but 
sorry patterns when compared with this 
of which we now speak. At the foot of this 
horrible precipice we meet with the river 
Niagara, which is not above a quarter of 
a league broad, but is wonderfully deep in 
some places. It is so rapid above this 
descent that it violently hurries down the 
wild beasts while endeavoring to pass it to 
feed on the other side, they not being able 
to withstand the force of its current, which 
inevitably casts them headlong, above six 
hundred feet high. This wonderful down¬ 


fall is compounded of two great cross 
streams of water and two falls, with an isle 
sloping along the middle of it. The waters 
which fall from this horrible precipice do 
foam and boil after the most hideous man¬ 
ner imaginable, making an outrageous 
noise, more terrible than that of thunder, 
for when the wind blows out of the south, 
their dismal roaring may be heard more 
than fifteen leagues off.” 

Since Father Hennepin’s time, multi¬ 
tudes of poets, artists and prose writers have 
painted with word or brush the glories of 
Niagara, and millions have visited it. In 
the space here at command, it would be a 
fruitless effort to attempt a description 
which would be satisfactory either to writer 
or reader. This American wonder, so stu¬ 
pendous, so beautiful ; and so accessible, 
should be visited by all. The curve of the 
gigantic Horseshoe, the green wooded isl¬ 
ands, the ponderous curtain of the Amer¬ 
ican Fall, the gorges, the rapids, the whirl¬ 
pool and the surroundings offer inexhaust¬ 
ible scenes of marvelous beauty and of 
great variety. 

The wide-traveled, judicial-minded and 
discriminating Anthony Trollope penned 
the deliberate opinion: “Of all the sights 
on this earth of ours which tourists travel 
to see, I am inclined to give the palm to 
the Falls of Niagara. In the catalogue of 
such sights, I intend to include all beauties 
of nature prepared by the Creator for the 
delight of His creatures. I know of no other 
one thing so beautiful, so glorious, and so 
powerful. At Niagara there is that fall of 
waters alone. But that fall is more grace¬ 
ful than Giotto’s Tower, more noble than 
the Apollo. The peaks of the Alps are not 
so astounding in their solitude. The val¬ 
leys of the Blue Mountains in Jamaica are 



(By courtesy of the Michigan Central Railroad.) 

NIAGARA FALLS, THE WORLD-FAMED CATARACT. 

Showing the American Fall, Goat Island and the Horseshoe Fall from Prospect Point. 














532 


^flmazing XOonders of feature 


less green. The finished glaze of life in 
Paris is less invariable, and the full tide 
of trade round the Bank of England is not 
so inexorably powerful.” 

& 3 £ 

WONDERS OF THE DEEP SEA 

The time may come when there will be 
no portion of the earth’s surface that has 
not been surveyed and explored by man. 
The work of enterprising travelers has now 
been carried on within a measurable dis¬ 
tance of the North Pole; the highest moun¬ 
tain ranges are gradually succumbing to 
the geological surveyor; the heart of Africa 
is giving up to us its secrets and its treas¬ 
ures, and all the desert places of the earth 
are being visited. The bottom of the deep 
sea was until quite recently one of these 
unknown lands. It was regarded by most 
persons as one of those regions about which 
we do not know anything; and never shall 
know anything, and do not w T ant to know 
anything. 

But the men of science fifty years ago 
were not disposed to take this view cf the 
matter. Pushing their inquiries as to the 
character of the sea fauna into deeper and 
deeper water, they at length demanded in¬ 
formation as to the existence of forms of 
life in the greatest depths. Since that time, 
by the aid of various government appropri¬ 
ations and scientific expeditions, a large 
amount of information has been placed at 
our command about this most interesting 
region. 

Hardly more than fifty years ago, the 
methods of deep sea investigation were so 
imperfect that naturalists believed life to 
be practically non-existent in the abysses 
of the great ocean. Yarious navigators and 
scientists, prior to that time, had recorded 


isolated discoveries of strange creatures, 
brought up from the depths of the sea on 
their sounding lines, but the facts were not 
scientifically classified, nor do they con¬ 
tribute much to the knowledge of ocean 
depths. Americans were pioneers in these 
investigations, and in 1853 two officers of 
the American Coast Survey made one of the 
most important discoveries of an inhabited 
region at the bottom of the sea. In 1860 
the doctor on board a British man-of-war 
collected thirteen star-fisli from a depth of 
1,260 fathoms. The Norwegians and the 
Swedes, likewise, became active about the 
same time. 

The physical conditions of the abyss of 
the great oceans are such that it is not sur¬ 
prising that the naturalists of the early 
part of the last century could not believe 
in the existence of life at the bottom of the 
deep sea. The extraordinary conditions of 
such a region, the enormous pressure, the 
absolute darkness, the probable absence of 
any vegetable life from want of direct sun¬ 
light, might very well have been considered 
sufficient to form an impassable barrier to 
animals migrating from the shallow waters, 
and to prevent the development of a fauna, 
peculiarly its own. The peculiar physical 
conditions of the deep sea may be briefly 
stated to be these: It is absolutely dark, so 
far as actual sunlight is concerned; the 
temperature is only a few degrees above 
the freezing point; the pressure is enor¬ 
mous; there is little or no movement of 
the water; the bottom is composed of a 
uniform fine, soft mud, and there is no 
plant life. 

At a depth of 2,500 fathoms, the pres¬ 
sure is, roughly speaking, two and one-half 
tons per square inch, that is to say, several 
times greater than the pressure exerted by 


^/Imazing XfJonders of feature 


533 


the' steam upon the piston of our most pow¬ 
erful engine, or, to put the matter iu other 
words, the pressure per square inch upon 
the body of every animal that lives at the 
bottom of the Atlantic ocean is about 
twenty-five times greater than the pressure 

that will drive a railway train. 

«/ 

It is hut reasonable to suppose that the 
ability to sustain this enormous pressure 
can be acquired by animals only after gen- 


plunged into very deep water. The fish 
that live at these enormous depths are in 
consequence of the enormous pressure liable 
to a curious form of accident. If in chas¬ 
ing their prey or for any other reason theo¬ 
rise to a considerable distance above the 
floor of the ocean, the gases of their swim¬ 
ming* bladder become considerably ex¬ 
panded and their specific gravity very great¬ 
ly reduced. Up to a certain limit the 



STOMIAS BOA. HALF NATURAL SIZE. FROM A DEPTH OF A MILE AND A QUARTER. 


erations of gradual migrations from the si¬ 
lent shallow water. Those forms that are 
brought up by the dredges are usually killed 
and distorted by the enormous and rapid 
diminution of pressure in their journey to 
the surface and it is probable that shallow 
water forms would be similarly killed and 
crushed out of shape were they suddenly 


muscles of their bodies can counteract the 
tendency to float upwards, and enable the 
fish to regain its proper sphere of life at 
the bottom. But beyond that limit the 
muscles are not strong enough to drive the 
body downward and the fish becoming 
more and more buoyant as it goes, is grad- 
ually killed on its long and involuntary 

































































534 


Imazing 'tOonders of feature 


journey to the surface of the sea. The deep 
sea fish then are exposed to a danger to 
which no other animals in this world are 
subject, namely, that of tumbling upwards. 

The most recent experiments that have 
been made tend to show that no sunlight 
whatever penetrates to a greater depth than 
half a mile. But although it is highly prob¬ 
able that not a glimmer of sunlight ever 
penetrates to the depths of the ocean, there 


globe according to the depth and the prox¬ 
imity of land and the presence of the 
neighboring volcanoes or the mouths of 
great rivers. 

It has not been determined yet with any 
degree of accuracy where we are to place 
the limit of vegetable life, but it seems 
probable that below a hundred fathoms no 
organisms excepting a few parasites are to 
be found that can be included in the veg- 



COLLOSENDEIS ARCUATUS, FROM A DEPTH OF ONE MILE. 


is in some places a very considerable illumi¬ 
nation, due to the phosphorescence of the 
inhabitants of the deep water. 

The floor of the ocean, if it were laid 
bare, would probably present a vast, undu¬ 
lating plain of fine mud. JSTot a rock, not 
even a stone, would be visible for miles. 
The mud varies in different parts of the 


etable kingdom. All plants except a few 
are dependent upon the influence of direct 
sunlight and since sunlight cannot pene¬ 
trate more than a few hundred fathoms of 
sea water, it is impossible for the plants 
to live below that depth. The absence of 
vegetable life is an important point, for it 
is in consequence necessary to bear in mind 

















































































Imazing *€0onders of feature 


535 


that the food ot deep sea animals must be 
derived from the surface. It is possible 
that the creatures of the deep sea in some 
cases feed upon one another, but the fauna 
would soon become exhausted if it had no 
other sources of food supply. This other 
source of supply is derived from the bodies 
of organisms that fall from the upper 
waters of the ocean. 

Now let us note briefly a few points of 
interest about the creatures themselves that 
have been found. The different oceans and 
different depths, roughly speaking, show 
distinct characteristics in the life found 
therein, as truly as do the different con¬ 
tinents of the world. So the scientists have 
marked out the different zones and localities 
on it. Strangely enough the creatures of 
the deep sea vary in color to a very re¬ 
markable extent. Shades of red occur 
rather more frequently than they do in the 
fauna of any other zone or region and there 
are mo blue animals known to live in deep 
water, while green, also, is extremely rare 
in the greatest depths. The eyes of the 
animals that live in deep sea water undergo 
curious modifications. In the majority of 
cases, we find that the eyes are either very 
large or very small. In depths of 300 to 
GOO fathoms the majority are large eyed 
forms. This is as we should expect, for it 
is more than probable that many of these 
forms occasionally wander into the shal¬ 
lower waters where there is a certain 
amount of sunlight. In depths of over one 
mile, the small eyed and blind forms are in 
the majority, although many large eyed 
forms are to be found. 

In these abysmal depths are found repre¬ 
sentatives of all the great classes of marine 
life which are recognized, from the true 
fish, which are of the highest order, through 


crustaceans, mollusks and seaworms to the 
lowest forms of protozoa, coelentera and 
echinoderma. The species are not large in 
comparison with those known to us in shal¬ 
lower depths, but range in size from minute 
forms to some which measure eight or ten 
inches in length. It may be a little puzzling 
to understand exactly what profit can come 
from costly investigations of these abysmal 
depths, and the answer must be found in 
the broad generalization that all knowledge 
is valuable, and the more we know about 
this world of ours the better No land has 
yet been found where life does not exist, 
and the most profound depths of the sea, 
miles below the surface, are likewise found 
to be teeming with life. Nature's wonders 
are everywhere, and the true scientist de¬ 
sires to learn of the most obscure and the 
most remote things as truly as of those 
which are near and obvious. 

jt £ 

EXTINCT MONSTERS 

Menageries and zoological gardens have 
given to every one a pretty fair idea of the 
characteristics of animal life to-day. These 
are supplemented by a wealth of fine pic¬ 
tures which make the rarest creatures fa¬ 
miliar enough in appearance. But there 
were wonderful creatures here in this earth 
before man was created, and but few of 
them are known by name or appearance, 
to the average reader of to-day. And yet 
the actual appearance and habits of life of 
these extinct monsters which lived thous¬ 
ands of years ago can be conceived with 
some accuracy, thanks to the studies of 
learned men who have searched deep in the 
science of comparative anatomy. Various 
technical works exist upon this subject, and 
at least one popular account of the forms 


ylmazing XOonders of feature 


53 G 


of ancient animal life. From the latter, 
by the Rev. H. 1ST. Hutchinson, the follow¬ 
ing interesting facts are summarized. 

Let us remember that it is not mere 
imagination that guides the man of science 
in such matters, for all his conclusions are 
intended to be based on reason. For mil¬ 
lions of years countless multitudes of living- 
animals have played their little parts on the 
earth and passed away, to he buried in the 


Down in those old seas and lakes she 
kept her great museum in order to preserve 
for us a selection of her treasures. In the 
course of time she slowly raised up sea beds 
and lake bottoms to make them into dried 
land. This museum is everywhere around 
us. We have but to enter stone quarries 
and railway cuttings, or to search in coal 
mines or under cliffs at the seaside, and 
we can consult her records. 









qx\n at 

nod aoiiftRoVo h 

A GIGANTIC ARMORED DINOSAUR. 

oozy beds of the seas of old times or en¬ 
tombed with the leaves that sank in the wa¬ 
ters of primeval lakes. The majority of 
these perished beyond all recovery, leav- 
iha: not a trace behind. Yet a vast number 

O 

of fossilized remains have been in vari¬ 
ous ways preserved, sometimes almost as 
completely as if Dame Nature had thought¬ 
fully embalmed them for our instruction 
and deligLt. 


LENGTH, ABOUT THIRTY FEET. 

It is to Cuvier that the world owes the 
first systematic application of the science 
of comparative anatomy and palaeontology, 
as the science is called which treats of the 
living beings, animal, or vegetable, which 
have inhabited this globe at past periods in 
its history. He paid great attention to the 
relative shapes of animals, and the dif¬ 
ferent developments of the same kind of 
bones in the various animals and especially 


^flmazing XOonders of feature 


537 


to the nature of their teeth. So great did 
his experience and knowledge become that 
he rarely failed in the naming of an ani¬ 
mal from a part of its skeleton. He ap¬ 
preciated more clearly than others before 
him the mutual dependence of the different 
parts of an animal's organization. ‘‘The 
organism/’ he said, “forms a connected 
unity in which the single parts cannot 
change without modifications in the other 
parts.” 

As he progressed in these studies, Cuvier 
was able with considerable success to re¬ 
store extinct animals from their fossilized 
remains, to discover their habits and man¬ 
ner of life, and to point out their nearest 
living allies. To him we owe the first com¬ 
plete demonstration of the possibility of 
restoring an extinct animal. His “law of 
correlations,” however, has been found to 
he not infallible, but like other laws hav¬ 
ing its exceptions. To take one out of 
many examples of this law: carnivorous 
animals, such as cats, lions and tigers, have 
claws in their feet, very different from the 
hoofs of an ox, which is herbivorous, while 
the teeth of the former group are very dif¬ 
ferent from those of the latter. Thus the 
teeth and limbs have a certain definite re¬ 
lation to each other, or in other words are 
correlated. Again, horned quadrupeds are 
all graminivorous (grain-eating) and have 
hoofs to their feet. The following anec¬ 
dote serves to illustrate Cuvier’s law. One 
of his students thought he would try to 
frighten the master, and having dressed 
up as a wild beast, entered Cuvier’s bed¬ 
room by night and presenting himself by 
his bedside, said, in hollow tones: “Cuvier, 
Cuvier, I have come to eat you.” The 
great naturalist, who, on waking up was 
able to discern something with horns and 


hoofs, simply remarked: “What! Horns 
—Hoofs! Graminivorous. You can’t.” 

It is impossible to describe in detail all 
of the greater extinct monsters which in¬ 
habited the earth, the ocean or the air, and 
thousands of smaller creatures are well- 
known and identified in museums which 
cannot even he suggested here. All we can 
do is to speak briefly of a few of the most 
interesting or peculiar. For instance, on 
the coast of Great Britain there lived sea 
scorpions, possessing a coat of armor, 
jointed bodies and limbs for crawling, 
swimming or seizing their prey. They 
were distant cousins of the crustaceans of 
the present day, lobsters, crabs and 
shrimps, but they measured at least six 
feet in length. 

In the same waters, and about the same 
time, dwelt the old fish lizard or ichthyo¬ 
saurus. Cuvier, describing it, said of this 
creature that it possessed the snout of a 
dolphin, the teeth of a crocodile, the head 
and breast bone of a lizard, the paddles 
of a whale or dolphin, and the vertebra? of 
a fish. It was a powerful monster, swim¬ 
ming rapidly enough to catch the fish upon 
which it lived. The long and pointed jaws 
were a striking feature of these animals, 
and their eyes were very powerful and 
large. The largest entire skeleton pre¬ 
served in a museum measures twenty-two 
feet long, and eight feet across the ex¬ 
panded paddles, hut from detached heads 
and parts of skeletons it is probable that 
some of them were between thirty and 
forty feet long. Then there were long 
necked sea-lizards known as the plesio¬ 
saurus, which, to the head of a lizard united 
the teeth of a crocodile, a neck of enormous 
length, resembling the body of a serpent, 
a tail and body having the proportions of 


538 


^/Imazing XOonders of feature 



an ordinary quadruped, and tlie paddles 
of a whale. These also grew to a length of 
more than twenty-two feet. More than 
twenty species of these long necked sea- 
lizards are known to geologists. 

Was there ever an age of dragons ? Tra¬ 
dition says there was, hut there is every 
reason to believe that the fierce and blood¬ 
thirsty creatures, of which such a variety 
present themselves, are but creatures of the 


an order comprising the largest reptiles 
that ever lived; and while some of them in 
a general way resemble crocodiles, others 
show in the bony structures they have left 
behind a very remarkable and interesting 
resemblance to birds of the ostrich tribe. 

Their remains are found not only in 
Europe, but in Africa, India, America and 
even in Australia. The geologist finds that 
they reigned supreme on the earth through¬ 


"A GIGANTIC HORNED DINOSAUR. LENGTH, ABOUT TWENTY-FIVE’ FEET. 


imagination based, no doubt, on the huge 
uncouth reptiles of the present human era, 
such as crocodiles and other creatures. 
Nevertheless in spite of all manifest ab¬ 
surdities of the dragons of various nations 
and times, geology reveals to us that there 
once lived upon this earth reptiles so great 
and uncouth that we can think of no other 
but the time honored word “dragon” to 
convey the slightest idea of their monstrous 
forms and characters. The dinosaurus was 


out the whole of the great mesozoic era. 
Their bodies were in some cases defended 
by a formidable coat of armor, consisting 
of bony plates and spines, thus giving them 
a decidedly dragon-like appearance. They 
all had four limbs and in many cases the 
hind pair were very large compared to the 
fore limbs. The largest of the family were 
truly colossal in size, far excelling the 
rhinoceros and elephant of to-day. 

One division of this family was the 




Imazing *€£)onders of J^fature 


539 


brontosaurus, a vegetable feeding lizard. 
It was nearly sixly feet long and probably, 
when alive, weighed more than twenty 
tons. Each track made by the creature in 
walking occupied one square yard in ex¬ 
tent. Its remains are found in the Juras¬ 
sic rocks in Colorado. Another member of 
the dinosaur family, the atlantasaurus, 
must have obtained a length of over eighty 
feet, and assuming that it walked upon its 


about like bats and flying foxes do now. 
The scientists called them pterodactyls, but 
they may very properly be termed “flying 
dragons.” Some were no larger than small 
birds, but the largest had a spread of wing, 
or rather of the flying membranes, of twen¬ 
ty-five feet. Imagine a flock of these hover¬ 
ing over an antediluvian landscape, in 
which the animal life below them was sup¬ 
plied by eighty-foot dinosaurs and sea 



GROUP OF SMALL FLYING DRAGONS OR PTERODACTYLS. 


hind feet, a height of thirty feet. A thigh 
bone of one of these has been found entire, 
and it measures six feet and two inches in 
length. Colorado has yielded large num¬ 
bers of most interesting fqssils of this va- 
rietv. Some of them were carnivorous, 
and some were diminutive creatures only 
two feet in length. 

In addition to the dinosaurs or land 
dragons, there was another great order of 
reptiles that acquired the power of flying 


scorpions six feet long. Skeletons of sea 
serpents to a length of eighty feet have 
been found in the fossil deposits of Kansas. 

Kow we come to the great mammals of 
the past, animals not entirely unlike some 
that we know now, although immensely 
larger. America has been one of the most 
fruitful sources of information concerning 
these a’reat creatures. In Wvoming have 
been found skeletons of a great animal 
called the tinoceras, which was akin to the 




540 


maxing XOonders of feature 


rhinoceros, the elephant, the hippopotamus, 
and which measured about twelve feet in 
length without the tail. Its weight, when 
alive, is calculated to have been three tons. 
Great numbers of bones of these creatures 
have been found. Another equally pictur¬ 
esque creature found east of the Rocky 
Mountains was the brontops, still larger, 
with toes instead of elephant-like feet. 

India, too, has yielded some strange 


creatures of the past whose names are most 
familiar to us, because they have come in¬ 
to the language and because they are not 
so long extinct as some of the strange crea¬ 
tures heretofore described. Approximately 
whole specimens of these primeval ele¬ 
phants have been found in the frozen 
regions of Siberia, preserved in the ice. 
The mammoth, indeed, has been actually 
seen iu the flesh, and not only seen but 


* 

* - 
■.by-'-'-' 

F f \ 


. 



monsters, including huge ones not unlike 
the moose of to-day, and a gigantic tortoise 
found complete as a fossil. From South 
America we obtain remains of gigantic 
mammals allied to sloths, ant-eaters and 
armadillos. The length of the best pre¬ 
served specimen of these sloths is eighteen 
feet. The gigantic representative of the 
armadillo from South America is a huge 
armored creature more than eight feet long. 

The mammoth and the mastodon are the 


eaten both by men and animals, although 
the meat had been frozen perhaps for sev¬ 
eral centuries. Fossils, remains of these 
elephants, have been found in Europe, 
Africa, Asia and ISTorth America. There 
is to-day a large trade in the ivory of the 
mammoth from Siberia, both eastward to 
China and westward to Europe. Various 
islands along the Siberian coast yield the 
huge tusks in great number. The most 
perfect specimen exists in the museum of 





Imazing XOonders of feature 


541 


the St. Petersburg; Academy, the skeleton 
complete all except one leg, the skin still 
attached to the head and feet, and a large 
quantity of the hair remaining. This mam¬ 
moth was discovered frozen in 1S01 on the 
north coast of Siberia, and after several 
years was brought to St. Petersburg and 
mounted there. It had come to light by 
the thawing of a great block of ice which 
had covered it, and the people of the 
neighborhood had cut off the flesh and fed 
their dogs with it for two years before it 
was finally protected in the interest of 
science, and brought to Europe. There are 
at least nine cases on record of the dis¬ 
covery of frozen mammoths in northern 
Siberia, and it is not likely that the huge 
animal is long extinct. 

The mastodon was similar to the mam¬ 
moth, but probably preceded it in time. 
There is reason to think that in America 
it was contemporary with man in the pre¬ 
historic age. lumbers of partial speci¬ 
mens have been found in Kentucky, Ohio, 
Missouri, and other parts of the United 
States. 

Of all the monsters that ever lived on 
the face of the earth, the giant birds were 
perhaps the most grotesque. Xew Zealand 
contributes the giant moa, a bird which 
stood twelve feet in height. The natives 
who were living at the time of the first 
white settlement of New Zealand, about 
1840, declared the bird to be still in exist¬ 
ence, but it cannot be learned that any 
white man actually saw the living crea¬ 
tures, although a search was made for them. 
However, fragments of shell and feathers 
were found with the bones of the birds, so 
that it is quite certain they had not been 
long extinct. In 1882 the head, neck, two 
legs and feet of a moa were found in a 


cave, having the skin still preserved in a 
dried state covering the bones, and some 
few feathers of a reddish hue still attached 
to the leg. In the island of Madagascar, 
also, the remains of a giant bird and its 
eggs have been found. One of the eggs 
had a diameter of fourteen inches, and 
would contain more than two gallons, or as 
much as three ostrich eggs or 14S hen’s eggs. 

The remains of a deer have been found 
in Ireland measuring in height to the sum¬ 
mit of the antlers, ten feet, with a spread of 
the antlers from tip to tip of eleven feet. 

It has been possible at this time to give 
only the briefest mention of some of the 
strangest and most gigantic of the extinct 
monsters which once inhabited this earth. 
They are all recognized as absolutely au¬ 
thentic by scientists, testified by the incon¬ 
trovertible proof of their remains, fossil 
or otherwise. In the era that preceded the 
birth of man, when animal life took these 
strange forms and vegetation was hardly 
less grotesque and gigantic in comparison 
with the world of to-day, is a field for study 
of unending interest and variety. Mhat 
would we not give for actual landscape pho¬ 
tographs of those wonderful scenes! 

.j* 

MAN AND NATURE BEFORE THE 
DELUGE 

It is an accepted fact that the science of 
the earth and the wonders of nature have 
their culmination and terminus in man, the 
final link in the chain of life. A famous 
Canadian geologist, Sir J. W. Dawson, in 
one of his works makes an interesting study 
to answer the question, if possible, how and 
when this chief cornerstone was placed 
upon the edifice of nature. He puts this 
in the form of a narrative, based on geo- 


542 


^/Imazing XDonders of feature 


logical facts only, and from liis chapter on 
the subject of early man, the following par¬ 
agraphs are condensed. 

The glacial age had passed away. The 
lower land, in great part a hare expanse of 
mud, sand and gravel, had risen from the 
icy ocean in which it had been submerged, 
and most of the mountain tops had lost 
their covering of perpetual snow and ice. 
The climate was ameliorated and the sun 


At this time, somewhere in the warm 
temperate zone, in an oasis or island of fer¬ 
tility, appeared a new thing on the earth. 
A man and woman, walking erect in the 
forest glades, bathing in the waters, gath¬ 
ering and tasting every edible fruit, watch¬ 
ing with curious and inquiring eyes the 
various animals around them, and giving 
them names which might eventually serve 
not merely to designate their kinds, but to 


. 

•S&; 



STELLER’S SEA COW. LENGTH, THIRTY-FIVE' FEET. 

Found alive by Steller at Behring’s Island in 1741, but extinct since that time. 


again shone warmly on the desolated earth. 
Gradually the new land became overspread 
with a rich vegetation, and was occupied 
by many large animals. There were spe¬ 
cies of elephant, rhinoceros, horse, bison, 
ox and deer, multiplying until the plains 
and river valleys were filled with their 
herds, in spite of the fact that they were 
followed by formidable carnivorous beasts, 
fitted to prey on them. 


express actions and emotions as well. 

How this event happened, science is still 
unable to answer, and though we may 
frame many hypotheses, they all remain 
destitute of certain proof in so far as nat¬ 
ural science is concerned. We can here 
only fall back on the old traditional and 
historical monument of our race, and be¬ 
lieve that man, the child of God and with 
God-like intellect, will and consciousness, 






fImazing onders of feature 


543 


was placed by bis maker in an Edenic re¬ 
gion and commissioned to multiply and re¬ 
plenish the earth. The when and where of 
his introduction, and his early history, 
when introduced, are more open to scienti¬ 
fic investigation. 

That man was originally frugivorous, or 
fruit- and grain-eating, his whole structure 
testifies. That he originated in some fa¬ 
vorable climate and fertile land is equally 
certain, and that his surroundings must 
have been of such a nature as to give him 
immunity from the attacks of formidable 
beasts of prey also goes without saying. 
These are all necessarv conditions of the 

t/ 

successful introduction of such a creature 
as man, and theories which suppose him 
to have originated in a cold climate, to 
struggle at once with the difficulties and 
dangers of such a position are, from the 
scientific point of view, incredible. 

But man was introduced into the wide 
and varied world, more wide and varied 
than that possessed by his modern descend¬ 
ants. The earliest men that we certainly 
know inhabited our continents when, as we 
know, from ample geological evidence, the 
land of the northern hemisphere was much 
more extensive than at present, with a mild 
climate and a rich flora and fauna. If he 
was ambitious to leave the oasis of his re¬ 
gion, the way was open to him, but at the 
expense of becoming a toiler, an inventor 
and a feeder on animal food, more espe¬ 
cially when he should penetrate into the 
colder climates. The details of all this as 
they actually occurred are not within the 
range of scientific investigation, for these 
earlier men must have left few if any mon¬ 
uments, but we can imagine some of them. 

Man’s hands were capable of other uses 
than the mere gathering of food; his mind 


was not an instinctive machine like that of 
the lower animals, but an imaginative and 
inventive intellect, capable of adapting ob¬ 
jects to new uses, peculiar to himself. A 
fallen branch would enable him to obtain 
the fruits that hung higher than his hands 
could reach. A pebble would enable him 
to break a nut too hard for his teeth. He 
could easily weave a few twigs into a rough 
basket to carry the fruit he had gathered, 
to the cave or shelter or spreading tree or 
rough hut that served him for a home; and 
when he had found courage to snatch a 
branch from some tree ignited bv lighting, 
and to kindle a fire for himself, he had 
fairly entered on that path of invention 
and discovery which has enabled him to 
achieve so many conquests over nature. 

Our imagination may carry us yet a little 
farther with reference to his fortunes. If 
he needed any weapon to repel aggressive 
enemies, a stick or club would serve his 
purpose, or, perhaps, a stone thrown from 
his hands. Soon, however, he might learn 
from the pain caused by the sharp flints 
that lay in his path the cutting power of 
an edge, and armed with a flint chip held 
in the hand or fitted into a piece of wood 
he would become an artificer of many 
things, useful and pleasing. As he wan¬ 
dered into more severe climates where veg¬ 
etable foods could not be obtained through¬ 
out the vear, as he observed the habits of 
beasts and birds of prey, he would learn 
to be a hunter and a fisherman and to cook 
animal food, and with this would come new 
habits, wants and materials as well as a 
more active and energetic mode of life. 

He would also have to make new weap¬ 
ons and implements, axes, darts, harpoons, 
scrapers for skins, and bodkins or needles 
to make skin garments. He would use 


544 


mazing XOonders of J^ature 


chipped flint where this could be procured, 
and, failing this, splintered and rubbed 
slate, and for some uses bone and antler. 
Much ingenuity would be used in shaping 
these materials, and in the working of 
bone, antler and wood, ornaments would be¬ 
gin to be studied. In the meantime, the 
hunter, though his weapons improved, 
would become a ruder and more migratory 
man, and in anger or in desire to gain 
some coveted object, might begin to use his 
weapons against his brother man. In some 
more favored locations, however, he might 
attain to a more settled life, and he, or 
more likely the woman, his helpmate, 
might contrive to tame some species of ani¬ 
mals and to begin some culture of the soil. 

It was probably at this early time that 
metals first attracted the attention of man. 
The ages of stone, bronze and iron believed 
in by some arclneologists are more or less 
mythical to the geologist, who knows that 
these things depend more on locality and 
on natural products than on stages of cul¬ 
ture. 

Probably all these ends had been to some 
extent and in some localities attained in 
the earliest human period, when man was 
contemporary with many large animals 
now extinct. But a serious change was to 
occur in human prospects. Hilltops, long 
denuded of the snow and ice of the glacial 
period, were again covered, and cold winter 
sealed up the lakes and rivers and covered 
the ground with wintry snows of long con¬ 
tinuance. With this came a change in ani¬ 
mal life and in human habits. How began 
a fierce struggle for existence in the more 
northern districts inhabited by man, a 
struggle in which only the hardier and 
ruder races could survive, except, perhaps, 
in some of the more genial portions of the 


warm temperate zone. Men had become al¬ 
most wholly carnivorous, and had to con¬ 
tend with powerful and fierce animals. 
Tribe contended with tribe for the posses¬ 
sion of the most productive and sheltered 
habitats. Thus the struggle with nature 
became aggravated by that between man 
and man. Violence disturbed the progress 
of civilization, and favored the increase of 
power of the rudest tribes, while the more 
delicately organized and finer types of hu¬ 
manity, if they continued to exist in some 
favored spots, were in constant danger of 
being exterminated by their fiercer and 
stronger contemporaries. 

In mercy to humanity this state of 
things was terminated by a great physical 
revolution, the last great subsidence of the 
continents, that post-glacial flood which 
must'have swept away the greater part of 
men and many species of great beasts, and 
left only a few survivors to repeople the 
world, just as the mammoth and other gi¬ 
gantic animals had to give place to smaller 
and feebler creatures. In these vicissi¬ 
tudes it seemed determined, with refer¬ 
ence to man, that the more gigantic and 
formidable races should perish, and that 
one of the finer types should survive to re¬ 
people the world. 

Thus we have followed, as closely as sci¬ 
ence can interpret the chronicles, the prog¬ 
ress of mankind from the creation to the 
deluge, and his development of the natural 
conditions in which he found himself. It 
is a fascinating study and an inexhaustible 
one. As the poet has aptly said, “The 
proper study of mankind is man,” and 
these pioneers of our race are entitled to 
full attention in connection with the other 
wonders of the natural world, which we 
have inherited from them. 



GREECE NAVAL 


ITALY 


NICARAGUA 
& SALVADOR 


STANDARD 


PAPAL STD 


SPANISH MERCHT MEXICO 


HONDURAS 


BRAZIL 


DOMINICA 1 COSTA RICA 1 PARAGUAY 


PORTUGUESE 

STANDARD 


PORTUGAL 


ECUADOR 


BOLIVIA 


URUGUAY 


S. OF COLOMBIA 


GUATEMALA ARGENTINE REP VENEZUELA 



§ 


PERU 



PERSIA 


BOLIVIA 


CHILE 


CHINA 


I SIAM 


BURMA SOCIETY ISLANDS TURKEY 


JAPAN 


TURKEY MERCHANT 1 HAITI 


FLAGS OF ALL NATIONS. 




















































































































ADMIRAL 


II an^KtlAKY 

,OF THE NAVY 


GERMANY 


VICE ADMIRAL 


COMMODORE 


U. S. REVENUE 


UNION JACK 


MERCHANT 


BRITISH STANdJIGREAT tiKu 1 GR BRIT NAVAL CANADA. " IRELAND 
MERCHANT 


_ o_ 

3 ' ] 

DTTCCTA PTTCQTA MAWA1 


IONIAN IS » FRANCE 11 RUSSIA RUSSIA NAVAL 11 RUSSIA MERCHT 









MERCHANT NETHERLANDS 1 SWITZERLAND^ NEW ZEALAND 


EGYPT 


MOROCCO 


ARABIA 


HAWAIIAN IS 


FLAGS OF ALL NATIONS. 






























































































BOOK V 


THINGS WE ALL SHOULD KNOW 


CIVIL SERVICE AND ITS LAWS 


Properly speaking, civil service means 
the service of all persons in the employ of 
government, national, state or municipal, 
except those in the army and navy. Civil 
service, therefore, existed from the time of 
the foundation of the government. But 
civil service reform, growing out of the 
abuses that were saddled upon public of¬ 
fice, is of comparatively recent growth in 
this country. The general practice in the 
national government was that with every 
change of presidents from one party to an¬ 
other, there should he a clean sweep of all 
employes under the government, irrespect- 
tive of merit, age or period of service, with 
the broad rule applied, “to the victors be¬ 
long the spoils.” 

Finally it began to he recognized that 
there should be no “spoils,” that “public 
office is a public trust,” that faithful and 
competent service should assure per¬ 
manence, and that the whole system in ef¬ 
fect was unnatural and unwise, as well as 
highly improper. Earnest men, true patri¬ 
ots, began to plan for improvement, and 
now the country sees less and less of the 
unseemly scrambles for official place and 
plunder that used to he the chief evil of 
changing administrations. 

The act of January 16, 1883, popularly 
known as the civil service act, is entitled 


“An act to regulate and improve the civil 
service of the United States.” Its purpose, 
as its title indicates, was to correct certain 
conspicuous abuses which were then prev¬ 
alent in connection with the appointment 
and promotion of civilian employees in the 
executive branch of the government, and at 
the same time to improve that part of the 
public service by increasing the efficiency 
of the employes, and thus securing a more 
satisfactory and economical administration 
of public affairs. In the departments at 
Washington the classification embraced all 
persons receiving salaries of not less than 
$900 nor more than $1,800 a year—alto¬ 
gether 5,652—of whom 135 were excepted 
from examination. The classification of the 
Customs Service embraced places having an 
annual compensation of $900 or over, at 
ports where 50 or more persons were em¬ 
ployed, excluding only those whose nomi¬ 
nations had to be confirmed by the Senate. 
The number of places thus classified, in¬ 
cluding eleven ports, was 2.573. The num¬ 
ber of postoffices classified—being those at 
which there were 50 or more employes— 
was 23, and the classified service at these 
offices included all persons above the grade 
of workman or laborer except the postmas¬ 
ters, or 5,699 in all. In the three branches 
of the classified service, therefore, the total 




546 


Things XVe All Should K.nobv 


number of places made subject to the pro¬ 
visions of the civil-service rules was 13,924. 
By March 3, 1885, President Arthur, under 
whom this act became a law, had extended 
its operations to include 15,573 places. By 
March 3, 1889, President Cleveland caused 
it to include 27,330 classified places. By 
March 3, 1893, President Harrison had 
extended it to 42,928 places. At this time 
Secretary Tracy, with the approval of the 
President, put the Navy Yard Service un¬ 
der the merit system, thus classifying about 
5,000 employes. By March 3, 1897, Presi¬ 
dent Cleveland caused the act to cover 81,- 
889 classified places. By June 30, 1901, 
President McKinley had added 2,233 places 
to the civil-service list, and under his ad¬ 
ministration, under various rulings, there 
were 19,423 places dropped from the merit 
system and restored to the list of purely 
appointive offices. 

President Roosevelt caused nearly all of 
the more important places to be restored, 
and extended as rapidly as possible the 
merit system over the newly acquired de¬ 
pendencies and colonies. 

EXTENT OF THE SERVICE. 

It is estimated that the number of posi¬ 
tions in the Executive Civil Service is now 
about 210,000, of which approximately 90,- 
000 are classified competitive positions, 
100,000 unclassified, and somewhat less 
than 20,000 are classified but not subject 
to competitive examination. Less than 20,- 
000 of the official force are employed in 
Washington, D. C. Most of the unclassi¬ 
fied positions are held by fourth-class post¬ 
masters, of whom there are more than 72,- 
000 . 

Under the act of April 12, 1900, the 
United States Civil Service supplanted the 


military service in Porto Rico. Inasmuch 
as the executive officers and employes under 
this act -become a part of the Executive 
Civil Service of the United States, they are 
properly subject to the provisions of the 
Civil Service acts and rules. On July 5, 
1900, the Secretary of the Treasury, with 
the President’s approval, issued an order 
classifying and including within the pro¬ 
visions of the Civil Service law and rules 
the officers and employes in and under the 
Treasury Department of Porto Rico, ex¬ 
cepting persons appointed with the advice 
and consent of the Senate and persons em¬ 
ployed as mere laborers or workmen. On 
August 29, 1900, the Postmaster-General 
informed the Commission that the United 
States Postoffice Department, on May 1, 
1900, assumed control of the free-delivery 
service at Mayaguez and San Juan, Porto 
Rico. The Commission approved the lists 
of carriers transmitted therewith and au¬ 
thorized the treatment of the offices as free- 
delivery offices. 

On July 5, 1900, the Secretary of the 
Treasury issued an order classifying the 
employes of the Treasury Department in 
Hawaii. The order is similar in scope and 
language to that of the same date relating 
to Porto Rico. 

On September 19, 1900, the United 
States Philippine Commission passed an 
act entitled “An act for the establishment 
and maintenance of an efficient and honest 
civil service in the Philippine Islands.” In 
introducing the measure President Taft 
said: 

“The purpose of the United States Gov¬ 
ernment and the people of the United 
States in these islands is to secure for the 
Filipino people as honest and as efficient a 
government as may be possible. It ia 



547 


Things tOe All Should Knotv 


deemed by the Commission and by the Gov¬ 
ernment which the Commission represents 
to have every feature of this bill consistent 
with the Government. The danger in any 
government, whether it be republican or 
monarchial, is that public office be used for 
private purposes. All countries have suf¬ 
fered from this evil, and those countries 
in which a thorough system of civil service 
is selected are the first to minimize that 
danger.” 

HOW TO ENTER THE CIVIL SERVICE. 

Persons seeking to be examined must 
file an application blank. The blank for 
the Departmental Service at Washington, 
Railway Mail Service, the Indian School 
Service, and the Government Printing Ser¬ 
vice should be requested directly of the 
Civil Service Commission at Washington. 
The blank for the Customs, Postal, or In¬ 
ternal Revenue Service must be requested 
in writing of the Civil Service Board of 
Examiners at the office where service is 
sought. These papers should be returned 
to the officers from whom they emanated. 

Applicants for examination must be 
citizens of the United States, and of the 
proper age. Ro person using intoxicating 
liquors to excess may be appointed. 

A set of specimen examination questions 
covering all the departments has been pre¬ 
pared by the Commission, with full infor¬ 
mation as to examinations. This is pub¬ 
lished in a pamphlet under the title, “Man¬ 
ual of Examinations,” and may be obtained 
free of charge by writing to the United 
States Civil Service Commission, Washing¬ 
ton, D. C. It can also be obtained from 
any postoffice where there is a civil service 
department. 

The age limitations for entrance to posi¬ 


tions in the different branches of the serv¬ 
ice are as follows: 

Mini- Maxi¬ 
mum. mum. 


Departmental service: 

Page, messenger boy, apprentice, (other 
than apprentice in mints and assay 

offices) or student. 14 20 

Apprentice in mints and assay offices.. 18 24 

Printer’s assistant and messenger. 18 No limit. 

Positions in the Railway-Mail Service. 18 35 

Internes and hospital stewards in the 
Marine Hospital Service and acting 
second assistant engineer in the Rev¬ 
enue-Cutter Service . 21 30 

Keeper, assistant keeper and officers of 
light-house tenders and light vessels 

in the Light-House Service. 18 50 

Cadet in the Revenue-Cutter Service 
and aid in the Coast and Geodetic 

Survey . 18 25 

Surfman in the Life-Saving Service_ 18 45 


Superintendent, physician, supervisor, 
day-school inspector, disciplinarian, 
matron, and assistant matron in the 
Indian Service; inspector and assis¬ 
tant inspector of hulls and inspector 
and assistant inspector of boilers in 


the Steamboat-Inspection Service. 25 55 

Observer in the Weather Bureau Service 18 30 

All other positions. 20 No limit. 


(The age limitation shall not apply in 
the case of the wife of the superinten¬ 
dent of an Indian school who applies 
for examination for the position of 


teacher or matron.) 

Custom-House Service: All positions_ 20 No limit. 

Post-Office Service: 

Rural letter carrier. 17 55 

All other positions. 18 45 

(The age limitations shall not apply in 


the case of an honorably discharged 
United States soldier or sailor of the 
civil war or of the Spanish-American 


war who applies for the position of 
rural letter carrier.) 

Government Printing Service: 

All positions (male). 21 No limit. 

All positions (female). 18 No limit. 

Internal-Revenue Service: All positions. 21 No limit. 


The inestimable value of the merit sys¬ 
tem to good government is now so univer¬ 
sally admitted, and so unassailable from 
both moral and economic standpoints, that 
it is being extended throughout the entire 
field of public service. 

Civil Service on the merit system in the 
cities is making notable progress, as in Chi¬ 
cago, Yew York and Boston, while in other- 
cities it is still struggling against the spoils 
system of the professional politicians. 

The merit system of the Civil Service is 
likewise making notable progress among 
the States, as in Yew York and Massa¬ 
chusetts, where a practical economic sys¬ 
tem is now in effective operation. 

Likewise many counties of the various 













548 


Things XOe All Should K.noto 


States have adopted civil service rules in 
which there shall he “no dismissal except 
for cause, no promotion except for merit.” 
In this way the office spoilsmen among pro¬ 
fessional politicians can not cause the dis¬ 
missal even of a janitor without due trial 
and conviction of a misdemeanor. 

^ «*t «** 

COMPULSORY EDUCATION 

Most of the States of the Union, and the 
District of Columbia, have compulsory edu¬ 
cation laws under various conditions, many 
of them made partly ineffective by excep¬ 
tions. 

In Ohio the law is inoperative where the 
seating accommodations of the school 
houses are insufficient. 

In Massachusetts, the four Cape Cod 
counties and the mountain counties of the 
west are exempt. 

In the various States, required attend¬ 
ance varies as to age from 7 vears to 16 
years. The prevailing limits are 8 to 14 
years, and as to time, from eight weeks in 
Kentucky to the entire term taught in Mas¬ 
sachusetts' and Connecticut. 

Where the penalty is on the parent, it 
varies in fines from $1 in New Mexico to 
$200 for repeated neglect in Nevada. 

The penalty is in numerous places on 
the child. In Maine if the child is between 
10 and 15 years of age and guilty of re¬ 
peated truancy, it is sent to the reform 
school; in New Hampshire to industrial 
school; in Massachusetts, between 7 and 
16, to truant school; in Rhode Island to 
any designated institution; in New York 
to truant school; in New Jersey to juvenile 
reformatory, if over 9 years of age; in 
Pennsylvania to local truant school; in 


Ohio to a reformatory; in Indiana to a 
parental home provided by the school 
board; in Michigan to an ungraded school 
provided by the board. 

Penalties varying from $10 to $100 for 
non-enforcement of the law are set upon 
officers in the states of Maine, Vermont, 
Pennsylvania, West Virgina, Kentucky, 
Ohio, Wisconsin, Minnesota, North Da¬ 
kota, South Dakota, Kansas, Montana and 
California. 

In most of the states where there are 
state institutions for the deaf, dumb and 
blind, there is compulsory attendance at 
the parents’ expense if they are able. 

Exemptions from compulsory attend¬ 
ance are granted for distance from nearest 
school as follows: California, one mile; 
Pennsylvania, Kentucky, West Virginia, 
Indiana, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, 
Kansas, Colorado, Nevada and Oregon, 
two miles; North Dakota, Montana, Utah, 
two and one-half miles; Idaho, three 
miles. 

A physician’s certificate for bodily or 
mental ailments will exempt children in 
Indiana, North Dakota, Montana, Wyo¬ 
ming, New Mexico and Utah. In Wash¬ 
ington defective children must he sent to 
state institutions. Poverty is an exemp¬ 
tion in the District of Columbia, Nebraska, 
Rhode Island, Kentucky, Minnesota, Kan¬ 
sas, Montana and California. 

The need of the child’s service for sup¬ 
port of parents exempts it from attendance 
in Utah, and, for any relative, in Illinois. 

Any urgent reason exempts from the 
law in Pennsylvania and Wyoming. 

In Wisconsin and Illinois it is necessary 
to obtain a decision from a court of record. 

In Ohio, the decision of a probate judge 
on appeal will exempt. 


Things tOe Alt Should K.notv 


549 


By enactment of the legislatures, in case 
of poverty, clothing and books are fur¬ 
nished free in Vermont, by the town; in 
Indiana by the county; and in Colorado 
by the district. Elsewhere certain local 
provisions are made for the same purpose. 

The following states have made legal 
provisions for transporting children to 
school at public expense: Maine, New 
Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Con¬ 
necticut, Hew York, Hew Jersey, Iow r a, 
Hortli Dakota and Hebraska, while partial 
provisions are made in Rhode Island, Wis¬ 
consin, Ohio, Pennsylvania and South 
Dakota. 

CHILD-LABOR LAWS. 

In Hew Hampshire, no child under 10 
years of age may be employed in a man¬ 
ufacturing establishment, nor one under 
16, who cannot read and write, during 
time schools are in session, under a penalty 
on the employer not to exceed $30. 

In Vermont no child under 14 years is 
to be employed in any mill or factory un¬ 
less he has a certificate of school attendance 
of 14 weeks in the vear. 

In Massachusetts no child under 14 
years of age can be employed during the 
school term, nor for any work earlier than 
6 A. M. or later than 7 P. M. Ho one 
under 16 can be employed during school 
term without a certificate of attendance 
for the required time, nor any minor over 
14. who cannot read and write, during the 
time when there is a local evening school, 
unless he shall be attending the same. The 
penalties on employers are from $5 to $50. 

In Ehode Island no child under 12 
years can be employed during the school 
year without a certificate of having at¬ 
tended school eighty days. Fines not to 
exceed $20. 


In Connecticut no child under 14 can 
be employed who has not a certificate of 
sixty days’ attendance at school. Penalty 
not to exceed $60. 

In Hew York no child under 12 can be 
employed during school term, nor for the 
next two years without a certificate of 
eighty days’ attendance. Penalty $50. 

In Hew Jersey no child under 15 years 
can be employed without a school certifi¬ 
cate for twelve weeks of consecutive at¬ 
tendance. Penalty $10 to $25 or im¬ 
prisonment one to three months. 

In Ohio no child under 14 years can be 
employed without a certificate of sixteen 
weeks’ attendance. Penalty $25 to $50. 

In Illinois no child shall be employed 
which is under 13 years, for any period of 
time greater than one day, without a certifi¬ 
cate from the school board that the child’s 
service is necessary to support an infirm 
relative. Penalty, every day being an 
offense, $10 to $50. 

In Michigan every child under 14 years 
must have attended school four months 
immediately previous to employment. 
Penalty $5 to $10 for first offense and not 
less than $10 for each subsequent offense. 

In Hortli Dakota and South Dakota no 
child under 14 can be employed, except 
by parents or guardians, while the local 
public schools are in session, without cer¬ 
tificate of twelve weeks’ attendance. Pen¬ 
alty $20 to $50 and costs in Hortli Da¬ 
kota, and $10 to $20 in South Dakota. 

& £ <£ 

STANDARD TIME OVER THE 
WORLD 

When transportation was slow and of 
small amount, the question of differences 
in time was of small account, but with the 


550 


Things IB Oe All Should K.nobv 


advent of swift movements along parallels 
of latitude, in the vast volume of traffic of 
recent years, the problem became one of 
intolerable perplexity and danger. 

Scientific discussion had been going on 
for years with many suggestions and plans 
for relief, when in 1884, a conference was 
held in Washington which divided the 
world into zones or time belts with the 
meridian of Greenwich, five miles south¬ 
east of Lon¬ 
don, as a 
basis. The 
observatory 
at Greenwich, 
which is al¬ 
most univer¬ 
sally the cal¬ 
culating point 
for the geo¬ 
graphical 
measurements 
of longitude, 
was erected 
by Charles II. 
for the ad¬ 
vancement of 
naviga tio n 
' and nautical 
astronomy. It 
now trans¬ 
mits the time 
by magnetic 
currents to all England and is the chief 
nautical reckoning point for the rest of the 
world. 

Before the general establishment of what 
is known as standard time, each town on 
a given parallel had a different time from 
that of its neighbor, in accordance with the 
movement of the sun, but to the confusion 
of all railroad time. For the public con¬ 


venience, the United States was divided 
into four sections or belts of 15 degrees, 
or one hour each, to be known as Eastern, 
Central, Mountain and Pacific time. 
To accommodate the general divisions of 
the railroads, the dividing lines are drawn 
irregularly from north to south through 
railroad terminals or principal towns. On 
that account, Eastern time includes all the 
territory between the Atlantic coast and a 

line drawn 
from Detroit 
to Charleston, 
South Caro¬ 
lina. Central 
time includes 
all west to the 
irregular line 
drawn from 
B i s m a rck, 
North Dako- 
t a, to the 
mouth of the 
Bio Grande. 
Mountain 
time extends 
to the western 
borders of 
Idaho, Utah 
and Arizona, 
while the re¬ 
mainder west 
is Pacific 
time. Thus twelve noon in Eastern time is 
eleven a. m. in Central, ten a. m. in Moun¬ 
tain and nine a. m. in Pacific time. This 
is easily understood from the fact that it 
requires an hour for the sun to pass over 
a little more than a thousand miles, there¬ 
fore the sun rises upon or is perpendicular 
over, the eastern end of a thousand miles 
one hour before it is in the same position at 



CLOCK INDICATING SIMULTANEOUS TIME AROUND THE WORLD. 

The center dial represents noon at Chicago and a corresponding varia¬ 
tion may be calculated for any hour in the day. 



551 


‘Things 'COe All Should K.nobt> 


the western end. Standard time for the 
United States is supplied by the Naval Ob¬ 
servatory at Washington. The exact hour of 
twelve o’clock noon is determined every day 
by astronomical observation, and the precise 
time is transmitted to the clocks of the gov¬ 
ernment departments by electricity. The 
telegraph companies are permitted to tele¬ 
graph the time thus taken by automatic 
instruments to all parts of the United 
States. The instrument at San Francisco 
registers the time within a fifth of a sec¬ 
ond after it is taken at Washington, D. C. 
To do this the telegraph company clears 
all its wires throughout the United States 
of all business, three minutes before noon 
each day, and thus unbroken connection is 
established over the entire telegraph sys¬ 
tem of the country. 

Not alone is the exact time sent instantly 
to all parts of the Union, but the extensive 
system of private and business clocks con¬ 
nected with the telegraph lines are, by an 
electrical device, regulated together. This 
is done in each clock by means of an elec¬ 
tro-magnet operating a clamp. The mag¬ 
net is filled with electric force when the 
circuit is closed to give the noon signal, and 
the hands of the clock are forced to the 
exact point of twelve. The telegraph com¬ 
pany charges $15 a year for each clock and 
fully $1,500,000 a year is earned by this 
service. More than ten thousand clocks 
are thus regulated in New York City 
alone. 

From the staff of the Naval Observatory 
at Washington a great red ball drops ex¬ 
actly at noon every day, and those seeing it 
can regulate their watches and clocks ac- 
cordingly. In seaport towns balls are 
dropped in the same manner and the sea¬ 
men can thereby regulate their watches. 


PUBLIC LIBRARIES, THEIR 
GROWTH AND ADMIN¬ 
ISTRATION 

The administration of a great library, in 
order to make it most serviceable to those 
who patronize it, has become one of the 
learned professions of late years, so rapid 
has been the growth of the institutions and 
the uses to which they are put. Architects 
make special preparation to qualify them¬ 
selves for the building of libraries. Col¬ 
leges and universities give special courses 
for the instruction of librarians in the va¬ 
rious departments of their work. Philan¬ 
thropists have learned that there is no use 
to which they may put their benefactions ^ 
for the public good surpassing the gift of 
funds for the establishment or the exten¬ 
sion of libraries, and the reading public, 
realizing the remarkable advantages to 
which it has access since libraries so multi¬ 
plied, gives closer attention to literature 
and keeps the attendants busy serving the 
wants of those who love books. 

In 1900 there were in the United States 
5,383 public, society and school libraries 
containing 1,000 or more volumes each. 
The total number in these collections was 
44,591,851, or 35 per cent more than in 
1896, when the number was 33,051,872. 
There is one library of more than 1,000 
volumes for every 14,118 persons, and 
there are fifty-nine books for every one hun¬ 
dred of the population. All of these fig¬ 
ures entirely exclude all private and small 
collections, which would increase the total 
enormously, for there are multitudes of pri¬ 
vate libraries exceeding 1,000 volumes. 

There are fifty-three national and state 
libraries, of which the Library of Congress, 
at Washington, is the largest, with more 


552 


Things XOe All Should K_nokv 




than 1,000,000 volumes. In addition 
to this library the House of Rep¬ 
resentatives, the Senate and the various de¬ 
partments of the government have their 


LIBRARY BOOK STACK ROOM. 

special collections of books for immediate 
use, so that the total number of volumes be¬ 
longing to the govern¬ 


ment in Washington 
exceeds 2,000,000. 

The largest of the 
state libraries is that 
of Hew York, at Al¬ 
bany, with 423,290 
volumes. 

Of the thirty - six 
free public libraries of 
50,000 or more vol¬ 
umes, that of Boston 
is the largest, with 
772,432 books on its 
shelves. Thirty - two 
universities and col¬ 
leges have libraries of 
more than 50,000 vol¬ 
umes, and of these 
Harvard University dynamos and ventilating pipes, Chicago public library. 


stands at the head with 560,000 books. 
There are thirty-seven other libraries in the 
United States exceeding 50,000 volumes 
each, belonging to various societies and spe¬ 
cial collections and extending in several in¬ 
stances to more than 200,000 books. 

It is edifying to notice a single city as 
an example of the wealth of library mate¬ 
rial in the United States. In Chicago the 
free public library lias a total-of 272,276 
volumes and 49,805 unbound pamphlets. 
The aggregate circulation for a single year 
approaches 2,500,000 volumes, which does 
not include the use of books kept on open 
shelves, nor the periodicals and newspapers 
used in the reading rooms. The splendid 
public library building which shelters this 
collection was erected at a cost of several 
hundred thousand dollars, and is equipped 
with every modern appliance known to li¬ 
brary experts. Of course, it is fireproof 
throughout, being built entirely of steel, 

































553 


Things *tOe A.// Should K_notz> 


cement, glass and tiles. The book stacks or 
shelves are made of steel. The ventilation 
of the library is arranged according to a 
system which makes it unnecessary to open 
the windows and admit the dust and soot, 
which are so disastrous to books. All air 
for ventilation is admitted through the 
basement, where it is filtered and cleaned 
before being distributed throughout the 
building by an intricate system of large 
pipes and fans. 

In addition to this library, in Chicago 
there is the John Crerar library, with more 
than 75,000 volumes, the Xewherry free li¬ 
brary with 250,000 volumes, the Chicago 
Historical Society library with 27,000 vol¬ 
umes and 60,000 pamphlets, the Chicago 
Law Institute library with 40,000 volumes, 
the University of Chicago library with 
335,000 volumes and 165,000 pamphlets, 
the Field Columbian Museum library and 
the library of the Armour Institute, each 
containing some 15,000 volumes. It is evi¬ 
dent that no one need be denied reading 
matter in such a city for want of opportu¬ 
nity, and the other great cities of the 
United States make a showing equally cred¬ 
itable. 

Andrew Carnegie, the great iron master, 
has paid special attention to public libra¬ 
ries in his immense contributions to char¬ 
itable and educational purposes. It is cal¬ 
culated that he has given nearly $15,000,- 
000 for libraries in the United States and 
Scotland within the last two or three vears. 
To Hew York city alone he gave $5,200,- 
000 to establish branch libraries. To St. 
Louis he gave $1,000,000 for a public li¬ 
brary, and to a total of nearly two hundred 
cities he has given public libraries ranging 
in cost from $15,000 to $750,000. In near¬ 
ly every instance his gifts have been 


coupled with the condition that a building 
site should be provided free of cost, and an 
appropriation for the annual maintenance 
of the library be made from public funds. 
By this means he has stimulated the gift 
and the expenditure of large sums of money 
in addition to those which he gave himself, 
and consequently the totals of his own con¬ 
tributions do not by any means measure 
the full amount given for such purposes in 
this country. Indeed, there have been sev¬ 
eral other gifts of public libraries, ranging 
in value from $25,000 to $150,000, by men 
who avowed themselves to be moved by Mr. 
Carnegie’s generosity elsewhere, so that to 
him must be given a large share in the 
credit for the remarkable stimulus that has 
been given to library building within re¬ 
cent years. 

O* v* 

AMERICAN COLLEGES AND 
THEIR GROWTH 

It is a characteristic of this age of prog¬ 
ress that attention is being paid to the in¬ 
tellectual side of life just as energetically 
as to industrial and commercial undertak¬ 
ings. Indeed, in many communities the 
development of the refinements of life is 
advancing with even greater rapidity. In 
the comparatively new cities of the Mis¬ 
sissippi Valley and the Far West the men 
of energy and ability, until recently, have 
been forced to devote all their time and at¬ 
tention to the upbuilding of their own pros¬ 
perity and that of the communities in which 
they live. They have had little leisure to 
.think of anything except business. Of late 
years, however, with their fortunes estab¬ 
lished and business conditions fixed in more 
regular channels, they have had more lib- 


554 


Things We All Should Knoto 


erty of action for intellectual pursuits and 
recreation. The result is that our great 
merchants, miners, railway men, manufac¬ 
turers and other captains of industry have 
turned into these finer pursuits the same 
energy and executive ability that have built 
great cities in a generation. The libraries, 
universities, museums, art galleries and 
other kindred institutions have grown like 
magic, with enormous rapidity, as a result 
of the immense gifts made for such pur¬ 
poses. While it is true that money cannot 
provide the venerable history and the schol- 


record of 100 years behind them, and it is 
not strange that with such conditions they 
likewise excel in the number of students 
attracted to them. With unlimited money 
at their command they are able to employ 
faculties of the most distinguished scholar¬ 
ship. They offer likewise college libraries, 
gymnasiums, museums, laboratories and 
buildings themselves of the greatest, and 
many a young man passes by the school 
with the traditions in order to patronize one 
which has the newest dormitories. 

The statistics of American colleges are 



BUILDINGS OF COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY. NEW YORK CITY. 


astic atmosphere that belong to the older in¬ 
stitutions as qualities that come only with 
age, or the traditions that stimulate those 
who inherit the halls from which a century 
of distinguished men have issued, yet ma¬ 
terial equipment goes far to assist scholar¬ 
ship, and age will be provided by the pass¬ 
ing vears. 

Some of the younger colleges, for in¬ 
stance, with a history dating back hardly 
ten years, already excel in their endow¬ 
ments and the facilities they offer to stu¬ 
dents, those institutions with an honorable 
\ ' 


impressive as indicating the attention that 
young men and young women are giving to 
higher learning, and the assistance granted 
to such institutions either by the public in 
the state universities or by men of large 
wealth out of their private fortunes. In 
the United States there are enumerated 621 
colleges, universities and seminaries for 
higher education which are authorized to 
grant degrees. In these 12,557 professors 
and instructors are employed in teaching 
153,287 scholars. The income of these in¬ 
stitutions annually reaches the immense 
















555 



Things tOe All Should Knot* 


total of $24,185,367. At least eight of these 
institutions have more than 3,000 students 
attending. Harvard University stands at 
the head of the list, with 5,150 students; 
Columbia University second, with 4,036, 
and the University of Michigan at Ann 
Arbor third, with 3,800, the latter being 
the largest of all the state universities sup¬ 
ported by public funds. The University of 
Chicago, which, under its present organiza- 


activity in the affairs of every-day life. 
With the great increase in their financial 
resources they have entered the field of 
scientific exploration all over the world, as 
well as the field of publication with the lit¬ 
erary results of their explorations and dis¬ 
coveries. College sports have become of 
interest, not alone to the young men who 
share in them, and to their institutions, 
but to the public at large, so that their foot- 


BUILDINGS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA, PHILADELPHIA. 


tion, is hardly ten years old, has more than 
3,500 students. 

Colleges and universities, generally 
speaking, have been broadening their work 
and their policies of late years, confining 
themselves less to instruction in the classics 
and mathematics and giving more atten- 
tion to modern languages, literature and 
the sciences. They have come closer to the 
life of the people, and have taken a larger 


ball, baseball and boat races are considered 
among the most important sporting events 
every season. Even the most conservative 
and scholastic of the universities and col¬ 
leges yield to these changing conditions, 
and even though they may sometimes con¬ 
sider that these sports hold too prominent 
a place in the life of an educational insti¬ 
tution they realize the advertising value of 
publicity, and that their new classes each 
















556 


Things tOe A. It Should Kjxobo 


year are in large degree attracted by the 
athletic successes of the respective institu¬ 
tions. 

It is impressive to note the immense 
gifts that have been made within the last 
few years to certain colleges and universi¬ 
ties by some of our wealthy Americans. 
Andrew Carnegie has given $10,000,000 
to establish the University of the United 
States at Washington, and $10,000,000 to 
the Scotch universities, all within a single 
year. John D. Rockefeller, in the same 
year, 1901, gave $2,000,000 to American 
colleges, and within ten years has given to 
the University of Chicago approximately 
$8,000,000. Mrs. Stanford, in 1901, gave 
tc Leland Stanford Junior University in 
California, property valued at $30,000,- 
000, and the bequests of her husband and 
her own gifts prior to that time had already 
amounted to many millions. Mrs. Hearst 
gave to the University of California prop¬ 
erty amounting to more than $10,000,000. 
Cecil Rhodes in his will left sums amount¬ 
ing to $20,000,000 to assist the cause of ed¬ 
ucation in the English universities, this 
amount to be available as scholarship funds 
for students from England, the British col¬ 
onies and the United States. D. Iv. Pear¬ 
sons of Chicago has given more than $3,- 
000,000 to colleges throughout the United 
States within the last few years. Mrs. Jo¬ 
seph L. Rewcombe in 1901 gave $3,000,- 
000 to Tulane University at Rew Orleans. 

The foregoing are but the greatest gifts 
out of a long list. Several others could be 
named, amounting to $1,000,000 each, and 
scores of sums from $10,000 upward. In 
most cases the amounts were given on con¬ 
dition that the institutions to which the 
monev was granted would raise similar 

o O 

sums through subscriptions from alumni 


and other friends, so that the amounts 
given in large sums have been virtually 
doubled by the raising of smaller amounts. 

Ro one can fail to appreciate the great 
significance of such an educational move¬ 
ment. It is a recognized fact that educa¬ 
tion does more to advance the true welfare 
of a nation than any other influence that 
can be enlisted, and American colleges and 
universities have always been a factor of 
great importance in influencing the nation¬ 
al life and policies on important questions 
at issue. With education multiplying as 
it is sure to do rapidly under the impetus 
given it during the closing years of the last 
century, we may expect to see even greater 
results in the future than there have been 
in the past. 

je jt 

AMERICAN COLLEGE SPORTS 

Probably no other influence has been as 
effective in making athletic sports generally 
popular as has been the great interest 
taken in them by the young men of Amer¬ 
ican colleges. Leading a studious life 
through a large part of their time as they 
do, it is necessary for them to take every op¬ 
portunity for outdoor exercise, for the sake 
of their health and the quality of their 
work. Stimulated to rivalry, first among 
themselves in their own colleges as they are, 
and then by loyalty to their institutions to 
rivalry with ether neighboring schools, the 
spirit of emulation has grown, until now 
the annual competitions and events in ath¬ 
letic sports have become almost a supreme 
factor in the college year to hosts of young 
men. 

In the fall, each year, football holds the 
place of highest importance, and in the 
spring baseball takes a corresponding rank. 


Things tOe All Should K^notv 


557 


As incidental factors throughout the year 
come contests in tennis, track athletics, 
gymnasium athletics, rowing, and other 
sports. 



BRINGING OUT THE SHELL. 


There are many colleges which do not 
have access to water, and consequently 
cannot enter the rowing competition. Those 
which are located more favorably, however, 
either at the seashore or beside some lake 
or river, find in these contests one of the 
most important events of the year and one 
which attracts to it thousands of visitors 
from far away. The “big race” every 
year, as it is considered in the college 
world, is that of the eight-oar crews of Yale 
and Harvard Universities, usually rowed 
at New London, Connecticut, on the 
Thames river. On the same day there is 
also a race between four-oar crews and 
freshmen crews from the same universities, 
and the three events serve to make the day 


an important one in college athletics. 
These, however, are not the only college 
crews that race every year, with great im¬ 
portance placed upon the victories. In this 
country Princeton, Columbia, Cornell, 
Pennsylvania and other eastern universi¬ 
ties, and several of the large western col¬ 
leges and universities arrange similar 
events, while in England the annual race 
between Oxford and Cambridge attracts 
world-wide interest. 

The apparently frail craft in which these 
races are rowed cut through the water at 
an astonishing speed, the rowing records 



THE POLE VAULT. 


for college teams being as low as four miles 
in a few seconds more than twenty minutes. 

Almost every American college and 
school, from Harvard and Yale down to 











































558 


Things XV e All Should K.nobu 



the smallest village grammar school, has its 
series of games for the football champion¬ 
ship every fall. When Harvard and Yale, 
Princeton and Columbia, or Pennsylvania 
and Cornell play their annual game, wheth¬ 
er it be in Hew York, Boston or elsewhere, 
on Thanksgiving day, thousands of enthu¬ 
siasts make riotous applause for the victors 
on whose strength and agility so much de¬ 
pends. In Hew York, for instance, 60,000 
people have been known to be present at 
such a game. Thanksgiving day, indeed, has . 
become known as the great day for football 
events the country over. This is one game 
into which professionalism has entered 
hardly at all, fortunately for athletic sports. 

Another noteworthy game of football is 
that played between the cadet teams of 
West Point and Annapolis. It is the army 
against the navy in this instance, and the 
young cadets from the two national schools 
of warfare fight bravely to win the honor 
for their respective arms of the service. 
The same energv that they display at this 
time in a manly spirit of athletic rivalry is 
the quality which serves them well in later 
years when they enter more important un¬ 
dertakings in the service of their country. 
An accompanying illustration represents 
one of these games, played at Philadelphia 
on the field of the University of Pennsyl¬ 
vania. More than 30,000 spectators wit¬ 
nessed the spirited contest. Among them 
were President Roosevelt and the members 
of his cabinet, the members of the Senate 
and the House of Representatives, and a 
number of distinguished officers of the 
army and the navy. Many special trains 
ran from Washington, Hew York and the 
other neighboring cities to accommodate 
the immense crowds that desired to view 
the contest between the young men who are 
to be our future generals and admirals. 


i m 


COLLEGE CREW IN AN EIGHT-OARED RACING SHELL. 







559 


Things tOe All Should Knoto 


OCEAN, LAKE AND MOUNTAIN 
RESORTS 

In spite of the energy and fidelity with 
which Americans stick to their business at 
all hazards, there are few countries where 
great summer and winter resorts are more 
highly developed than they are in the 
United States. On the Atlantic coast, from 
Maine to New Jersey, a succession of beau¬ 
tiful summer resorts have grown up, where 
splendid hotels, attractive bathing beaches 
and the other conditions which make such 
places pleasurable, attract hundreds of 
thousands of visitors every year. At At¬ 
lantic City, New Jersey, is the dividing 
line between the winter and summer coast 
resorts, for here in both seasons visitors 
crowd the hotels. Further south it is 
chiefly winter travelers who patronize the 
seaside, all the way down to the tip of the 
Florida peninsula and thence around the 
coast of the Gulf of Mexico to the Texas 
cities themselves. 

The coasts of the New England states, 
and Long Island, Delaware and New Jer¬ 
sey, are marked with charming resorts 
every few miles. Florida, with its splen¬ 
did hotels facing the gulf, forms a distinct 
resort region of its owm for the winter. 
From Mobile, Alabama, to New Orleans, 
facing the Gulf of Mexico, is a shore which 
the southerners term the American Riviera. 
On the Pacific another distinct group of re¬ 
sorts has developed, from San Diego in the 
south to Alaska in the north. San Fran¬ 
cisco becomes the dividing line between the 
summer and winter resorts on this coast. 
Southward from the metropolis of Califor¬ 
nia are such beautiful winter resorts as 
Monterey, Santa Barbara, Santa Catalina, 
Los Angeles and San Diego, wdiile north¬ 
ward in the summer multitudes of tourists 



FOOTBALL GAME BETWEEN ANNAPOLIS AND WEST POINT CADETS AT UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA, PHILADELPHIA. 

President Roosevelt, his cabinet, both houses of Congress and hosts of distinguished citizens were among the 30,000 spectators present. Special trains from 

New York, Washington and elsewhere helped to swell the crowd. 






560 


Things XOe All Should Knoto 


take advantage of the mountain and coast 
beauties of Puget Sound, British Columbia, 
and the Alaskan shores even further north. 
Monterey and Santa Catalina, likewise, 
are almost as popular in the summer as in 
the winter. 

Between these two oceans a limitless va¬ 
riety of pleasure grounds await the vaca¬ 
tion wanderer at any season. The moun¬ 
tains of New England, the Adirondacks, 
the Georgia pines, the lakes of Michigan, 
Wisconsin and Minnesota, the mountains 
of California and the far west offer choice 
inexhaustible. Nature has given to this 
country as lavishly of opportunities for 
pleasure in wholesome climates and among 
beautiful surroundings as it has given of 
the wealth of the forests, the mines and the 
farm. He would be exacting indeed who 
should fail to be satisfied in whatever di¬ 
rection he desired to use his activities of 
mind and body. 

j* je 

WINTER SPORTS IN NORTHERN 
CITIES 

Every country has sports peculiarly its 
own in the beginning, and those that are 
best for general use are invariably passed 
over the boundaries into neighboring coun¬ 
tries for appreciative adoption there. It is 
to Canada, thanks to its cold but favorable 
winters, that the world owes the develop¬ 
ment of some of the most wholesome, en¬ 
joyable and picturesque of athletic sports. 
In Quebec, Montreal, Ottawa, Toronto, 
Winnipeg and a host of smaller cities of 
the Dominion of Canada, the winter is the 
season of greatest merriment, the time of 
most active outdoor life. The low temper¬ 
ature and the deep snow are themselves the 
factors of which the people take advantage 
to have their joiliest times. 



BATHING BEACH, PIER, PAVILION AND THE FAMOUS BOARDWALK, ATLANTIC CITY 

























Things All Should K^nobv 


561 



Sleigli riding and coasting, which in the 
cities a little farther south are uncertain 
treats, here become the standard form of 
amusements through the long winters. The 
Canadian hills are gay with the bright cos¬ 
tumes of multitudes of merry coasting par¬ 
ties. It is here that that most picturesque 
of snow craft, the toboggan, has been de¬ 
veloped to the fleet vehicle used so gener- 
allv, as a substitute for the ordinary sled 
with runners, on Canadian hills. The to¬ 
boggan, indeed, of late years, has been in¬ 
troduced to a considerable extent into the 
United States, where it has gained much 
popularity. Instead of runners it has a 
smooth, polished surface for its whole 
width, and in an icy trough worn upon the 
steep hillside the coasters attain a breath¬ 
less speed before they reach the bottom of 
the decline. Here, too, in all their pictur¬ 
esque beauty, are seen the gay costumes of 

manv-colored blanket cloth worn as suits 
«/ 

and dresses bv the younsr men and women. 

The snowshoe is another Canadian im¬ 
provement of a primitive Indian inven¬ 
tion. Over the deep snows which gather in 
the northern winters the snowshoes bear 
the sportsman without trouble, so that he 
may race or hunt at will, uninterrupted by 
the drifts. 

Of course skating is as popular during 
the Canadian winter as it is in other coun¬ 
tries where cold weather comes in earnest. 
The rivers and lakes, however, are usually 
covered with snow to such an extent that 
skating is virtually confined to large rinks 
which exist in every city, where brilliant 
illumination helps to make the scene with¬ 
in more gay than it might otherwise be. 

Ice-boating, too, has its devotees in Can¬ 
ada. This inspiring sport, however, has 
its chief favor on the Hudson river and on 
some lakes of Yew York and Wisconsin. 


CROWD ON THE FAMOUS BOARDWALK WATCHING BATHERS ON THE BEACH AT ATLANTIC CITY. 















ON THE TOBOGGAN SLIDE—CANADA’S FAVORITE WINTER SPORT, 










Things XOe All Should K.nobu 


563 



“THE BOUNCE.” 

Ice-boats are built in triangular form, rest¬ 
ing on three skates, the one in the rear serv¬ 
ing as a rudder. They have no cabins, and 
are but skeleton craft, sliding over the ice 
at railroad speeed and carrying a spread 
of canvas like that of a small yacht. Ex¬ 
perts in handling ice-boats are able to ma¬ 
neuver them in any direction as readily as 
their cousins at sea are handled, and there 
is no more beautiful sight than a race be¬ 
tween a fleet of these picturesque craft. 

As a center of winter sport, and an at¬ 
traction for multitudes of visitors, Quebec, 
Montreal, Winnipeg, St. Paul and one or 
two other cities at various times have built 
great palaces and castles of ice. Some of 
these have been noteworthy for their archi¬ 
tectural beauty and grace no less than for 

their noveltv. Balls and festivals, illumi- 
«/ 

nations, fireworks, sham battles, and other 


OVER THE HURDLE IN A SNOWSHOE RACE. 

some and entertaining, and winter nowa¬ 
days does not stand at the bottom of the 
list. 

& & & 

HORSE RACING THE WORLD 
OVER 

Horse racing for many generations has 
been called the “sport of kings,” and never 
has there been a time when the sport was 
more popular or more widely enjoyed than 
it is today. “It is differences of opinion 
that make horse races,” said a clever writer, 
and there are few countries where the peo¬ 
ple do not differ as to the merits of their 


sports more truly a part of winter festiv¬ 
ities, have centered around them to make 
carnivals of winter which have attracted 
thousands of travelers from long distances 
to witness the novel and beautiful scenes. 

If one has the instinct for outdoor pleas¬ 
ure, and is resourceful, he will discover 
that there is no season when nature does 
not offer some means of sport, both whole- 























564 


Things XOe All Should Knotv 


respective steeds, and back their judgment 
for a race to test the facts. It is hard to 
travel to a land so remote that horse races 
are not popular events in the year’s sport¬ 
ing annals. In Melbourne, the temporary 
capital of Australia and the metropolis of 
that island continent, is a race course in 


States as well. In this city of less than 
500,000 inhabitants, 100,000 persons will 
gather at Flemington race course on the 
day of the Melbourne Cup race, and the 
prize to the winner of the race sometimes 
amounts to as much as $75,000. 

Far on the other side of the world from 



“DERBY DAY” AT WASHINGTON PARK RACE COURSE, CHICAGO. 


which the people take pride, claiming it to 
be the finest in the world. And there at 
Flemington, once a year, is run a race for 
a prize known as the Melbourne Cup, 
which attracts visitors not merely from all 
the neighboring colonies of Australia but 
actually from England and the United 


Melbourne, in May every year, the people 
of London, and, indeed, strangers from all 
the world, gather at Epsom Downs to see 
the Derby. Unlike most race courses there 
is no charge made for entering the course at 
Epsom Downs and viewing the race, and 
thus, with free admission as a temptation, 












Things 'GOe All Should K.nobv 


565 


literally thousands of people spend the 
night before the race walking the twenty 
miles from London in order to be among 
the multitude present. Crowds approach¬ 
ing half a million have been known to be at 
Epsom on Derby day. 

Across the channel from England the 
French in turn have taken up horse racing, 
and at Longchamps, near Paris, is a beauti¬ 
ful course where every year, a few days 
after the London Derby, is run another 
noteworthy race called the Grand Prix, or 
the race for the grand prize. Here gathers 
the fashion of Europe for the most famous 
day in the annual sporting calendar of 
Paris. 

These three races, the Melbourne Cup, 
the Derby and the Grand Prix, contend for 
the honor of being the greatest race in the 
world. Here in America we have several 
which rival each other in importance in the 


sporting world, among them the Futurity 
and Suburban at Sheepshead Bay, Hew 
York, and the American Derby at Chicago, 
with two or three other races that might be 
named as of the highest interest to the lov¬ 
ers of the horse. These events attract more 
attention year after year. The American 
Derby, run every spring at the Washington 
Park race course in Chicago, has earned 
for its winner as much as $49,500 in stake 
money. Sixty thousand persons have been 
present to witness the race, and the display 
of splendid equipages and brilliant fashion 
makes it noteworthy even beyond the im¬ 
portance of the sporting event itself. 

£ £ 

ARMIES AND WARS OF THE 
WORLD TODAY 

In spite of the advance of education and 
enlightenment, the increased facility of 



BENGAL LANCERS FROM INDIA ROUTING CHINESE CAVALRY NEAR PEKIN. 

















566 


Things tOe Alt Should K_nobv 


communication and better acquaintance 
between the nations of the earth, and the 
progress of material affairs in this indus¬ 
trial age, there is little cessation in the mili¬ 
tary activities of the world. Of late years 
the actual hostilities between the great civ¬ 
ilized powers have not been numerous, and 
yet there has been hardly a year without its 
war. Spain and the United States, Greece 


raised up to plague them there has been 
hardly any interruption. Great Britain, 
indeed, is never at peace, and at least one 
London paper has a standing head line, 
year in and year out, “our little wars,” un¬ 
der which general title are recorded every 
year, fatalities that in their total would 
amount to the losses of a great battle. Egypt 
and the Sudan, Central Africa, South 



A BICYCLE BRIGADE IN THE BRITISH ARMY. 


and Turkey, Great Britain and the Boers, 
have had their interchange of warfare. Ja¬ 
pan and China fought over the Korean 
question. Various South American repub¬ 
lics have engaged in wars, important enough 
to themselves and yet hardly noticed by the 
rest of the world. 

In conflicts between the powers and the 
various savage or rebellious foes they have 


Africa, the Afghan hills, and indeed almost 
every place where England’s colonial efforts 
come in contact with native races in posses¬ 
sion resenting innovation, are scenes of fre¬ 
quent outbreaks against British rule. 

France, likewise, in Senegal, Dahomey, 
Algeria, the Sudan, Madagascar and Indo- 
China, has had to fight its way for colonial 
power. Italy first succeeded and then failed 












567 


'Things XOe Alt Should K.nobv 


disastrously in Abyssinia, and is now left 
with a fringe of barren coast on the Red 
Sea to show for the enormous losses of 
blood and treasure in the African cam¬ 
paigns. 

Spain has seen her whole colonial posses¬ 
sions vanish, except a few worthless tracts 
at the edge of the desert in Western Africa, 
and from these she draws no profit. Bel¬ 
gium, with the Congo Free State, seems to 
be planning commercial development for 
that great tropical territory, but the end 
will be reached only 
with great labor and 
cost of men and money. 

Germany and Portugal, 
likewise, have Central 
African colonies, in 
every instance costing 
far more than they re¬ 
turn, and even with the 
promise of ultimate 
profit there will be a 
long intervening period 
of bitter warfare with 
natives. Russia is con¬ 
stantly extending her 
boundaries southward, 
but has not yet any 
colonies or possessions 
except those of con¬ 
tiguous territorv with 
the great empire itself. 

We of the United States, fighting Spain 
to release Cuba from the yoke of oppression, 
found ourselves inheriting a war with the 
Filipinos, who were already demanding 
freedom from their Spanish oppressors. 
Within its first three years this war of ours 
with the Filipinos cost us immensely more 
in money and in men than the parent con¬ 
flict with Spain itself. 


So it is that all Europe, and indeed ail 
the world, is rapidly becoming an armed 
camp. Xations have adopted the theory 
that safety can be assured only by eternal 
vigilance and military strength. The peace 
rescript of the Emperor of Russia, from 
which sentimentalists counted so much, 
was hardly circulated before there was such 
an outbreak of warfare as the world had not 
seen for many years. Great scientists and 
inventors are concentrating their attention 
upon improvements in the mechanism and 


art of war. Improved rifles, projectiles 
and explosives of many varieties have al¬ 
tered the character of warfare on land al¬ 
most as much as it has changed at sea. Ho 
longer are there spirited charges across 
open fields, or steady advances of regiment 
against regiment. With rifles effective at 
a range of one mile, and smokeless powder 
for the explosive, a force would be annihi- 









5G8 


Things We A It Should K_notz) 


lated long before band to band fighting 
could begin. Artillery and long-distance 
firing, therefore, have supplemented close 
work with muskets. Balloons, war-kites, 
searchlights, machine guns, armored rail¬ 
way cars and other innovations have come 
into modern warfare. Field hospitals and 
ambulance systems likewise have been im¬ 
proved, but the happy time is not yet when 
the Bed Cross will have no work to do, and 
the military organizations of the powers can 
release their millions of soldiers to some 
more profitable and productive vocation. 

Some detailed information concerning 
the newest explosives, projectiles, guns and 
armies will serve to indicate the activities 
in this direction. Picric acid' is obtained 
bv the action of nitric acid on carbolic acid, 
and from it are made such remarkable de¬ 
structive materials as dynamite, maximite, 
cordite and lyddite. The latter was the 
explosive most favored by the British in 
their campaigns against the Boers in South 
Africa. These high explosives, like smoke¬ 
less powder, are not generally dangerous to 
handle. They must be prepared with de¬ 
tonating caps for the purpose of exploding 
them. The dum-dum bullet, a fatal pro¬ 
jectile for small arms, is made of nickel, 
with a point of soft lead. When such a bul¬ 
let strikes any object it spreads in the shape 
of a mushroom, making a peculiarly pain¬ 
ful and deadly wound. They are not coun- 
tenanced by the powers openly. 

The various machine guns and rapid-fire 
guns discharge twelve to 1,500 shots a min¬ 
ute, according to .their size and mechanism. 

Some of these are wliollv automatic. The 

*/ 

Maxim gun, for instance, is so arranged 
that after each recoil of a previous dis¬ 
charge the shock opens the breech, extracts 
the empty shell, takes a fresh cartridge, 


cocks the gun, pushes the shell into its 
chamber and fires the gun. The cartridges 
are loaded into the gun in a belt, and all the 
operator has to do is to pull the trigger the 
first time and the belt is ground through 
the machinery at the rate of GOO shots a 
minute. With such explosives, projectiles 
and weapons in use it is apparent that war¬ 
fare is becoming a more dangerous pursuit 
all the time. The following table shows the 
armed strength of the great powers: 



Armies. 

Navies. 

Country. 

Peace 

footing. 

War 

footing. 

Ships. 

Men. 

Austria-Hungary . 

361,693 

2,000,000 

34 

18,680 

France . 

628,755 

3,250,000 

124 

49.755 

Germany . 

576,666 

3,000,000 

77 

30,386 

Great Britain. 

212,449 

475,000 

259 

114,880 

Italy . 

825,340 

3,272,409 

57 

25,804 

Japan . 

157,829 

603,000 

32 

26.10S 

Russia . . 

1,100,000 

4,600,000 

75 

39,546 

United States. 

100,000 

62 

23,453 


& & 


THE GERMAN EMPEROR’S 
AMERICAN YACHT 

The schooner yacht Meteor, which was 
christened by Miss Alice Roosevelt, daugh¬ 
ter of the President, when it was launched 
in New York on February 25th, 1902, in 
the presence of Prince Henry of Germany, 
is the first pleasure boat that was ever built 
for a European monarch in an American 
shipyard. The vessel from stem to stern 
was the product of American builders, 
American designers and American work¬ 
men. His Imperial Majesty, the Emperor 
of Germany, desired that to be the case, in 
order that he might feel that he possessed 
a genuine American product. It was not, 
however, the first American pleasure boat 
owned by Wilhelm II., who already pos¬ 
sessed an American-built schooner, the 
Yampa, which he had bought some years be¬ 
fore from its owner, who was cruising in 
German waters. When he ordered the Me¬ 
teor he commissioned the designers of the 

















Things '€Z)e Alt Should K,.note* 


569 


Yampa to build a larger schooner, with 
such additional improvements as have been 
made in the last fifteen years. Only a few 
months ago the materials out of which this 
famous little international pleasure craft 
was built were scattered all over the United 
States, from the Atlantic to the Pacific. 
Polished masts of white pine were growing 
wild in their native Oregon forests. The 
iron and steel in the beams and plates were 
unmined ore in the Pennsylvania hills. 
The hardwoods for the finishing of the 
interior were hewn by American hands 
in American forests; the interior ap¬ 
pointments, the plumbing and the fittings 
were made by American workmen, the sails 
were made by American sail-makers from 
American canvas, and the rigging was all 
the work of our own countrymen. It was 
natural and appropriate that it should be 
christened by a genuine American girl, to 
gracefully emphasize the national character 
of the whole performance. 

The Meteor is a large yacht, having a 
length over all of 160 feet, a water-line 
length of 120 feet, a beam of twenty- 
seven feet and a draught of seventeen 
feet. There is thus deck-room enough 
for a court reception. Accommodation 
is furnished for a crew of at least 
thirty men. There are two saloons, the 
main and the ladies’ cabin, and three large 
staterooms, in addition to the Emperor’s 
suacious suite. In size, indeed, the Meteor 
is the largest schooner-yaclit ever put forth 
from an American shipyard. The quarters 
are ample, though without ostentation. The 
comfort of the voyagers was the point 
chiefly aimed at. xYltogether it is a hand¬ 
some craft, quite good enough for an Em¬ 
peror or an American. Its cost was about 
$150,000. 


THE SECOND AND GREATER 
BROOKLYN BRIDGE 

The Brooklyn Bridge is a name that has 
been known the world over for many a year 
as that of one of the most noteworthy 
achievements of modern times. A suspen¬ 
sion bridge spanning the great East Biver 
. and bearing the traffic of two great cities, it 
was indeed worthy of its high fame. But a 
time is coming now when the original 
Brooklyn Bridge will have to take a second 
place and be distinguished by a more spe¬ 
cific name, for another Brooklyn Bridge 
is under construction that surpasses it in 
every way. The new bridge likewise spans 
the East Biver, connecting New York City 

on Manhattan Island with Brooklvn on 

*/ 

Long Island. It is about a mile above the 
old bridge, and consequently will draw the 
great traffic from the shopping district of 
New York that until this time has been 
compelled to patronize the ferries. 

The two steel towers from which the 
great roadway of the bridge is suspended are 
1,600 feet apart, or nearly one-third of a 
mile. They rise to a height of 335 feet above 
the water, and the bridge itself is so high 
above the river that the masts of the largest 
boat may pass under it. Erom the tops of 
these great towers four steel cables, each 
as large as a man’s body, carry a two-story 
platform twice as wide as a city street, with 
six railroad tracks, two carriage ways, two 
promenades and two bicycle paths. In or¬ 
der to attain the height over the river re¬ 
quired for navigation, the tracks have to be 
carried over more than half a mile of streets 
and houses at each end of the bridge. The 
weight of the 1,600-foot span between the 
towers is 16,000,000 pounds, and it will 
carry with safety a moving load of 9,000,- 


570 


Things *COe All Should K.nobet 


000 pounds. The steel in each tower weighs 
6,000,000 pounds. The total cost of the 
bridge and its approaches is about $9,000,- 
000, and of the land about $10,000,000 
more. These figures are sufficiently elo¬ 
quent to speak for themselves, and this 
greatest of American bridges is indeed a 
triumph of the builders. 

<£ <£ 

HOW MAPS AND GLOBES ARE 
MADE 

Now that the relations of the different 
countries of the world have become so in¬ 
timate and news is transmitted so rapidly 
and regularly by means of the electric tele¬ 
graph and distributed by the morning pa¬ 
per, it has become essential to have at hand 
for ready reference maps of all the world, 
in order to understand intelligently the 
things that are happening. 

Chicago is the map making center of the 
country. It is said that more maps are 
sent out of that city annually than from 
all the other cities of the United States 
combined. Most of the railroads obtain 
their maps from Chicago. Hundreds of 
thousands of school maps are thrown off 
Chicago presses, and the majority of 
bicyclists who are ranging the country car¬ 
ry in their pockets Chicago-published maps 
made specially for them. Maps from the 
cheapest to the most expensive are made 
here, and whether cheap or expensive they 
follow the same path from the first drawing 
to the last time of going through the press. 
The difference comes in the size and the 
accuracy and care in the making which 
distinguishes them. 

When the map publisher makes up his 
mind to publish a new map, one of Illinois, 


for instance, he orders the draughtsmen to 
make an original drawing. While any 
mechanical or architectural draughtsman 
can draw a map, the number who are re¬ 
garded as expert map draughtsmen is small. 
The draughtsman takes the map of Illinois 
published last, and begins his work by copy¬ 
ing it on the scale required. That is, he 
copies it larger or smaller according to the 
number of miles that each inch on the new 
map will represent. A map of Illinois six 
feet long by four feet wide would be made 
on a scale of six to one; that is to say, each 
inch on the map would represent six miles 
of distance. 

But the new map must be “up to date,” 
for Americans insist that their maps must 
show the very latest changes in boundaries, 
railroads, rivers, size and importance of 
towns and cities, and modifications of lake 
shores and seacoasts. Before the draughts¬ 
man begins his work the publisher has col¬ 
lected from government surveys, railroad 
time tables, railroad maps, and county and 
township surveyors all the information he 
can find regarding changes. With this in¬ 
formation before him the map-maker be¬ 
gins his work. If any dispute or uncer¬ 
tainty arises over any particular section, a 
tracing is made of the territory under dis¬ 
pute, and this is sent to the official surveyor 
of that district for correction or approval. 
The drawing made in india ink is of the 
size that the map is to be made. All the 
lettering is put in with the pen, but merely 
to indicate the place where the type must 
print the names of the counties, towns, etc. 
When the drawing is completed it is taken 
to the engraving-room and turned over to 
the map engraver. 

The engraver first takes a smooth-faced 
copper plate of the required size, and black- 


Things XOe All Should K^nobu 


571 


ens the face by holding it over a smoking- 
lamp, or by painting it with lamp-black, 
and then covers it with a composition made 
of wax and gum, laying on the composition 
to the thickness of light blotting paper. To 
get the composition even, the copper plate 
is slightly heated, for the composition melts 
easily. When the plate is thus coated it is 
ready to receive a transfer of the drawing. 
The back of the paper on which the map is 
drawn is covered lightly with black, brown 
or blue chalk, and this chalked surface is 
laid upon the wax composition which covers 
the copper plate. Then the engraver, with 
a fine steel pencil or stylus, goes over every 
line and mark in the drawing. As the steel 
point moves over the paper the drawing is 
copied on the composition, just as a copy of 
a drawing is made with black carbon paper. 
The composition is white and the chalk 
lines stand out conspicuously. 

The plate is now ready for the graver, or 
V-shaped tool used by the engraver. With 
it he goes over the chalk lines, cutting out 
the vtax composition to the copper plate. 
As he first coated the plate with lamp black, 
he can readily see his work, because the 
graver leaves a black line wherever it 
touches the copper. The engraver does not 
cut out the letters. He has an easier and 
better way; for, setting the names up in 
type, he places the type in a holder some¬ 
what like a bookbinder’s stamp, and then 
heating the type slightly, presses them into 
the wax to the copper. The holder is so 
arranged that the type can be set up either 
in a curved or straight line. Perhaps there 
is nothing on a map which excites more 
curiosity and draws out more guesses than 
the names of the towns and cities which 
straddle railroad lines, curve around rivers, 
and appear in a badly mixed-up condition. 


Every one knows that the names are printed 
by type, but how the type came there is a 
deep mystery to most persons. 

When an exact copy of the drawing, with 
the names marked in type, is made on the 
plate, the engraver proceeds to “build up” 
the engraving. He takes a piece of the wax 
composition about the size and form of a 
lead pencil, and with a heated iron tool 
which looks like a piece of darning needle 
stuck into a handle, he builds up little 
mounds of wax on each side of the lines 
and letters. He does this to obtain the 
“relief,” for all the time he has really been 
making molds in which to cast a copper 
electrotype. To pour melted copper into 
this mold would melt the wax instantly, so 
the map-maker turns to electricity as the 
agent which will deposit the copper in his 
wax mold. He suspends the engraved plate 
or mold in a bath, after first coating the 
mold with graphite. Xot far from it hangs 
a pure copper plate. To each plate he con¬ 
nects a wire leading from a small dynamo. 
The current jDassing from the pure copper 
plate to the mold, through the liquid, car¬ 
ries with it the copper, which is deposited 
in the mold, thus really making a copper 
cast of it. When enough copper has been 
deposited, the mold is taken off, the copper 
cast removed, and the reverse of the draw¬ 
ing standing out in bold relief is taken off. 
This thin shell is backed up with metal to 
make it solid and strong, and it is then 
ready to be placed in the press to print thou¬ 
sands of maps of Illinois. To engrave a 
map about 11 inches wide by 14 inches 
long requires six weeks’ work of the en¬ 
graver. 

The electrotype thus made is used to 
print the black map. For every color used 
in the maps, a separate plate must be made. 


572 


Things tOe All Should K.noto 


This explains why the price of a map in¬ 
creases in proportion to the number of col¬ 
ors used. The largest map made in one 
piece in Chicago is 66 inches long and 46 
inches wide. Anything larger than that is 
made in sections, and the sections are neat¬ 
ly pieced together to make the whole. 

Most of the maps made by or for the 
government are not made by the relief pro¬ 
cess, but are engraved on steel, copper, or 
stone. In engraving a map on steel, the 
steel plate is first coated with a peculiar 
varnish, which is acid proof. A transfer 
of the drawing is made on the varnish, but 
unlike the transfer made on the wax com¬ 
position in the relief process, the copy is 
reversed. The engraver cuts through the 
varnish with his graver, and then the steel 
plate is placed in a bath of acid, which 
attacks the steel where it is not protected by 
the varnish. When the engraving is fin¬ 
ished the maps are printed by the usual 
method of printing steel engravings. 

For maps where extreme accuracy is re¬ 
quired, as in coast surveys, soundings, and 
navigators’ charts, a sheet of thin, trans¬ 
parent gelatine is placed over the drawing. 
With a sharp steel pencil the engraver 
copies the drawing into the gelatine. lie 
then dusts blue powder over the gelatine, 
and the powder remains in the scratches or 
etching made by the steel pencil. By press¬ 
ing this into the varnish the copy, in re¬ 
verse, is transferred in clean, sharp lines. 
Engraving on copper or stone is done in 
much the same manner, and maps made 
from the stone are simply lithographed. 
The engraving is first made in the stone, 
after a copy of the drawing has been trans¬ 
ferred to it, and then a transfer is made 
from the engraving to a flat stone by the 
lithographic process. The largest map 


printed from stone is 36 inches by 62 
inches. For large wall maps the sections, 
which pasted together on cloth make the 
whole, are 48 inches by 42 inches. 

What was said to be the largest map ever 
printed was exhibited at the World’s Fair. 
It was the map of the United States, 14^ 
by 19| feet in size. Each inch on the map 
represented eighteen miles. Hear it stood 
the electrotype from which the map was 
printed. Its area covered nearly 300 
square feet. It was made up of pieces so 
cleverly joined that the joints could not be 
detected. 

The making of globes requires time, 
skill and patience. In high-class globes the 
sphere appears to be covered with a single 
piece of paper. As a matter of fact the 
globe is covered with twenty-four pieces, 
except in small globes, where half as many 
pieces are pasted on. The lines represent¬ 
ing latitude on a globe appear to be straight 
lines. But with the exception of the 
equator, all the lines are curved, the curves 
being of such radius that when the pieces 
are pasted on the sphere the lines are 
straight. 

In one map publisher’s engraving-room 
in Chicago an engraver worked two and a 
half years engraving the plates for an 
eighteen-inch globe. He first secured a per¬ 
fect sphere eighteen inches in diameter. 
This sphere was tested in various ways un¬ 
til the engraver was certain it was a true 
sphere. Then he divided it into twelve 
sections on the line of the equator, and laid 
it out on flat paper. Each section was cigar¬ 
shaped, curving evenly from point to point. 
When he cut it and pasted it on his model 
it wrinkled, and did not lie snugly to the 
bulge of the globe. He had to experiment 
for a time until he secured the proper 


Things XOe All Should K^nobv 


573 


shape, width and curve for his sections, 
and then he laid out his map accordingly. 
As eight colors were to be used in printing 
the globe map, it required fifty-six plates 
before the globe could be covered. 

The globes themselves are made of 
papier-mache. On this a coat of plaster of 
paris is laid, and this is turned true in a 
lathe. This process is used in Chicago in 
making all high-class globes. The greatest 
care must be exercised in making the globe 
maps, for the paper shrinks, and this 
shrinkage, if too pronounced, would ruin 
the globe. The paper is always run through 
the press one way. That is, the sheets are 
fed in exactly as they lay in the roll of 
paper when it came from the paper-mill. 
In this way the fiber of the paper always 
runs in the same direction in going through 
the press. 

The largest globe made for sale is 30 
inches in diameter. Until recently but few 
globes u r ere made in the United States. To- 

dav thousands of them are made and sold in 

«/ 

Chicago alone. An 18-inch globe is now 
sold for about $35; ten years ago the price 
of an 8-inch globe was the same as that of 
an 18-inch globe to-day. The cause of this 
great reduction in price is found in the 
constantly increasing demand for globes, 
for 100 high-grade globes are now sold to 
one sold ten years ago. 

WATCHES AND CLOCKS 

The sixteenth century inventor of the 
watch or spring clock would have deemed 
it a dream if to his Swiss soul had come 
a vision of the great watch factories of to¬ 
day, their thousands of employes, the di¬ 
vision of labor, and the enormous output. 
Indeed, those Swiss manufacturers who 


until recent years enjoyed a monopoly of 
the making of fine watches, can hardly 
realize now the extent of the industry in 
this country. 

Those watchmaker shops of bygone days, 
where one or two men constructed an entire 
time piece, have given way to great fac¬ 
tories where hundreds and even thousands 
of employes earn their daily bread. The 
dingy work shop has been supplanted by 
great factory buildings with a thousand dis¬ 
tinct departments, well lighted and well 
ventilated rooms, and a complicated system 
centering about the superintendent’s supply 
room, to which all parts are taken when 
completed, and about the factory office, 
which sells watches not only at home but 
also to the natives of Africa, to the Aus¬ 
tralian sheepmen, in short, to the inhabi¬ 
tants of the uttermost parts of the earth. 
The simple hand tools have given place to 
hundreds of machines, propelled by one 
central engine under one guiding hand. 

American watches now form a great bulk 
of the world’s entire watch production. 
Illinois is the seat of two of the greatest 
factories in the country, one at Spring- 
field and the other at Elgin. Massachusetts 
has the great Waltham factory, and the 
work of watch making has been taken up 
in Ohio. 

The modern watch is marvelously com- 
plex, yet marvelously simple. Its construc¬ 
tion is merely the perfect union of a mul¬ 
titude of simple details. First it is neces¬ 
sary to separate the watch into case and 
works, for in spite of a popular idea to 
the contrary, they have no dependence upon 
each other. Watch works or “movements” 
in most’ American factories are manufac¬ 
tured in sizes ranging from number four, 
which is about the size of a half dollar, to 


574 


Things *€Oe All Should K.notv 


number eighteen, which is fully twice as 
large. Cases are made corresponding to 
each of these sizes, and the sizes and the 
cases are adapted to any make of watch. 
They are the product of factories estab¬ 
lished for that purpose and, of course, are 
of endless variety. 

The movements are constructed after 
various plans, but in most makes they have 
for their foundation two plates, the lower 
and heavier one called the pillar plate, and 
the upper plate, which is often in several 
sections. Between these two the mechanism 
of the watch is arranged. The lower plate 
generally is of brass, the upper of nickle. 
They are punched from strips of sheet 
metal to exactly the right size and shape, 
after which they are smoothed and pol¬ 
ished. 

To allow room for the little wheels, in¬ 
dentations absolutely exact are made in the 
foundation plates. This work is done by a 
wonderful machine which follows the out¬ 
lines of a steel model, made for a pattern, 
with absolute mechanical accuracy. The 
thickness of the plate and the depth of the 
indentations are measured so as to be per¬ 
fect, according to a gauge two degrees of 
which equal a thousandth part of an inch. 
Into the plate then are drilled the neces¬ 
sary screw holes and apertures for the 
jewel settings. For every step in the pro¬ 
cess of preparing the plates there is a new 
smoothing and polishing given them, so 
that all rough edges are continually re¬ 
moved. 

Watches containing from four to twenty- 
tw r o jewels are made in most factories. The 
jewels used are garnets, rubies, sapphires 
and diamonds. Garnets are the ordinary 
jewels and a fifteen-jewel watch is consid¬ 
ered the standard. The garnets are im¬ 


ported from Coventry, England, and come 
in packages containing from 500 to 5,000 
pairs. 

The various w’heels of a w T atch are 
stamped out of sheets of brass, with the 
excejition of one or two pieces. The springs 
are made from sheet steel, and the screws 
of cold steel drawn from wire. The tem¬ 
pering of these various steel pieces is one 
of the classes of work in factories demand¬ 
ing highest order of skill. In tempering 
some varieties of screws, and some of them 
are so small that a glass is necessary to 
distinguish them from specks, the workman 
uses a thermometer of a peculiar sort in 
order that lie may watch the temperature 
to which they are heated and then cooled 
at the exact point. Other varieties are tem¬ 
pered by watching their colors. They are 
heated over small furnaces until they give 
off light of the proper kind, and then are 
cooled. Screws in a watch of ordinary 
grade number about forty varieties, all of 
which are turned, sawed and gauged by 
girls in the factory. 

The pinions, wheels, axles and similar 
pieces are turned out by girls. One ma¬ 
chine cuts the pinion’s length from a wire, 
turns it with three successive cuttings by 
tools which succeed one another auto¬ 
matically, and deposits the pinion. One 
girl seated on a stool which moves on rol¬ 
lers on a track can attend to five of these 
machines at once. The balance wheel, 
which flits back and forth with such never- 
varying regularity, requires forty different 
steps in its manufacture, simple as it ap¬ 
pears. Steel and brass disks are brazed 
together, and are ground down to the re¬ 
quired thickness. The united disk is then 
punched into a rim which is calculated to 
contain two parts of brass and one of steel. 


Things XVe All Should K.notv 


575 


In the edge of the rim, twenty-six holes 
are made, and the same number of small 
screws are inserted to preserve the balance 
of the wheel. 

After the foundation plate receives its 
jewels and is polished, engraved and 
stamped with whatever ornamental design 
it requires, and has passed inspection to¬ 
gether with the parts which have been ad¬ 
justed to it, the whole is brought to the 
assembling room, where all the work of the 
factory comes to a successful termination. 
Each part has been rendered perfect. The 
works are adjusted, piece by piece, by fine 
divisions of labor, passing from hand to 
hand down a long row of workmen’s 
tables in the process. Each man has his 
particular work and is responsible for it. 
When once assembled, the mechanism is 
tested as a whole. Thence it is taken to a 
refrigerator and subjected to cold. A stay 
in a hot-air compartment follows this, the 
temperature of the two tests ranging from 
forty degrees below zero to 103 degrees 
above. Xot until it passes these tests with¬ 
out being affected is the watch considered 
to be perfect and ready for the market. 

The dial of the watch is made by a com¬ 
plicated process in which a metal plate is 
coated with enamel, fired and glazed like 
china, and painted mechanically with the 
figures and designs before a second firing. 

From the intricate details of watch 
manufacture it is necessary that the fac¬ 
tory system be perfect and this necessity 
is met in most American factories. As a 
general thing the employes are compara¬ 
tively well paid. The work is so special¬ 
ized, however, that none of the employes 
become watch makers in the real sense of 
the word, but only skilled in their particu¬ 
lar department. Each piece in the mech¬ 


anism and each step in the process of 
manufacture is governed by fixed designs 
and made largely by automatic machinery, 
so that often an unskilled, inexperienced 
girl guides the machine which turns out 
work the most essentially exact. 

The United States contains the largest 
clock factories of the world as well, and 
clocks made in this country are sold everv- 
where, their reputation being so high that 
the German and Japanese imitations, made 
in large numbers of late years, have actu¬ 
ally adopted the designs and the labels of 
the American manufacturers, in order to 
obtain a share of the trade by deceiving the 
customer. The common spring-clocks 
might be called larger and rougher watches, 
and the processes of ztamping out founda¬ 
tion-plates, wheels, springs and screws are 
not unlike those of the watch factorv, modi- 
fied to meet the conditions of the larger 
mechanism. The amazing cheapness with 
which watches and clocks are made, while 
their qualities of accuracy are preserved, 
is, of course, due entirely to the employ¬ 
ment of automatic machinery which pro¬ 
duces them in great numbers at the least 
cost. There is another advantage also in 
the fact that in machine-made pieces all 
the parts made by a given pattern are inter¬ 
changeable, so that in the event of an acci¬ 
dent, repairs can he made with the greatest 
ease and at the least expense. 

Watch cases are hardly as complicated 
as are the works, but the factories making 
them are great institutions with most in¬ 
genious machinery in use. Thin sheets of 
metal are passed through machines which 
stamp out the disks of the right size, much 
as coins are stamped out in the mint. The 
disks are then passed through processes 
which form them to the right shape. The 


576 


Things XOe All Should K.notv 


polishing and engraving are done by ma¬ 
chinery, except when some special design 
is made to order. The filled cases which 
have become such a popular substitute for 
the more expensive cases of solid gold, are 
made by welding two thin sheets of gold 
on opposite sides of a sheet of steel, and 
then stamping the disks for the case out 
of this combination metallic plate. A case 
of great strength is thus obtained at mod¬ 
erate cost, with a surface of gold which 
will wear many years without deteriora¬ 
tion. 

& & £ 

MIRRORS AND THEIR MANU¬ 
FACTURE 

In the days when society and clothing 
were little appreciated, some heated man, 
in stooping to drink from a shady forest 
pool, saw a face in the water. After the 
first superstitious fear had been overcome he 
doubtless came again and again, each time 
with greater curiosity. Perhaps he also 
called the attention of his wife and daugh¬ 
ters to the phenomenon, and as soon as they 
discovered that their own faces looked up 
at them from the water, doubtless they 
began to think of rings for their noses. 
Thus vanity was born when the mirror was 
discovered. 

Since that time mechanical skill has been 
engaged in making portable substitutes for 
the shady pool, according to the model 
which nature provided. First the mirror 
was a polished piece of metal, usually 
bronze, and then it w r as silver or brass. 
Everywhere the early society belle went, 
she carried her mirror along with her in a 
little box which hung from her girdle. In 
some cases a slave was specially employed 


to keep it so highly polished that the. re¬ 
flection would be perfect. This use of met¬ 
als continued until a comparatively recent 
time, and then some man who could not af¬ 
ford a piece of silver to look into devised a 
glass mirror. lie found that the amount 
of metal required to make a thin coating on 
the glass was exceedingly small, and that 
its bright surface, being hermetically sealed 
by the presence of the covering glass, did 
not require any polishing. From that time 
to the present the glass mirror has pre¬ 
vailed, and the process of manufacturing 
has varied only in small details. 

In the first place a mirror requires the 
finest kind of glass, without spot or speck 
or “blow-holes.” The best work is done with 
the plate glass manufactured in St. Gobain, 
France, and in numerous cities of Bel¬ 
gium. All the largest manufacturers of 
mirrors use the foreign varieties in prefer¬ 
ence to those of American manufacture. 
The glass comes in huge plates, a quarter 
of an inch thick, ten or fifteen feet long, 
and half as broad. As many as a dozen 
plates are packed in a single box, display¬ 
ing numerous warnings to “handle with 
care.” When the glass is taken out it is 
covered with dust and bits of excelsior, and 
the first thing that is done is to wash it clean 
with water. Then a dozen of men who 
know just how to handle a great piece of 
glass without subjecting any portion of it 
to a breaking strain carry it into the cut¬ 
ting room. Here a workman in a long 
leather apron—usually a Frenchman who 
has had great experience in foreign mirror 
manufactories—blocks out an order on the 
plate, say two or three beveled mirrors for 
some lady’s boudoir. A diamond-pointed 
instrument, with a strong and steady hand 
behind it, traces the lines of drawings on 


Things XOe All Should K^noto 


577 


the glass and cuts a groove so deep that the 
pieces easily crack out. 

Each of these oval pieces is then borne 
into another room, filled with the humming 
noises of rapidly-moving machinery. A 
thin-faced foreign workman, with his 
sleeves rolled up to the elbows, and a ragged 
apron draping him from chin to toes, picks 
it. up and places its edge upon the side of a 
swiftly revolving iron wheel. From a large 
wooden tank, which strongly resembles a 
New England ash-leacli, a steady stream of 
sand and water flows upon the iron wheel, 
and in passing between it and the edge of 
the glass wears the bevel. The muddy 
water from the wheel is frequently thrown 
off in the swift revolutions, and works 
polka-dot designs all over the operator. But 
he is a skilled workman, and in his pride 
in getting the bevel on the glass exactly 
even—and he must depend wholly on his 
eye—he doesn’t pay any attention to the 
flying mud. 

When the bevel is complete it resembles 
“mist” or ground glass, and is full of 
scratches and rough places. The next work¬ 
man in order smooths the bevel on a rapid¬ 
ly revolving emery wheel, which casts off 
a perfect shower of sparks. When it is as 
smooth as it can be made by this process it 
is passed to a third workman, who applies 
it to a fine grindstone from Newcastle, and 
in two minutes almost all traces of rough¬ 
ness have been removed. A small boy sits 
above the next wheel, which is made of 
wood, and daubs it with a wisp broom 
which he dips continually into a tub of 
water standing near at hand. He and the 
operator are both covered with the thin 
gray fluid which the wheel throws off. 

By the time the wooden wheel has been 
iised, the bevel, to the ordinary eye, looks 


as smooth as the other parts of the glass. 
But to the trained eye of the master- 
workman, who has watched for flaws in 
the glass since he was a child, it is far 
from perfect, and he takes it in his hand 
and passes.the bevel swiftly over a wheel, 
which is smeared with ordinary rouge, such 
as the actress uses to make blushes on her 
cheeks. It may be imagined that this part 
of the shop has been well treated with red— 
the men are all red, the floor is red, the 
tools are red and in passing through the 
department the visitor frequently acquires 
involuntary blushes. When the embryo 
mirror has passed the rouge wheel its bevel 
is perfect, and it is sent to an expert for 
inspection. If there are any remaining 
scratches on the glass they are marked with 
chalk, and a workman with an old rag 
smeared with roime rubs awav until it is 

o 

smooth and fine. 

The glass is now ready for the silvering 
room—a tight, hot, well-lighted apartment 
in which the workmen wear as little cloth¬ 
ing as possible. An inclined plane of 
boards, which resembles a huge washboard 
turned on its side, fills one corner of the 
room, and on this the plates of glass are 
laid face downward. Over them the work¬ 
man spouts a stream of water, which 
cleans off the dirt. Then with another 
hose he plays on the glass with a sensitiz¬ 
ing solution of tin, the exact composition 
of which is a trade secret. The pieces of 
glass are next gathered up by a workman 
and are borne to the “bed.” 

While it is not provided with pillows, the 
“bed” is complete in almost every other 
particular. It has a blanket which is strung 
across a frame about the size of an ordina- 
rv bed, and over this a cotton sheet is 

V ' 

stretched. Underneath, so that its surface 


578 


Things XOe All Should K.nobo 


just touches the blanket, there is a large 
vat of water kept hot by steam pipes. The 
embryo mirrors are laid on the bed face 
down, and while they are yet wet with the 
sensitizing solution, a workman pours a di¬ 
luted compound of nitrate of silver, am¬ 
monia and tartaric acid over each glass. 
The exact composition of this solution is 
also a trade secret, each firm having its 
own methods for mixing and each is cer¬ 
tain that it cannot be beaten in results. 

xkssisted by the heat from below and by 
the tin solution, the silver is quickly pre¬ 
cipitated on the glass. When the workman 
in charge thinks the coating is thick enough 
he pours off the surplus of the silver solu¬ 
tion, and the mirror—for it is no longer in 
an embryo state—is put into a warm “bed” 
to dry off. Here another workman takes 
the mirror and paints the back of it with 
a protective solution. Each firm has a dif¬ 
ferent color of paint and each paint is 
usually a composition differing from all the 
others, so that when a mirror is received for 
resilvering the manufacturer can usually 
tell just what firm originally sent it out. 
Frequently in special orders the backs of 
mirrors are covered with felt. 

The whole process in the silvering-room 
is wasteful of silver, and many devices have 
been used to preserve all the metal pos¬ 
sible. The blankets of the beds and the 
coverings of the tables where the nitrate of 

O 

silver crystals are ground up, all go to the 
refineries for burning, and about 20 per 
cent of the silver is recovered. 

The whole process of making a beveled 
mirror does not take to exceed an hour by 
the present methods, and no stage is dan¬ 
gerous to the workmen. When mercury 
and tin-foil were used a number of years 
ago, the fumes killed many of the opera¬ 


tives and a mirror could not be completed 
under ten days. 

A large mirror is much more difficult to 
make than a small one, owing to the dif¬ 
ficulty of handling the somewhat fragile 
glass. The largest mirror ever made in 
Chicago—so say the manufacturers—was 
18| feet long and 8 feet broad, and it was 
used in a liquor saloon. Two or three of 
the five large manufacturers of mirrors in 
Chicago use French glass almost entirely, 
for the reason, they say, that it is much 
finer in quality, and lacks the greenish tint 
which spoils American glass for the best 
trade. Chicago not only supplies the home 
market with mirrors but ships them all 
over the West and to Mexico, Canada and 
South America. . 

Making plain mirrors adds about 20 per 
cent to the value of the plate glass, or in 
beveled work 30 per cent. For instance, 
a piece of plain French plate glass, 5x10 
feet, would cost about $75. A plain mir¬ 
ror of the same size would sell for $90. 

jt jt J* 

ART WORK IN BRASS 

Ornamental brass work has become an 
important industry since banks and other 
business offices have taken to plate glass, 
mosaic floors, statuary, stained glass over 
desks, and other decorative luxuries. This 
style of brass work is but the refinement of 
a commoner art, and the same men who 
make car-fittings, valves and brass work 
for steam engines and other machinery, can 
step into an “art brass” foundry and turn 
out high-grade work. The brass is cast in 
the foundry, cleaned, pickled, buffed, spun, 
turned, brazed, lacquered and polished in 
one shop as well as in another; the dif- 


Things XOe All Should K.nobej 


579 


ference is that finer material, daintier de¬ 
signs and forms and a higher finish are 
used in ornamental work. 

The foundry is the beginning. There 
the brass is roughly cast to form, and from 
thence it starts on its way to the finishing 
bench. Here the alloy of copper and tin, 
or copper and other metals which make 
brass, is cast in molding sand. The opera¬ 
tion is similar to that used in an iron 
foundry, particularly in an iron foundry 
which makes a specialty of light castings— 
or, as the molders call it, “snap flash” 
work. The brass molders work at benches 
—or, rather, troughs—in which is kept the 
molding-sand, which looks like rich black 
dirt and is so cohesive that when pinched 
between the thumb and finger the sand 
holds together and shows the mark of the 
pinch. The flask in which the sand is 
packed around the pattern is made of two 
frames, one fitting over the other. One 
frame has legs of wood, called dowels, and 
the other has holes in which these dowels 
fit, so that when the frames are brought 
together, one will remain over the other. 
The frames are made of four pieces of 
wood, fitted up with hinge-like corner- 
pieces, so that the frame can be unlocked 
and taken away from the sand without dis¬ 
turbing it. 

The molder lays one of the frames on a 
smooth board which goes from one side of 
his bench to the other, and fills it with 
sand. In the center and on top of the sand 
he lays the pattern, and presses it into the 
sand, and then fits the other frame over it. 
He shakes over the pattern some fine “part¬ 
ing” sand, and then fills the upper frame 
with molding sand, ramming it down hard 
with a couple of hard wood rammers, 
shaped something like dumb-bells, except 


that the ball on one end has a flat surface, 
and on the other tapers to a blunt, chisel¬ 
shaped point. After the sand is well 
pounded around the pattern, the molder 
scrapes the surplus sand from the top frame 
with a stick, and runs a pointed wire into 
the sand toward the pattern, thus provid¬ 
ing escapes for the gases which form when 
the molten metal is poured in. Then he 
turns over both frames, or the flask, and 
carefully lifts the bottom frame—now the 
top one—from the other, exposing the pat¬ 
tern imbedded in the sand. The pattern is 
withdrawn by driving a steel pin into the 
wood, or, if it is a white-metal pattern, 
by means of a screw pin made for the pur¬ 
pose, and the operation is aided by gently 
tapping the pattern as it leaves the sand. 

For hollow castings the cores are now put 
in place. A core is made of sand, paste 
and sometimes sour beer, rammed into 
molds and afterward baked in a large sheet- 
iron oven over a coke fire. Coremaking is 
generally done by boys, with perhaps two 
or three men for making the intricate cores. 
When the cores are laid in place in the hol¬ 
low space left by the pattern, the molder 
scoops out his “gates,” or channels, through 
which the melted brass will find the mold, 
and then, placing the frames together, he 
takes off the woodwork and lays on the 
floor the short board with the block of sand 
on it. This is the way straight and core 
work is done. But for some purposes false 
core work is required, and this is, in minia¬ 
ture, what is done in making the mold for 
casting large bronze statues. 

Some patterns have undercuts which can¬ 
not be molded in sand as plain patterns are. 
Tliev are made with false cores, and this 
work requires the greatest skill in the foun¬ 
dry department. An ordinary core gives 



580 


Things XOe All Should K_nobv 


form to the hollows of a casting, or makes 
the holes through a casting. A false core 
is a part of the mold built up separate 
from the mold proper, and as it is in small 
pieces it can he taken out without removing 
the pattern. Thus a bust can be buried in 
the sand, but its irregular form, its deep 
cuts and incurving depressions make it 
impossible to withdraw it from the sand 
without bringing part of the mold with it. 
The brass-molder gets around this by 
building up the mold out of sand packed so 
tight and hammered so close into the dif¬ 
ferent parts of the pattern that each part 
can be taken away, and when the pattern 
is removed can be properly assembled again 
to form the mold. Sometimes a dozen or 
more pieces are required to build up a false 
core. 

The brass is melted in crucibles, and the 
furnaces, usually below the floor level, are 
in a line, so that all the melting is done in 
one part of the foundry. With a pair of 
large tongs the crucible is lifted out of the 
bed and carried to the molds, and the metal 
is poured into the gate and thus fills the 
hollow in the sand. The castings which 
are to be polished are cleaned in w T ater 
and “pickle”—acid and water—and are 
then buffed or burnished. Sometimes they 
are finished by being dipped in strong or 
weak solutions of nitric acid and water. 
Tor “bright dipping” the acid is strong and 
the brass casting is instantly withdrawn 
from the bath, but when a dead finish is 
desired the acid solution is weaker and the 
casting is left in until a creaming color 
appears on the surface. In burnishing, the 
brass is brought to a high finish by being 
rubbed with polished steel tools, or it is 
held against buffing wheels, which are 
thick, soft wheels made of cotton. Rouge, 


a red polishing mixture, is put on the wheel 
and the high speed of the wheel polishes 
the brass. The buffing wheel cannot be 
used, however, on rough castings or ir¬ 
regular surfaces. The brilliancy and 
polish of brass which has been burnished 
or buffed is heightened and preserved by 
lacquer. This is put on the polished brass 
by girls, and the lacquer is dried in an 
oven. 

Brass is spun, stamped, pressed and 
drawn in the same manner as copper, gold 
and silver, and many of the trade secrets of 
goldsmiths and silversmiths are shared by 
brassworkers. 

BELLS AND HOW THEY ARE 
MADE 

Ever since the beginning of civilization 
men have been called to worship by the 
ringing of bells. As the strand of scarlet 
runs through all the ropes and hawsers 
belonging to England’s navy, so bells have 
marked the history of religion. Whenever 
the Jesuits of old established a mission, a 
bell was thought almost as important as a 
priest, and it was often brought from the 
foundries of Europe at great labor and ex¬ 
pense. To many a heathen mind the 
clangor from the chapel belfry must have 
been almost synonymous with the white 
man’s God. Even to-day, as soon as a little 
pine church sprouts up on a village hill¬ 
side, and before the gloom of the mortgage 
which hangs over it has been dispelled, the 
“ladies’ aid society” and the “young folks’ 
helping hand” begin to raise monev for a 
bell. 

But Christians are not the only bell- 
devotees. The Chinese and Japanese are 
among the greatest bellmakers of the world, 


581 


Things *€Oe Alt Should ICnobv 


and they have worked to the glory of 
Buddha or Confucius. In some ways bells 
have grown to be more or less a symbol of 
religious ceremonials. 

Whether from these associations or from 
the fact that early castings were attended 
with much church ceremonial, the making 
of bells has something impressive about it. 
The manufactories are usually great, 
gloomy, smoky buildings, with no floor but 
the earth. One end is filled with the bell 
molds, and not farther away than the arm 
of a giant crane will stretch, stands the fur¬ 
nace in which the metal is melted. 

The whole process has been reduced to a 
marvelously exact science. Knowing one 
dimension and the tone of a bell, an expert 
can figure out all the other measurements 
and the weight. In fact, the main part of 
bell-making is done in a clean little room 
where a man sits busily at work soiling 
clean paper with figures and drawings. 

For instance, the thickness of a bell’s 
edge is one-fifteenth of its diameter, and its 
height is twelve times its thickness. It 
must also be constructed of just the right 
thickness in its various parts, so that when 
tapped on the curve of the top it will yield 
a note one octave above its real key note; 
when tapped one-quarter of the distance 
from the top it will yield a note which is 
one-fifth of an octave, and when tapped 
five-eighths of the distance from the top it 
will yield one-third of an octave. Where 
the clapper strikes, all of these three will 
sound simultaneously, thus yielding the 
consonant or key note of the bell. 

These are exact rules, and they have to 
be carefully reduced to dimensions. Be¬ 
sides this, the proportions of the metal to 
the size of the bell must be calculated. Cop¬ 
per and tin are used for large bells, but the 


mixture varies widely, and almost every 
manufacturer has a rule of his own. About 
four parts of copper are ordinarily used 
with each part of tin. 

When the designs have been made for a 
bell they go to the pattern-maker, whose 
haunt in his little workshop at one side of 
the foundry is a veritable museum of tools 
and patterns. The workman, after careful¬ 
ly making the measurements on a spruce 
plank, cuts out two long strips of wood, one 
of them just the contour of the inside of 
the projected bell, and the other the con¬ 
tour of the outside. This work must be 
very careful and exact. By the time it is 
completed the leather-aproned men at the 
other end of the foundry have made the 
basin for the mold. It is constructed in the 
earth, and consists mainly of firebrick and 
clay. At its center a stout post*is planted, 
perfectly plumb, and just the height of the 
proposed bell. The two contour pieces from 
the pattern room are now pivoted to the 
post in such a way that they will swing 
around like the free leg of a compass. 

In the center of the basin and around the 
post the workmen build a little furnace of 
brick, so large that it almost reaches the 
sweep of the inside contour leg of the com¬ 
pass. It is then pieced out on top with fire¬ 
clay, until it exactly conforms to the sweep 
of the contour leg. After having been made 
very smooth the little furnace, which is just 
the size of the inside of the bell, is allowed 
to harden for a time. This is the core. 
Then grease is applied and workmen again 
plaster on the clay until it reaches and is 
swept smooth by the upper contour leg. 
This covering of clay is exactly the size 
and shape of the projected bell. Any de¬ 
signs or inscriptions are now worked in re¬ 
verse order on the “sham-bell” and plugged 


582 


Things We All Should Knoto 


in with wax. When it is dry it, in turn, is 
smeared with grease, and another layer of 
clay, called the mantle or “cope,” is packed 
on roughly, a hole being left in the top 
through which the molten metal can he 
poured. 

After having been hardened by drying 
for a few days the whole mass is caked by 
building a hot fire in the interior furnace. 
The wax in the inscriptions and the grease 
vaporize and pass off. The mantle or the 
mold for the outer part of the bell can now 
be readily grappled and lifted off. When 
the next layer or “sham-bell” is removed 
and the mantle replaced the space left be¬ 
tween it and the core furnishes the bell- 
mold. Little holes are left in the bottom 
of the mold for the escape of gas during 
the pouring. Everything is now ready for 
the greatest event of the whole process. 

In the furnace the great mass of bell- 
metal is already bubbling away, as liquid 
as water, and the furnace-stokers below are 
perspiring with their exertions. Outside 
and at a safe distance stand the spectators, 
with the glare of light from the furnace 
reddening their faces. 

Then the master-workman, calm and 
slow-voiced in spite of his anxiety and re¬ 
sponsibility, steps forward and waves his 
hand. Instantly the throat of the furnace 
opens and a molten stream of metal, hissing 
and spitting, gurgles out into a great earth¬ 
en crucible. As it reaches the bottom, 
which has been previously littered with 
charcoal, a great burst of green flame spurts 
a score of feet into the air. The whole ef¬ 
fect is indescribably gorgeous. The faces 
and the bare, brawny shoulders of the work¬ 
men gleam pale against the smoky sides of 
the furnace. The grimy rafters overhead 
send back the shower of sparks, and even 


the glowing mouth of the furnace paies be¬ 
fore the brilliancy of the flame. The men 
rush forward and throw small pieces of 
broken bells into the crucible to cool the 
metal a little, and they are melted like 
icicles in a cauldron of boiling water. 

It takes great skill to tell just when the 
molten metal is of the right temperature to 
pour. When this moment has arrived the 
huge arm of the crane reaches forward and 
lifts the crucible in the air and swings it 
out until it is just over the mold. Then 
there is a pause. The visitors are silent', 
holding their breaths, and the workmen, 
like the hunter who pauses with game in 
view and his finger on the trigger, stand 
motionless, their eyes intently fixed on the 
glowing crucible suspended high above 
them. 

The work of weeks may be completed 
beautifully or ruined in an instant. It is 
like the supreme moment in a tragedy. 

Then the heavy silence is broken by the 
master’s voice, and the crucible is slowly 
tipped and its molten contents stream 
downward into the mold. A man stands 
near igniting the gas, which belches out as 
the metal goes in. If it is not destroyed it 
may leave blowholes in the bell, thus ren¬ 
dering it useless. At last the metal over¬ 
flows the mouth of the mold and then the 
crucible is tipped back. The pouring is 
complete. 

Then the mold is left for several weeks 
to grow cold and shrink, because if broken 
open at once the bell would cool more rap¬ 
idly on the outside than on the inside, and 
would burst. The moment of breaking off 
the clay mantle is also one of anxiety. It 
discloses whether or not the work has been 
successful. 

When entirely extricated and still in its 


Things *tOe Alt Should K.nobv 


583 


“maiden state/’ as it is called, the bell is 
tested, and if it gives out a single pure tone 
it is regarded as a perfect cast. The manu¬ 
factory which can turn out the largest pro¬ 
portion of “maiden” bells is the most suc¬ 
cessful. If the tone is not pure the bell 
can sometimes be tuned by filing away the 
parts of the inside surface, but it can never 
be made equal to a “maiden.” 

The largest bell ever cast was the cele¬ 
brated “king of bells,” as it is called by the 
Russians, in Moscow. It was made under 
the orders of the Empress Anne in 1733, 
and at the time of its casting a great relig¬ 
ious ceremony was held, during which hun¬ 
dreds of nobles threw their silver and gold 
jewelry into the furnace. The bell meas¬ 
ures 22 feet 8 inches across the mouth, 19 
feet 3 inches in height and its thickness at 
the base, where the clapper w r ould strike, is 
23 inches. Its estimated weight is from 
400,000 to 440,000 pounds. A nearly tri¬ 
angular piece of metal about 6 feet high 
and 7 feet across the base, weighing 11 
tons, is broken out from the rim. There 
has been much discussion as to whether it 
w’as ever rung or not. Be that as it may, 
the bell now stands within the Kremlin, 
wdiere it w r as originally placed, to serve as 
a chapel for religious exercises. Its value 
on account of the gold and silver wdiich it 
contains is said to be very great. 

The largest bell in America is in the ca¬ 
thedral of Montreal. Its weight is 28,000 
pounds. The old “liberty bell,” which 
rang when the Declaration of Independence 
was signed, weighs only 1,500 pounds. 
Early Chinese bells were nearly square, 
and were welded out of different pieces. 

The Mexicans make bells out of clay, 
baked like pottery, in the form of women, 
arms, head and skirts. 


HOW ARTESIAN WELLS ARE 
BORED 

Artesian wfells are changing some of the 
dry, arid tracts of the west into the best 
farming lands of the country. The water 
brought sometimes a thousand feet from 
under the surface, is conveyed, by irrigat¬ 
ing ditches, to the parched earth, rich in 
all that goes with good producing soil ex¬ 
cept water, and wRen that great need has 
been supplied abundant crops will result. 
In large cities, equipped w T ith extensive and 
modern waterworks systems, thousands of 
artesian wells supply industrial plants with 
water, and in the long run save thousands 
of dollars of water taxes to the manufac¬ 
turers. 

In some wells the pressure of water is 
sufficient to send it to the surface, but from 
the majority of wells the water is pumped 
by steam pumps or windmills. The man 
who bores an artesian well works under a 
great disadvantage, for he is in the dark 
as soon as his boring and driving tool is 
well under the surface of the ground. His 
drill points, casing, rods, sand pump, 
reamer or any one of the dozen tools and 
appliances he uses, may be broken hun¬ 
dreds of feet under ground, but he goes to 
work to extract the broken tool or dislodge 
the piece that is stuck as calmly as though 
it were just at hand. 

The ingenious devices used by the well 
borer for repairing damage and overcom¬ 
ing obstacles, are the result of the hard, 
exasperating, practical, expensive expe¬ 
rience of hundreds of well borers for many 
years. The business of boring artesian 
wells, drive wells, oil, gas and other wells 
made by sinking a line of pipe, has devel¬ 
oped into a distinct branch of hydraulic 


584 


Things *€Oe .A It Should K_noto> 


engineering, for water is one of the most 
important tools used by the up-to-date well 
borer. In fact, some holes are literallv 
pumped out, and the pipe casing sinks in¬ 
to the ground without a blow or a shove. 

In driving a tube well on a farm either 
a horse-power machine or a portable steam 
engine is used as power. A hole is bored 
for some distance and this hole is cased 
with an iron pipe which is driven into it. 
The well-driving apparatus consists of a 
drill screwed to the bottom of the drill rod, 
which is in sections, so that the rod can 
he lengthened by screwing sections to¬ 
gether. 

The drill rods are made of iron pipe, and 
every thirty feet or so in the hollow drill 
rod is a valve which opens from beneath. 
In the drill is a hole, and as the drill is 
lifted and dropped alternately by the 
mechanism on the ground, water is poured 
into the well. This makes a “slush” of the 
pounded, crushed earth, clay, gravel or 
stone, and it enters the drill rod through 
the hole in the drill. 

When the drill is lifted, of course the 
rods, with the water and slush in them, 
are raised. The drill is dropped suddenly, 
and as the heavy iron and steel falls more 
rapidly than the slush and v r ater, the slush 
passes into the next section above through 
a valve, which closes when the drill is again 
raised. In this manner the drillings are 
lifted to the surface and are there dis¬ 
charged. 

The drill is lifted and dropped, crush¬ 
ing its way deeper and deeper into the 
earth, and as it sinks the iron casing is 
driven down after it. A pump is always 
attached to the head of the apparatus, and 
when water is reached the pump is started, 
and the sand in the gravel bed is pumped 


out, forming a reservoir in the clean gravel. 
This method of sinking a well is rapid and 
inexpensive. 

An improvement on this is the “rolling” 
and “jetting” process. This is a combina¬ 
tion of the principles of hydraulic mining, 
as practiced in California, and of the dia¬ 
mond drill without the diamonds. In 
hydraulic mining a stream of water, forced 
from the nozzle at a great pressure, is di¬ 
rected against the bank, and the earth is 
washed away just as furrows are cut into 
the sod on a lawn by the jet of water from 
a garden hose. 

A diamond drill cuts its way into the 
earth, clay and rock, by revolving a drill- 
point studded with black diamonds. In 
the rolling and jetting system used in sink¬ 
ing artesian wells, the cutter is a section 
of pipe on the lower end of which teeth 
are cut. As this is revolved in the ground 
by the machine which grips the pipe and 
turns it, jets of "water are forced down in¬ 
side of the pipe. The water rushes out 
from under the cutter’s teeth and returns 
to the surface of the ground on the outside 
of the pipe. This returning water cushion 
between the pipe and the earth lessens the 
friction and gives the casing an easy rota¬ 
tion. 

Naturally the hollow cutter carries a core 
of the material through which it forces its 
way, and the w 7 ell-borer utilizes this core, 
if it be of clay, to build up a clay wall for 
the bore when it passes through quicksand. 
If there be not enough clay in the core for 
this purpose, he puts some in the pipe, and 
the water carries it down and up, packing 
it in the quicksand. If a material is met 
which the cutter finds difficulty in boring, 
broken emery rock, iron ore, flint sand and 
other abrasives are sent down through the 


Things tOe All Should K.not*> 


585 


pipe. For material too hard to be cut by 
the steel cutter, a cutter set with black dia¬ 
monds is used. A modification of this 
hydraulic-cutting combination is a steel 
“paddy” drill, which is carried down with 
the casing and cutter. This apparatus per¬ 
mits the use of all the appliances without 
taking out or letting down other tools. A 
drill is attached to the end of a hollow drill 
rod which goes down inside of the casing. 
The rod and casing have independent move¬ 
ments, so that the drill can work ahead of 
the casing, or the casing can cut its way 
without the drill, both of them aided by 
the water sent down from above. 

Enormous augers which bore holes from 
eight to thirty inches in diameter are used 
to sink shallow wells. It is conceded that 
wells more than, 60 feet deep should be 
bored with the well-driving machinery and 
not with earth augers. The huge auger is 
fixed to the lower end of a vertical shaft, 
which is connected with the proper mechan¬ 
ism to twist it around. In the use of 
horse power the auger shaft is attached to 
the sweep to which the horse is hitched. 
Some of the augers are real augers, others 
are bucket-shaped, with cutting edges, and 
still others are claw-shaped, but they all 
cut out the hole, and when full of earth are 
lifted to the surface, emptied and sent down 
to corkscrew their way deeper. 

Such wells are cased with vitrified, 
glazed or terracotta tiling, galvanized pipe, 
etc. If the auger, which is not made for 
stone work, meets a rock or a boulder, a 
drill is sent down the hole and the rock 
is broken or bored through. If it is a loose 
stone it is lifted from the hole, provided it 
is not too large for the bore, by “screw 
tongs,” “ram’s-horn” rock extractors and 
other devices of like nature. 


A sand pump is a hollow cylinder of 
iron, fitted with a hinged bottom which 
opens inside of the cylinder. When it is 
dropped into the sand the door is forced up 
and the sand, when inside, holds it closed 
so that the material can be lifted out. 

DISCOVERIES IN MEDICINE AND 
THE PROLONGATION 
OF LIFE 

Dr. John Pot came to Virginia in 1610, 
and Dr. Samuel Fuller came over in the 
Mayflower in 1620. They have the dis¬ 
tinction of being the first white “medicine 
men” within the present limits of the 
United States. An attentive schoolboy 
twelve years of age doubtless now knows 
as much of the genuine principles of health 
as they did, and he is a dull student if he 
does not know a great deal more of the 
structure of the body. 

At the close of the Revolutionary War 
there were about 3,500 medical practition¬ 
ers in the United States, and onlv about 
400 of these had graduated from any school 

of medicine. There were then onlv two 

*/ 

medical colleges in this country, and they 
had conferred only 51 degrees. So few 
people patronized the doctor that usually 
he made his living at some other work and 
practiced medicine as a pastime. 

The theory and practice of medicine have 
since then advanced to a high position 
among the sciences by the aid of important 
discoveries made in kindred sciences. The 
sufferings of the human race have been 
decreased more than can be estimated, and 
the happiness of mankind has been ad¬ 
vanced in proportion through medical in¬ 
vestigation and prophylactic discoveries 
with their allied sciences. A few of the 


586 


Things tOe Alt Should Knotv 


more important general discoveries may be 
thus mentioned: 

Lady Mary Montagu brought the knowl¬ 
edge of inoculation against smallpox from 
Constantinople, and Dr. Jenner, in 1798, 
taking it up as a scientific matter, brought 


age died, while more than half of the others 
were left badly disfigured. In contrast, the 
greatest epidemic of smallpox in the nine¬ 
teenth century, that of 1872 and 1873, at¬ 
tacked less than five per cent in any city. 
In Germany, where vaccination is rigidly 














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LABORATORY WORK IN A MEDICAL COLLEGE. 


vaccination into general use. In Europe, 
previous to the introduction of this preven¬ 
tive, at frequent intervals, from one-fourth 
to one-half of the population of the great 
cities were attacked by smallpox and 95 
per cent of the children under ten years of 


required, the deaths from smallpox are less 
than one-tenth of those of the surrounding 
countries, where vaccination is not thor¬ 
oughly done. 

Auscultation, or listening to the sounds 
produced in the chest by the heart and 














Things *COe All Should K.nobt> 


587 


lungs, as invented by Laennec in 1819, 
revolutionized the treatment of diseases of 
the internal organs of the body. 

Dr. J. Y. Simpson of Connecticut made 
the greatest discovery of the nineteenth 
century in its application to surgery, by 


The minor discoveries that alone would 
mark an epoch in almost any science, such 
as antitoxin, which has reduced the mor¬ 
tality from diphtheria fully 95 per cent, 
with the discoveries of Pasteur and Koch 
to avert hydrophobia and tuberculosis, are 



APPLICATION OF THE LIGHT CURE IN A LONDON HOSPITAL. 


making practical the use of drugs to deaden 
pain. Anesthetics thus did away with the 
horrors of surgical operations on suffering 
human beings. 

Chemical cleanliness from all destructive 
ererms in surgical work is the result of the 
discoveries of Joseph Lister of England. 
It is estimated that through his discos eries 
in the use of antiseptics the death rate from 
infections of wounds has been decreased at 
least one-half. 


too numerous to mention except in an ex¬ 
tended treatise oh the subject. 

SPECIAL CULTS AND CURES 

Innumerable specifics have meanwhile 
become popular, to contribute to general 
practice whatever they contained of value, 
and then fall into disuse. 

The food cure is an exclusive diet of 
milk, grapes, and farinaceous vegetables 























588 


Things *€Oe Alt Should Kjnoto) 


during any period of disturbance in health. 

The earth cure consists in immersing the 
body in mud or dry earth during periods 
of soreness or pain. 

The water cure is the use of water at 
different temperatures either in immersion, 
douches in solid streams, or by the body 
being packed in wet sheets. The steam or 
hot air baths are used in the same connec¬ 
tion, with vigorous rubbing with coarse 
towels. 

The air cure, for rheumatism, paralysis, 
and similar diseases, is also known as the 
vacuum treatment. It is given by manipu¬ 
lating the limbs or parts of the body under 
or with vacuum pumps or disks. 

The oxygen or ozone cure requires 
the patient suffering debilitation or lung 
troubles to live in an atmosphere specially 
prepared for him in an air-tight room or 
by the use of special inhalers. 

The cure from sun-air baths is applied 
by exposure of the skin to the direct rays 
of the sun in dry, still air. 

Breathing methods require certain peri¬ 
ods each day of deep chest expansion where 
the air, if possible, is dry and pure. 

Cures by electricity are effected by keep¬ 
ing the diseased parts directly in a current 
of electricity as powerful as may not be 
painful, for a given time. 

The movement cure is a mechanical as¬ 
sistance given to the vital forces known as 
voluntary and involuntary. It is claimed 
that a violent agitation of parts that are in 
a state of torpor arouses and stimulates the 
circulation through them, both of blood and 
nervous force. Machinery is used to give 
vibration, which is said to produce heat and 
consequent development of energy in the 
parts. 

The lift cure is accomplished by the 


action of standing erect, knees bent three 
or four inches, upon a platform resting on 
spiral springs. The lifter grasps a cross 
bar connected with the springs, adjusted by 
weights. The operation is in straightening 
the bent knees, while otherwise remaining 
erect, thus lifting the weight, and breathing 
deeply and rhythmically with each move¬ 
ment. 

Mind cures, faith cures, and the like, 
consist in- mentally separating one’s self 
from the disease and giving it no place in 
the system. 

The rest cure is self-explanatory as to 
treatment. It consists of a complete cessa¬ 
tion of mental and physical action for given 
periods under the most comfortable condi¬ 
tions, or as isolated as possible from all dis¬ 
turbance. The latter has been called the 
wilderness cure. 

SYSTEMS OF MEDICAL TREAT¬ 
MENT 

Hahnemann, when he invented Homeo¬ 
pathy, on the principle that like cures like, 
gave the name Allopathy to the earlier 
school that cured on the theorv of revul- 

%J 

sion, that is of substituting one disease for 
another, as practiced by Paracelsus; and 
he also gave the name Enantiopathy to the 
doctrine that a thing is destroyed by its 
contraries, as practiced by Galen. 

Hydropathy was the name given later 
to the school which effected its cures by the 
various uses of water, as practiced by the 
Rosicrucians. 

The Eclectic school, as the name sug¬ 
gests, claims to take the best from all sys¬ 
tems, but it relied mainly in the beginning 
on decoctions and extracts of herbs. 


Things XOe All Should K.notn 


589 


Osteopathy has firmly established itself 
in many places, and depends for its cures 
on the manipulation of the bony structures 
of the body. There are numerous minor 
systems, but the great discoveries of the last 
few years have almost completely obliter¬ 
ated the former dividing lines of the older 
medical schools. Physicians, like other 
thinking men, are becoming more tolerant 


ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL 
HEALTH 

The assertion made for so many genera¬ 
tions that cleanliness is next to godliness 
may not he as persuasive as if we were to 
say that cleanliness is the first law of health 
and long life. That many persons have 
attained extreme old age without regard to 



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OPERATING ROOM IN A GREAT DENTAL COLLEGE. 


of varying opinions and methods. The best 
of them frankly admit that good is found 
in all schools of practice, and are glad to 
make use of whatever discoveries aid in the 
healing of bodily ills and infirmities. So 
the entire Dody of medical men, in the 
highest sense of the phrase are becoming 
eclectic. No longer do they refuse to con¬ 
sult with their rivals, and the public thus 
is permitted the benefits of all progress. 


cleanliness is not very weighty proof that 
cleanliness is not one of the most goodly 
assistants to longevity. 

Since there are2,800outlets to the square 
inch all over the body, making a personal 
sewage system of twenty-night miles of 
pipes, this effort of nature to get rid of its 
waste matter should be fully sustained by 
baths and clean clothing. Fifteen minutes 
is long enough for any bath, and the water 














590 


Things XOe All Should K_noto 


should be warm, tepid or cold, according as 
the person may find it most enjoyable and 
beneficial. No absolute rule can apply to 
all persons and all conditions. 

During fatigue and while the stomach is 
digesting food, there should be no disturb¬ 
ance of the temperature of the skin, nor 
should a bath be taken within an hour or 
two after a meal. 

Nothing quickens the functions of the 
body in a more harmonious manner than 
suitable exercise. It should always stop 
short of fatigue, and never extend to vio¬ 
lence. Exercise of a general nature equal¬ 
izes the circulation and aids the assimila¬ 
tion of nutriment. It prevents congestions 
and torpor of all kinds. It is thus of ani¬ 
mating service to the mind, and may be 
regarded as the most important element in 
the promotion of long life. 

Sleep is rest, and rest is the necessary 
alternate in all energy. Comfort is the 
first condition of sleep, after the suspen¬ 
sion of action and thought. Sleep is the 
most restorative when it is the most com¬ 
plete suspension of all energy within body 
and brain. By systematic practice one can 
thus compose the mind at will and the 
healthy person should be able to fall asleep 
within five minutes of the first attempt. 
Cessation of thought without sleep may 
even become complete enough to be com¬ 
plete cessation of image-making, and there¬ 
fore a fully unobstructed rest. 

One who has a natural appetite and a 
normal organism, should never swallow 
anything that is in any w T ay distasteful, nor 
should he ever impose any labor upon di¬ 
gestion that should be performed by mas¬ 
tication. 

Usually in any derangement of the sys¬ 
tem, and most derangements come from 


some torpidity in the digestive organs, the 
first effect is a disinclination toward food. 
This is nature’s warning that the digestive 
apparatus is in no condition to do its work 
and the warning should be heeded. 

The organs that take up the nutriment 
from the food can only use so much, and 
an excessive quantity of food only dulls 
their vitality. In times of famine those 
die of starvation first who have been the 
heaviest eaters. Those whose habit it has 
been to eat little can extract more nourish¬ 
ment from the food eaten than the others 
are able to do, and so suffer less. 

dt «*s 

THE PULSE IN HEALTH 

The frequency of the pulse varies slightly 
according to temperaments, but the follow¬ 
ing is regarded as the average: 


New born infants from. 140 to 130 

During first year, from. 130 “ 115 

During second year, from. 115 “ 100 

From seventh to fourteenth year, 

from . 90 “ 85 

From fourteenth to twenty-first year, 

from . 85 “ 75 

From twenty-first to sixtieth year, 

from . 75 “ 70 

In old age, from . 70 “ 80 


jt 

CONTAGIOUS AND ERUPTIVE 
DISEASES 

It will often relieve a mother’s anxiety 
to know how long after a child has been 
exposed to a contagious disease there is 
danger that the disease has been contracted. 
The following table gives the period of in¬ 
cubation — or anxious period—and other 









Things XV e All Should K^nobv 


591 


information concerning the more import¬ 
ant diseases: 

Symptoms 
usually ap¬ 
pear with- 

Disease. in. Patient is Infectious. 

Chicken-pox.. 14 days Until all scabs have 

fallen off. 

Diphtheria.... 2 “ 14 days after disap¬ 


pearance of mem¬ 
brane. 

Measles. 14 “ *Until scaling and 

cough have ceased. 

Mumps.10-22 “ 14 days from com¬ 

mencement. 

Rotheln. 14 “ 10-14 days from com¬ 

mencement. 


Scarlet fever. 4 “ Until all scaling has 

ceased. 

Small-pox.... 12-17 “ Until all scabs have 

fallen off. 

Typhoid fever 11 “ Until diarrhoea ceases 


Whooping |Six weeks from be- 

cough. 14 “ ginning to whoop. 


*In measles the patient is infectious three 
days before the eruption appears. 

fin whooping-cough the patient is infectious 
during the primary cough which may be three 
weeks before the whooping begins. 

t 

FIRST AID TO THE INJURED— 
WHAT TO DO IN EMER¬ 
GENCIES 

Drowning. 1 . Loosen clothing, if any. 
2. Empty lungs of water by laying body 
on its stomach and lifting it by the middle 
so that the head hangs down. Jerk the body 
a few times. 3. Pull tongue forward, 
using handkerchief, or pin with string, if 
necessary. 4. Imitate motion of respira¬ 
tion by alternately compressing and ex¬ 
panding the lower ribs about twenty times 
a minute. Alternately raising and lower¬ 
ing the arms from the sides up above the 
head will stimulate the action of the lungs. 
Let it be done gently but persistently. 5. 
Apply warmth and friction to extremities. 
6. By holding tongue forward, closing the 
nostrils and pressing the “Adam’s apple” 
back (so as to close entrance to stomach), 


direct inflation can be tried. Take a deep 
breath and breathe it forcibly into the 
mouth of patient, compress the chest to ex- 
pell the air and repeat the operation. 7. 
Don’t give up! People have been saved 
after hours of patient, vigorous effort. 8. 
When breathing begins take patient into a 
warm bed, give warm drinks, or spirits in 
teaspoonfuls, fresh air and quiet. 

Burns and Scalds. Cover with cooking- 
soda and lay wet cloths over it. Whites of 
eggs and olive oil. Olive or linseed oil, 
plain, or mixed with chalk or whiting. 

Lightning. Dash cold water over a per¬ 
son struck. 

Sunstroke. Loosen clothing. Get patient 
into shade, and apply ice-cold water to head. 

Mad Dog or Snake Bite. Tie cord tight 
above wound. Suck the wound and cauter¬ 
ize with caustic or white-hot iron at once, 
or cut out adjoining parts with a sharp 
knife. 

Venomous Insects’ Stings, etc. Apply 
weak ammonia, oil, salt water or iodine. 

Fainting. Place flat on back; allow fresh 
air and sprinkle with water. 

Tests of Death. Hold mirror to mouth. 
If living, moisture will gather. Push pin 
into flesh. If dead the hole will remain, if 
alive it will close up. 

Cinders in the Eye. Boll soft paper up 
like a lamp lighter and wet the tip to re¬ 
move, or use a medicine dropper to draw 
it out. Rub the other eye. 

£ .j* 

ANTIDOTES FOR POISONS 

First. Send for a physician. 

Second. Induce vomiting, by tickling 
throat with feather or finger. Drink hot 
water or strong mustard and water. Swal¬ 
low sweet oil or whites of eggs. 






592 


Things XOe Alt Should K.noto 


Acids arc antidote for alkalies, and vice 
versa. 


jt 


SPECIAL POISONS AND ANTI- 
DOTES 

Acids, muriatic, oxalic, acetic, sulphuric 
(oil of vitriol), nitric (aqua-fortis). 
Soap-suds, magnesia, lime-water. 

Prussic acid. Ammonia in water. Dash 
water in face. 

Carbolic acid. Flour and water, muci¬ 
laginous drinks. 

Alkalies. Such as potash, lye, hartshorn, 
ammonia. Vinegar or lemon juice in water. 

Arsenic, rat poison, paris green. Milk, 
raw eggs, sweet oil, lime-water, flour and 
water. 

Bug poison, lead, saltpetre, corrosive sub¬ 
limate, sugar of lead, blue vitriol. Whites 
of eggs or milk in large doses. 

Chloroform, chloral, ether. Dash cold 
water on head and chest. Artificial respira¬ 
tion. Piece of ice in rectum. No chemical 
antidote. 

Carbonate of soda, copperas, cobalt. 
Soap-suds and mucilaginous drinks. 

Iodine, antimony, tartar emetic. Starch 
and water. Astringent infusions. Strong 
tea, tannin. 

Mercury and its salts. Whites of eggs, 
milk, mucilages. 

Nitrate of silver, lunar caustic. k?alt and 
water. 

Opium, morphine, laudanum, paregoric, 
soothing powders, or syrups. Strong coffee, 
hot bath. Keep awake and moving at any 
cost. 

Strychnine, tincture of nux vomica. 
Mustard and water, sulphate of zinc. Ab¬ 
solute quiet. Plug the ears. 


RULES IN CASE OF FIRE 

Crawl on the floor. The clearest air is 
the lowest in the room. Cover head with 
woolen wrap, wet if possible. Cut holes 
for the eyes. Don’t get excited. 

Ex-Chief Hugh Bonner, of the New 
York Fire Department, gives the following 
rules applying to houses, flats, hotels, etc.: 

Familiarize yourself with thfe location of 
hall windows and natural escapes. Learn 
the location of exits to roofs of adjoining 
buildings. Learn the position of all stair¬ 
ways, particularly the top landing and 
scuttle to the roof. Should you hear a cry 
of “fire,” and columns of smoke fill the 
rooms, above all keep cool. Keep the doors 
of rooms shut. Open windows from the 
top. Wet a towel, stuff it in the mouth, 
breathe through it instead of nose, so as not 
to inhale smoke. Stand at window and get 
benefit of outside air. If room fills with 
smoke keep close to floor and crawl along by 
the wall to the window. 

Do not jump unless the blaze behind 
is scorching you. Do not even then if the 
firemen with scaling ladders are coming up 
the building or are near. Never go to the 
roof, unless as a last resort and you know 
there is escape from it to adjoining build¬ 
ings. In big buildings fire always goes to 
the top. Do not jump through flame within 
a building without first covering the head 
with a blanket or heavy clothing and gaug¬ 
ing the distance. Don’t get excited; try to 
recall the means of exit, and if any firemen 
are in sight don’t jump. 

If the doors of each apartment, espe¬ 
cially in the lower part of the house, were 
closed every night before the occupants re¬ 
tired there would not be such a rapid spread 
of flames. 


Things 'tOe All Should K.notv 


503 


ACCIDENTS IN THE UNITED 
STATES 

In 1900 there were 2,550 railway em¬ 
ployes killed and 39,613 injured; there 
were 249 passengers killed and 4,128 in¬ 
jured; in other accidents 5,066 persons 
were killed and 6,549 injured, so that the 
total casualties for the year were 7,865 and 
50,320 respectively. 

j* S S 

LIFE AND DEATH RATES 

This table shows how many out of 10,- 
000 persons die annually at each year up to 
104. It is used hy all life insurance com¬ 
panies in their computations of risk, premi¬ 
ums, etc. 


Year. 

No. 

Alive. 

No. 

Deaths. 

Year. 

No. No. 
Alive. Deaths. 

At birth 
1. 

8,461 

1,539 

682 

35.. . 

36.. . 

... 5,362 
... 5,307 

55 

66 

2. 

7,779 

505 

37... 

... 5,251 

57 

3. 

7,274 

276 

38... 

... 5,194 

58 

4. 

6,998 

201 

39. .. 

... 5,136 

61 

5. 

6,797 

121 

40. .. 

... 5,075 

66 

6. 

6,676 

82 

41. . . 

. .. 5,009 

69 

7. 

6,594 

58 

42... 

. . . 4,940 

71 

8. 

6,536 

43 

43. .. 

. . . 4,869 

71 

9. 

6,493 

33 

44. .. 

. .. 4,798 

71 

10. 

6,460 

29 

45. .. 

. . . 4,727 

70 

11. 

6,431 

31 

46. . . 

. . . 4,657 

69 

12. 

6,400 

32 

47. . . 

. . . 4,588 

■67 

13. 

6,368 

33 

48. .. 

. . . 4,521 

63 

14. 

6,335 

35 

49. . . 

. .. 4,458 

61 

15. 

6,300 

39 

50. . . 

. .. 4,397 

59 

16. 

6,261 

42 

51. . . 

. . . 4,338 

62 

17. 

6,219 

43 

52. . . 

... 4,276 

65 

18. 

6,176 

43 

53. .. 

. . . 4,211 

68 

19. 

6,133 

43 

54. . . 

. . . 4.143 

70 

20. 

6,090 

43 

55. . . 

. . . 4,073 

73 

21. 

6,047 

42 

56. .. 

. . . 4,000 

76 

22. 

6,005 

42 

57. . . 

. . . 3,924 

82 

23. 

5,963 

42 

58. . . 

... 3,842 

93 

24. 

5,921 

42 

59... 

... 3,749 

106 

25. 

5,879 

43 

60. . . 

. . . 3,633 

122 

26. 

5,836 

43 

61. . . 

... 3,521 

126 

27. 

5,793 

45 

62. .. 

.. . 3,395 

127 

28. 

5,748 

50 

63. .. 

... 3,268 

125 

29. 

5,698 

56 

64. .. 

.. 3,143 

125 

30. 

5,642 

57 

65. .. 

... 3,018 

124 

31. 

5,585 

57 

66. . . 

... 2,894 

123 

32. 

5,528 

56 

67. .. 

... 2,771 

123 

33. 

5,472 

55 

68. .. 

. .. 2,648 

123 

34. 

5,417 

55 ' 

69. . . 

... 2,525 

124 



No. 

No. 


No. 

No. 

Year. 

Alive. 

Deaths. 

Year. 

Alive. Deaths. 

70. 

. 2,401 

124 

88. .. 

... 232 

51 

71. 

. 2,277 

134 

89. . 

... 181 

39 

72. 

. 2,143 

146 

90. . 

... 142 

37 

73. 

. 1,997 

156 

91. . 

... 105 

30 

74. 

. 1,841 

166 

92. .. 

75 

21 

75. 

. 1,675 

160 

93. . 

54 

14 

76. 

. 1,515 

156 

94. . 

40 

10 

77. 

. 1,359 

146 

95... 

30 

7 

78.... 

. 1,213 

132 

96. . 

23 

5 

79. . . . 

. 1.081 

128 

97... 

18 

4 

80.... 

. 953 

116 

98. . 

14 

3 

81. . . . 

. 837 

112 

99. . 

11 

2 

82. 

. 725 

102 

100. . 

9 

2 

83.... 

. 623 

94 

101. . 

7 

2 

84.... 

. 529 

84 

102. . 

5 

2 

85.... 

. 445 

78 

103. . 

3 

2 

86.... 

. 367 

71 

104... 

1 

1 

87.... 

. 296 

64 





3 & J* 

CREMATION 

The burning to ashes of the bodies of 
the dead is one of the most ancient of cus¬ 
toms, in all countries which have had an 
ancient civilization. The prejudice against 
cremation is but one Jewish influence 
among the many influences that through 
the scriptures have had such a powerful 
effect upon the feelings and habits of the 
civilized world. 

The poems of Homer show that the cus¬ 
tom of burning the dead was common dur- 
ing the Trojan war, more than a thousand 
years before Christ. Almost every country 
having a long history has, one time or an¬ 
other in its career, very generally practiced 
cremation. Evidences show that it has usu¬ 
ally partaken of a religious character. 

The use of the tomb was forever hal¬ 
lowed among Christians by the method of 
Christ’s burial. The belief in the resur¬ 
rection of the material body from the grave 
caused cremation to be looked upon with 
abhorrence among all those who held to 
that doctrine. 

The cremation of the body of the poet 
Shelley and that of his friend Williams, 


















































































































594 


Things All Should K.nobi> 


in 1822, drew forth a general discussion of 
the subject, especially among the learned 
men of Germany and Italy. 

In 1874 the closed receptacle was first 
used, and the second person to be cremated 
therein was the wife of Sir Charles Dilke, 
in Dresden. 

In 1878, through the efforts of Sir 
Ilenry Thompson, the first crematory in 
England was built at Woking, in Surrey. 
However, it was four years before there 
was a cremation and that was done pri¬ 
vately. In 1884 England declared it was a 

t/ O 

legal process of disposal of the dead. 

The first crematory in the United States 
was built by Dr. Le Moyne, at Washing¬ 
ton, Pa., in which the first cremation was 
that of Baron de Palm. Cremation socie¬ 
ties for the erection and maintenance of 
crematories now exist in nearly every large 
city in the world, and many distinguished 
persons have recently selected that process 
for the disposal of their remains. 

In 1900, at the Fresh Pond Crematory 
of Yew York City, there were 602 bodies 
cremated. Yearly 4,000 have been cre¬ 
mated at that place. Other places of cre¬ 
mation show a like increase of patronage, 
and the custom has virtually ceased to 
arouse comment. 

The method of the process is simple, and 
without any specially harrowing condi¬ 
tions. The furnace is raised to a high de¬ 
gree of heat before the body in the closed 
receiver is introduced, when the door is 
closed and the heated air and gas turned 
in. It requires about half an hour to com¬ 
plete the process, when the wholly oxidized 
vapors of the body have passed into the air 
through a high chimney, and the remain¬ 
ing ashes for an adult weigh from five to 
seven pounds. The cost is about $25, and 


would be one-tenth of that sum if the cus¬ 
tom was general. 

The main reasons urged in favor of this 
method of disposal of the dead are its 
cleanliness, speed and sanitary results. Op¬ 
posed to it are the religious ideas of a ma¬ 
terial resurrection and that it destroys all 
evidences of crime upon the body. To the 
first, the answer is given that this method 
is nowhere forbidden in scripture, and that 
all things are possible with God; to the 
other, that more crimes would thereby be 
detected because of the scientific examina¬ 
tion of every body offered for cremation. 

js £ 

LEGAL FACTS AND FORMS 

POWER OF ATTORNEY. 

Sometimes it is desirable for one who is 
to be absent from home to empower some 
one else to act for him and sign his name. 
The legal document conferring that author¬ 
ity is called a power of attorney. Such an 
instrument should be drawn with the ut¬ 
most exactitude, for it is a very important 
grant, especially if it be general in char¬ 
acter. Here is a form, with a variation for 
general or special power indicated: 

Know all men by these presents. That I, 
John Jones, of the City of Chicago, County 
of Cook, State of Illinois, have made, con¬ 
stituted and appointed, and by these pres¬ 
ents do make, constitute and appoint, 
Henry Harris true and lawful attorney for 
me and in my name, place and stead, to 
lease, sell or make any other disposition 
whatever of any of my property in said city, 
[or certain specified property] and to sign, 
seal and deliver any agreement, assignment, 
assurance, conveyance or lease to any per¬ 
son who shall purchase, or agree to pur- 


595 


Things XOe Alt Should K_notu 


chase, such property, or any part thereof, 
and in due form of law to acknowledge any 
such instrument necessary to the proper 
conveying or leasing said premises, or any 
part thereof, giving and granting unto my 
said attorney full power and authority to 
do and perform all and every act and thing 
whatsoever, requisite and necessary to be 
done in and about the premises, as fully to 
all intents and purposes as I might or could 
do if personally present, with all power of 
substitution and revocation, hereby rati¬ 
fying and confirming all that my said attor¬ 
ney or his substitute shall lawfully do or 
cause to be done by virtue hereof. 

In Witness Whereof, I have hereunto set 
my hand and seal the 2d day of June, nine¬ 
teen hundred and two. 

John Jones [seal] 

Signed, sealed and delivered in the pres¬ 
ence of John Martin, ^Notary Public. 

AFFIDAVITS AND DEPOSITIONS. 

An affidavit is a written statement sworn 
to or affirmed by the person making the 
statement, before a qualified officer. 

A deposition is the testimony of a witness 
under oath, reduced to writing, and sub¬ 
scribed to before a qualified officer. 

BILLS OF SALE. 

Bills of sale are written evidences of 
agreements by which parties transfer to 
others, for a consideration, all their right, 
title and interest in personal property. 

The ownership of personal property, in 
law, is considered changed by the delivery 
of such property to the purchaser; though 
in some states, without delivery, a hill of 
sale is good evidence of ownership, even 
against creditors, provided the sale was not 
fraudulently made for the purpose of avoid¬ 
ing the payment of debts. 


Juries have power to determine the fair¬ 
ness or unfairness of a sale, and upon evi¬ 
dence of fraud such bill of sale will be iff- 
nored and declared void. 

Any form of words, importing that the 
seller transfers to the buyer the title to per¬ 
sonal property, is a hill of sale. 

FORMS OF DEEDS. 

The forms of deeds conveying lands are 
prescribed by several states, and such forms 
should be generally used. The requisites of 
a valid deed are: Competent parties; con¬ 
sideration ; the deed must be reduced to 
writing; it must be duly executed and de¬ 
livered. The mode and effect of an 
acknowledgment or of a deed is governed 
by the law of the state where the land lies, 
and not by that of the place where the 
acknowledgment is taken. Where the deed 
is executed by an attorney in fact, it is cus¬ 
tomary to have the power of attorney 
acknowledged by the principal and the deed 
acknowledged by the attornev. A deed exe- 
cuted by several grantors should he 
acknowledged by each of them. 

WILLS. 

All persons are competent to make a will 
except idiots, persons of unsound mind, and 
infants. In many states a will of an un¬ 
married woman is deemed revoked by her 
subsequent marriage. A nuncupative or 
unwritten will is one made by a soldier in 
active service, or by a mariner while at sea. 

In most of the states a will must be in 
writing, signed by the testator, or by some 
person in his presence, and by his direction, 
and attested by witnesses, who must sub¬ 
scribe their names thereto in the presence 
of the testator. The form of wording a will 
is immaterial as long as its intent is clear. 

Age at which persons may make wills is 


596 


Things XOe Alt Should K.notv 


in most of the states 21 years. Males and 
females are competent to make wills at 18 
years in the following states: California, 
Connecticut, Hawaiian Islands, Idaho, 
Montana, Nevada, North Dakota, Okla¬ 
homa Territory, South Dakota, Utah; and 
in the following states only females at 18 
years: Colorado, District of Columbia, 
Illinois, Maryland, Missouri, Wisconsin. 

DUE BILLS. 

A due hill is not negotiable paper, so can 
not be legally assigned. It is, however, a 
memorandum of indebtedness, and may be 
made the subject of an order. Sometimes 
a due bill is made to take the form of a note, 
by being made payable one day after date, 
or on order. To be a true due bill, in due 
form, it should merely state that there is a 
given amount in money or goods due this 
day to the holder. 

ORDERS FOR GOODS OR MONEY. 

Ordinary orders are a matter of mutual 
convenience, running much as follows: 

$00 Chicago, May 10, 1902. 

Messrs. Marshall Field & Co.: Please 
allow the bearer to purchase goods to the 
value of $60, and charge the same to my 
account. 

Horace Warner. 

An order is not mandatory. The holder 
is not obliged to present it, or to trade the 
full amount, nor is the merchant obliged to 
fill the requisition. In sending a stranger 
for any kind of movable property the sender 
should make out a written order and not 
rely on a verbal request. One should be 
very careful in honoring a verbal order, for 
it may be the person presenting it is a 
swindler. 


When the order is for the delivery of a 
specified article or articles, a receipt should 
he given by the person bringing the order, 
thus: 

Chicago, May 10, 1902. 

James P. Smith: Please deliver to 
bearer, Henry Walker, my roadcart, left 
for repair. George W. Jones. 

Chicago, May 11, 1902. 

Received of James P. Smith on the or¬ 
der of George W. Jones, one roadcart. 

Henry Walker. 

ASSIGNMENTS. 

Assignments are any simple form of 
statement properly witnessed, which trans¬ 
fers the right of property to a designated 
person. 

SPECIAL POINTS ABOUT NOTES. 

To be on the safe side, it is well to see 
to it that any note offered for negotiation is 
dated correctly; specifies the amount of 
money to be paid; names the person to 
Avhom it is to be paid; includes the words 
“or order” after the name of the payee, if it 
is desired to make the note negotiable; ap¬ 
points a place where the payment is to be 
made; states that the note is made “for 
value received;” and is signed by the maker 
or his duly authorized representative. In 
some states phrases are required in the body 
of the note, such as, “without defalcation or 
discount;” but, as a general thing, that fact 
is understood without the statement. 

The following rules have been compiled 
from the best authorities and cover the 
whole ground of the law of notes with ac¬ 
curacy and clearness: 

There are two parties to a note, the 
maker and the payee. 

If a note is lost or stolen, it does not re¬ 
lease the maker; he must pay it, if the con- 


Things tOe All Should Knotv 


597 


sideration for which it was given and the 
amount can be proven. 

Notes hear interest only when so stated. 

A note made on Sunday is void. 

A note obtained by fraud, or from a per¬ 
son in a state of intoxication, cannot he col¬ 
lected. 

“Value received” is usually written in a 
note, and should be, hut is not necessary. If 
not written, it is presumed by law or may 
he supplied by proof. 

The maker of an “accommodation” hill 
or note (one for which he has received no 
consideration, having lent his name or 
credit for the accommodation of the holder) 
is not hound to the person accommodated, 
hut is bound to all other parties, precisely 
as if there was a good consideration. 

No consideration is sufficient in law if it 
he illegal in its nature. 

A note indorsed in blank (the name of 
the indorser only written) is transferable 
by delivery, the same as if made payable to 
hearer. 

If time of payment of a note is not 
named, it is payable on demand. 

The time of payment of a note must not 
depend upon a contingency. The promise 
must be absolute. 

The holder of a note may give notice of 
protest either to all the previous indorsers 
or only to one of them; in case of the latter 
he must select the last indorser, and the last 
must give notice to the last before him, and 
so on. Each indorser must send notice the 
same day or the day following. 

Neither Sunday nor any legal holiday-is 
counted in reckoning time in which notice 
is to be given. 

The loss of a note is not sufficient excuse 
for not giving notice of protest. 

If two or more persons, as partners, are 


jointly liable on a note or bill, due notice to 
one of them is sufficient. 

If a note is transferred as security, or 
even as payment of a pre-existing debt, the 
debt revives if the note or bill be dishon¬ 
ored. 

An indorsement may be written on the 
face or back. 

An indorser may prevent his own liabil¬ 
ity to be sued bv writing;, “without re- 
course,” or similar words. 

Written instruments are to be construed 
and interpreted by the law according to the 
simple, customary and natural meaning of 
the words used. 

The finder of negotiable paper, as of all 
other property, must make reasonable ef¬ 
forts to find the owner, before he is entitled 
to appropriate it for his own purposes. If 
the finder conceal it he is liable to the 
charge of larcenv or theft. 

One may make a note payable to his own 
order and indorse it in blank. lie must 
write his name across the hack or face, the 
same as any other indorser. 

An executor or administrator may in¬ 
dorse and transfer the note of a deceased 
person. 

FORMS OF NOTES. 

A Note Negotiable Only by Indorsement. 

$200 Chicago, Nov. 26, 1901. 

Three months after date I promise to pay 
to John H. Hunger, or order, two hundred 
dollars, value received. 

J. T. Northrop. 

A Note Not Negotiable. 

$200. St. Louis, Nov. 17, 1901. 

Ninety days after date I promise to pay 
Charles C. Sears two hundred dollars, value 
received. 

Samuel Atkinson. . 


598 


'Things XOe Alt Should K^noto 


Note Bearing Interest. 

$ 100 . 

Baton Rouge, La., May 26, 1902. 
Six months after date I promise to pay 
R. V. Jennings, or order, one hundred dol¬ 
lars, with interest, for value received. 

John Q. Watson. 

A Note Payable on Demand. 

$150. 

Philadelphia, Nov. 30, 1901. 

On demand I promise to pay Edgar 
Whittlesey, or bearer, one hundred and 
fifty dollars, value received. 

John R. Chaffing. 

A Note Payable at Bank. 

$100. Cincinnati, Dec. 24, 1901. 

Thirty days after date I promise to pay 
Mark I. Rankin, or order, at the Second 
National Bank, one hundred dollars, value 
received. 

Frank T. Morris. 
Guaranty of a Note. 

For value received, I guarantee the due 
payment of a promissory note, dated Octo¬ 
ber 8, 1901, whereby John Paxson promises 
to pay George Ruthledge eighty dollars in 
three months. 

St. Louis, October 10, 1901. 

Thomas Todd. 

& & < 3 * 

SINGLE TAX: ITS.MEANING AND 
ITS THEORIES 

Henry George, a profound student of 
financial and fiscal systems, was the first 
popular advocate of the theory now known 
as the “single tax.” Simply stated, it 
means only to charge any one occupying 
land, the exact rental value of the bare 
land, without improvements, taking the 


rent thus collected, in place of all other 
taxes of any sort, as public funds for pub¬ 
lic uses. It does not suggest displacing 
any one from land occupied and used. 
The supporters of this theory are very ac¬ 
tive, and rapidly increasing in number. 
They issue the following statement of their 
position: 

The single tax would: 

1st. Take the weight of taxation off the 
agricultural districts where land has little 
or no value irrespective of improvements 
and put it on towns and cities where bare 
land rises to a value of millions of dollars 
per acre. 

2d. Dispense with a multiplicity of 
taxes and a horde of tax-gatherers, sim¬ 
plify government and greatly reduce its 
cost. 

3d. Do away with the fraud, corruption 
and gross inequality inseparable from our 
present methods of taxation, which allow 
the rich to escape while they grind the 
poor. 

4th. Give us with all the world as per¬ 
fect freedom of trade as now exists between 
the States of our Union, thus enabling our 
people to share through free exchanges in 
all the advantages which nature has given 
to other countries, or which the peculiar 
skill of other people has enabled them to 
attain. It would destroy the trusts, mo¬ 
nopolies and corruptions which are the out¬ 
growth of the tariff. 

5th. It would, on the other hand, by 
taking for public use that value which at¬ 
taches to land bv reason of the growth and 

o O 

improvement of the community, make the 
holding of land unprofitable to the mere 
owner and profitable only to the user. It 
would thus make it impossible for specula¬ 
tors and monopolists to hold natural oppor- 


Things *CDe A.tt Should. K_notv 


599 


tunities unused or only half used, and 
would throw open to labor the illimitable 
field of employment which the earth offers 
to man. It would thus solve the labor prob¬ 
lem, do away with involuntary poverty, 
raise wages in all occupations to the full 
earnings of labor, make overproduction im¬ 
possible until all human wants are satisfied, 
render labor saving inventions a blessing to 
all, and cause such an enormous produc¬ 
tion and such an equitable distribution of 
wealth as would give to all comfort, leisure 
and participation in the advantages of an 
advancing civilization. 

With respect to monopolies other than 
monopolies of land, we hold that when free 
competition becomes impossible, as in tele¬ 
graphs, railroads, water and gas supplies, 
etc., such business becomes a proper social 
function which should be controlled and 
managed by and for the whole people con¬ 
cerned through their proper government, 
local, state or national, as may be. 

j * <38 

HOW FIRES ARE EXTIN¬ 
GUISHED 

While cities have been growing so rapid¬ 
ly, and sky-scraper buildings have become 
such a common feature of the cities, it has 
been necessary to study constantly for the 
improving of methods for fighting fire 
which might destroy property of such great 
value. So it is that city fire departments 
have been organized to a high degree of per¬ 
fection, both for the extinguishing of the 
flames, and for the saving of life of those 
who may be in danger. Some of the most 
ingenious and active of American inven- 
tors have busied themselves in this direc¬ 
tion, and we do not need to be told that the 


fire departments include men of tried brav¬ 
ery, whose deeds of courage almost daily 
rival or excel the most daring deeds of sol¬ 
diers in battle. 

The organization of the fire department 
in such a city as Chicago, for instance, is 
a matter of the greatest importance to the 
entire community. It must be efficient, 
kept up to the highest standard of excel¬ 
lence, and supplied with the bravest of men 
and the best of material at all times, if it 
is to do this work properly. However much 
political influence may have affected the 
appointment and administration of the po¬ 
lice force, the community has rarely tol¬ 
erated any invasion of the fire department 
with political influence. The annual ex¬ 
penditure for the fire department is nearly 
$1,600,000 for the one city of Chicago. 
The department includes a total of nearly 
1,200 men, organized in almost military 
fashion, with a marshal and his assistants, 
chiefs of battalions, captains and lieuten¬ 
ants, in addition to hundreds of engineers, 
pipemen, truckmen, drivers, stokers and 
watchmen. These brave men save every 
year many times as much as the department 
costs, and the citizens consider it a splendid 
investment to maintain it. At the slightest 
sign of deterioration in the fire department, 
or any reduction in the number of men 
employed in it which might reduce its effi¬ 
ciency, the fire insurance companies prompt¬ 
ly raise their rates for insurance, so that 
the increase in premiums paid in the city 
far more than exhausts the slight saving 
made in the expense of the department. 

These facts are typical of the conditions 
in every other city throughout the country. 
Even in small towns where no paid fire de¬ 
partment is maintained, the custom is to be 
liberal in the support of volunteer compa- 


600 


Things XOe All Should K.notv 



FIREMEN’S EXTENSION LADDER IN SERVICE. 


nies, which are usually equipped 
with the best appliances that the 
community can afford. In spite 
of this, the fire losses for the year 
1901, the last for which figures 
are obtainable, amounted to more 
than $150,000,000, while the loss 
in life exceeded 200. With such 
a showing of costly disaster, it is 
not strange that every effort pos¬ 
sible is made to improve the 
methods of averting such calami¬ 
ties. 

Some of the appliances re¬ 
cently put into service in fire 
fighting are ingenious in the ex¬ 
treme, although they are not al¬ 
ways complicated, the simplest 
being sometimes the best. Port¬ 
able fire extinguishers are made, 
by which, if a fire be reached 
early in its progress, the flames 
may be extinguished without the 
aid of water or engines. This 
apparatus is chemical in its char¬ 
acter, releasing gases or liquids 
which are unfavorable to fire, 
smothering it as soon as they 
come in contact with it. One of 
the simplest of these consists of 
a small bottle of acid sealed with 
mica and containing a rubber- 
covered lead ball. This bottle is 
within a larger one, holding in 
addition some gallons of water in 
which soda is held in solution. 
The whole apparatus is enclosed 
in a metal case, and fitted with 
a hose. When the alarm is given 
it is inverted, the ball breaks 
through the mica, and the re¬ 
leased acid coming into contact 
with the soda and water generates 
















Things 1 VUe All Should K.notv 


6<H 


gas, which discharges a stream of the liquid 
about fifty feet. 

All firemen agree that the first five min¬ 
utes of a fire are worth more in fighting it 
than the next half hour, so that all efforts 
are made to he as prompt as possible in 
reaching the scene of 
danger. Horses ready 
harnessed and trained 

to start instantly when 
«/ 

the alarm is given, men 
on the alert every mo¬ 
ment when they are 
on duty, and buildings 
properly constructed 
and equipped with safe¬ 
ty in view, are prime 
essentials in addition 
to the apparatus itself. 

Nowadays mills, fac¬ 
tories and large build¬ 
ings of all sorts are 
equipped with hose, 
ladders, hydrants, fire 
fire escapes. The employes are organized 
into companies and drilled to fight fire so 
as to he ready for any emergency. 

There is a firemen’s training school in 
New York, which prepares men for active 
service in the department before they are 
permitted to begin the actual responsibili¬ 
ties of the work, and in Chicago and other 
cities the same results are obtained by drill 
of all new recruits in-the department. They 
are taught to handle lifelines, safety nets 
into which people may jump from burning 
buildings, and the hose, hooks and ladders 
themselves. They are given drill with the 
remarkable extension ladders and extension 
nozzles which enable fires in tall buildings 
to be fought and rescues to be made, where 
such work would have been impossible a 


few years ago. Then they are finally put 
to work as a part of the crew of an engine 
or a hose cart, and begin to take their lives 
in their hands at every call to duty. The 
public has an immense admiration for the 
firemen and they can always count on ap¬ 


plause for their bravery and support when 
they need assistance in any worthy move¬ 
ment. There is a halo of glory about a 
fireman’s head which is universally recog¬ 
nized, and until all buildings are proof 
against destruction by flame, which may be 
true, thanks to improved building methods, 
after many years, he will always stand in 
the place of distinction. 

e* e* 

ASBESTOS CLOTH THAT WILL 
NOT BURN 

A long, lank, slow-voiced Englishman 
left his native land a score of years ago and 
settled in Quebec, where he hired out as a 
laborer in a lumber yard. Ilis great bodily 
strength, supplemented by his energy and 



NET FOR CATCHING THOSE WHO JUMP FROM BURNING BUILDINGS, 
extinguishers and 





602 


Things XXJe A It Should K.nobv 


activity, soon won liim an excellent posi¬ 
tion. After lie had been at work a num¬ 
ber of months he returned one cold winter 
evening to the capacious, shed-like build¬ 
ing in which they all lived. Seating him¬ 
self comfortably before the pot-bellied cast- 
iron stove, the open mouth of which glowed 
red with heat, he deliberately drew off his 
long, wet boots. Then a pair of socks, 
much the worse for Quebec mud, came off 
one after the other, and his companions 
saw him coolly fling them into the fire. 

They made no comment on his action, 
but when, almost immediately afterward, 
they saw him reach into the stove with a 
poker, pull out the apparently blazing 
socks, and, after giving them a shake, pro¬ 
ceed with the greatest unconcern to draw 
them on his feet again, they stood aghast. 
It was plainly an exhibition of witchcraft. 
Then they scrambled over one another in 
their haste to reach the door, through which 
they burst into the dark. 

The next day they called on the man¬ 
ager in a body and demanded the instant 
dismissal of the Englishman, loudly de¬ 
claring that they would not longer eat or 
drink or work with such a monster. In¬ 
quiry being made at once, it was found that 
the big Englishman had worked in an as¬ 
bestos factory before crossing the water, 
and being of an ingenious turn of mind he 
had managed to secure some of the mate¬ 
rial, out of which to knit himself a pair of 
socks. When they became soiled he cleaned 
them in the fire. But such explanations 
were of no avail with his ignorant compan¬ 
ions, and he was compelled to leave his 
work. 

Asbestos is a wonderful substance. Its 
name comes from a Greek word meaning 
inconsumable. Fire will not burn it, acids 


will not gnaw it, weather will not corrode 
it. It is the paradox of minerals—for a 
mineral it is, quarried just like marble. 
The fibers of which it is composed are as 
soft as silk, and fine and feathery enough 
to float on water. Yet in the mines they 
are so compressed that they are hard and 
crystalline like stone. 

Although the substance has been known 
for ages in the form of mountain cork and 
mountain leather, comparatively little has 
been learned as to its geological history and 
formation. A legend tells how Emperor 
Charlemagne, being possessed of a table¬ 
cloth woven of asbestos, was accustomed to 
astonish his guests by gathering it up after 
the meal, casting it into the fire and with¬ 
drawing it later cleansed but unconsumed. 

Yet, although the marvelous attributes 
of asbestos have been known for so lono-, 
they were turned to little practical use un¬ 
til about twenty years ago. Since that time 
the manufacture of the material has grown 
until it can take its place shoulder to shoul¬ 
der with any of the giant industries of this 
country. Indeed, so rapid has been its 
progress and development that there is al¬ 
most no literature of any kind on the sub¬ 
ject, and to the popular mind it is still 
one of those dim, inexplicable things. A 
dealer in asbestos goods says that the ma¬ 
jority of persons who use the substance are 
firmly convinced that it is all manufac¬ 
tured by some secret process from wool 
or cotton. 

Up to the late ’70s nearly all the as¬ 
bestos used came from the Italian Alps and 
from Syria, hut one day a party of explor¬ 
ers discovered a rich deposit in what is 
known as the eastern townships of Quebec 
in Canada. Companies were at once 
formed, and in 1879 the mines were 


Things XOe All Should K.nobi> 


(303 


opened. Remarkable as it may seem, how¬ 
ever, although the Canadians started fac¬ 
tories, in the operation of which they were 
substantially backed by English capital, it 
was an American concern, with headquar¬ 
ters in Hew York, that developed the man¬ 
ufacturing industry most rapidly. The 
company has now grown so large that it 
has branches in nearly all the large cities 
of the country, and the machinery used is 
specially made and peculiarly adapted to 
the manufacture of asbestos articles. There 
are also a number of large factories in Eng¬ 
land. 

The Canadian mines are located in a 
wild, rough country, almost outside of the 
pale of civilization. The hills have worn 
themselves bare of earth, and the bleak 
rocks glare out in great, bald patches. At 
one time a scraggy growth of pines clung 
to the remaining ridges of soil, but forest 
fires, the hand of man, and the ravages of 
wind and weather, have left only the 
dreary waste of burned and blackened 
stumps. The sides of the hills gape with 
great holes in which the men—mostly 
French-Canadians—are at work. The 
veins of chrysotile, as the Canadian asbes¬ 
tos is called, are from two to four inches 
in thickness and are separated by thin lay¬ 
ers of hornblende crystals. The nearer to 
the surface the veins run the coarser are 
the fibers and the less valuable. 

The mining is done by means of the most 
improved quarrying machinery. Holes are 
drilled in long rows into the sides of the 
cliffs by means of steam drills. They are 
then loaded with dynamite and exploded 
simultaneously by wires connecting with 
an electric battery in such a way that a 
whole ledge of the rock falls to the bottom of 
the pit at once. Then the workmen break 


out as much of the pure asbestos as possi¬ 
ble and load it into great tubs or trucks, 
which are hoisted out by means of der¬ 
ricks and run along to the “cob house.” 
Here scores of boys are kept busily em¬ 
ployed crumbling or “cobbing” the pieces 
of rock away from the asbestos, and throw¬ 
ing the lumps of good fiber to one side, 
where it is placed in rough bales or sacks 
ready for shipment to the factory. 

The greatest work in connection with 
the mining of asbestos is in disposing of 
the waste rock and the refuse of the quarry. 
Only about one twenty-fifth of the material 
quarried is real asbestos, and the rocky 
parts have to he lifted out and carried away 
to the dumps at great expense. As if in 
keeping with the forlorn and blasted ap¬ 
pearance of the country the miners are a 
hard, uncanny class of men, migratory in 
disposition and exceedingly superstitious. 
Their wages range from $1 to $1.50 a day. 

As the asbestos comes from the mines it 
is in small lumps of a greenish or yellowish 
hue and the edges are furred with loose 
fibers. The more nearly white the asbes¬ 
tos is the better its grade. The length of 
fiber is also of great importance, the long¬ 
est being the most valuable. 

From the mines the asbestos is taken by 
rail to the manufacturers in the United 
States. Here the lumps of the substance 
are emptied from the sacks and fed into the 
hopper of a powerfully built machine, not 
unlike an old-fashioned stone-process flour 
mill. They are crushed through a series 
of rolls, until the fibers are all separated 
into fluffy masses, when they pass out along 
a trough and into a separator. Here the 
small pieces of stone and other refuse rattle 
out through a sieve, and the longer fibers 
are separated by a series of comb-like 


604 


Things 1 tOe Ail Should K.nobe) 


sieves into various lengths. The very short 
ones are taken out to the pulp-mill, where 
they are ground up fine for the manufac¬ 
ture of solid packing for steam pistons, 
millboard and other commodities. The 
longer fibers are gathered together, carded, 
and spun into yarn, just like cotton or 
wool. After that the substance may be 
woven into cloth in various ways. The 
cloth is of a dirty white color and has a 
soapy feeling. 

The uses of asbestos are almost innumer¬ 
able. Ground fine, and combined with 
colors and oils by a secret process, it makes 
a beautiful paint, which is said to go far 
toward fire-proofing the surface to which 
it is applied. Various kinds of roofing 
are also made by treating strong canvas 
with a combination of asbestos and felt and 
backing it with manilla paper. It is ex¬ 
tensively used for roofs of factories, rail¬ 
road shops, bridges, steamboat decks and 
other places where there is danger of fire. 

Nearly every one has seen the thick, as¬ 
bestos-felt coverings for steam-pipes and 
furnaces. Asbestos-cement is sometimes 
used for hot-hlast pipes and fire-heated sur¬ 
faces. As a packing for locomotive pistons, 
valve stems and oil pumps it is almost in¬ 
dispensable. It is also made into ropes and 
mill-hoards which can he used almost 
everywhere. Asbestos cloth is being used 
more every year. Some states require thea¬ 
ters to use an asbestos drop-curtain to pro¬ 
tect the audience if the scenery catches fire. 
Some very beautiful drop-curtains have 
been made, and the ordinary spectator can¬ 
not distinguish them from real cloth. 

The yarn is knit into mittens for work¬ 
ers in iron and glass. Goldsmiths use a 
block of asbestos to solder upon. Combined 
with rubber—vulcanized—asbestos has al¬ 


most innumerable uses as an electrical in¬ 
sulator. In this form the substance resem¬ 
bles ebony, and is about as hard. The cloth 
is also of the greatest importance for acid- 
fitters in all kinds of chemical processes, 
for the reason that no acid will eat it. 

Asbestos is found in a good many hun¬ 
dreds of places in the world beside Italy 
and Canada, but the fibers are nearly all 
splintery and brittle. Rich deposits have 
recently been found in Wyoming, Califor¬ 
nia and Montana, and the United States 
may soon come to the front as a producer of 
the substance. With asbestos worth about 
$50 a ton, as it is, a good mine of asbestos 
is more valuable than a gold mine, and as 
the substance becomes better known and 
more used it will be still more precious. 
The time may not be far distant when fire¬ 
men will be clothed in suits made from as¬ 
bestos. 

£ & £ 

MINERAL WOOL AND ITS USES 

Since the discovery, some years ago, that 
asbestos could be felted together into a sort 
of paper and used wherever a nonconduct¬ 
ing, noncombustible packing was needed, 
the demand for it has steadily increased. 
New forms and new uses are continually 
appearing, while the supply is constantly 
diminishing. This has led to the search for 
a substitute. 

By melting together the various minerals 
of which asbestos is composed, a material 
of the same composition is easily obtained, 
but the stringy, fibrous quality which makes 
the asbestos so valuable is wanting. An 
accidental blast or stream of melted slag 
from an iron furnace gave the first and 
most important step in the solution of the 


Things XOe All Should K^notv 


605 


problem, and from this it has been worked 
out almost to perfection. At first “glass,” 
or “mineral” wool was made largely from 
slag, which contains many of the minerals 
needed—sand, lime and iron. But this 
product was too glassy, was not tough 
enough, and melted too easily. 

A careful analysis of asbestos was made, 
and the minerals—limestone, sand, fire-clay 
or kaolin and iron slag—containing the 
proper elements, were mixed. 

As made now, by the improved methods, 
waste products from other factories are 
used principally. Broken glass from win¬ 
dows and from bottle houses furnishes the 
sand and a part of the lime; pieces of fire¬ 
clay bricks, broken glass-pots and dish-ware 
that has warped and cracked in the kilns 
furnish the clay; and iron slag from the 
pudding ovens supplies the iron and part 
of the sand and lime. A little extra lime¬ 
stone is added. These waste products, be¬ 
sides being cheaper, are better than simple 
sand, lime and clay would be, as they are in 
a hard, chunky form, and “stand up” in 
the furnace, allowing a better circulation 
of air and gas while heating. Loose sand 
and clay would pack. 

The materials are crushed and mixed ac¬ 
cording to a rough formula, which is 
worked out by experiment. It is very ne¬ 
cessary that the amount of each should be 
just right. If too much glass is used the 
wool is brittle and harsh; if too much clay, 
the fibers are coarse and heavy, and if too 
much iron, the product is dark and does 
not sell weT 

The mixed material is placed in tall fire¬ 
brick furnaces, with alternate layers of 
coke, each layer being about one foot deep. 
Natural gas, where obtainable, is led into 
the bottom of the furnace, the fire is lighted 


and a blast of air from a blower is turned 
on, getting up an intense heat. The glass 
melts, acting as a fiux, and melting the 
other materials. The part nearest the bot¬ 
tom of the furnace melts first and the whole 
mass settles down. When the bottom is suf¬ 
ficiently liquid a small hole is opened at the 
side of the furnace, and the liquid mass is 
allowed to flow out in a stream about one 
inch in diameter. As this falls a jet of 
steam from two flat, fan-shaped nozzles is 
directed against it, blowing it into a fine 
spray which, on cooling, is a white, fibrous 
mass resembling fine, well-washed wool, 
hence its name. 

The spray is blown through a small win¬ 
dow into a large collecting room. While 
the blast is on this room is filled with a 
white cloud, looking like cotton down. Two 
furnaces and two rooms are used, alternat¬ 
ing with each other. When the blast is fin¬ 
ished in one furnace, the downy wool is al¬ 
lowed to settle, and is then scraped from the 
sides, the floor and the ceiling; it is 
weighed, packed in bales and then is ready 
for the market. 

The heaviest part which settles nearest 
the window contains little, beadlike bodies, 
called in the trade “shot,” and due to im¬ 
perfect blowing. This is remelted or sold 
for rough packing. The uses of the mineral 
wool are very numerous and are multiply¬ 
ing all the time. The chief ones are the 
adulteration of asbestos; packings to retain 
heat, as on steam pipes, steam cylinders and 
boilers; and packings to keep out heat, as 
in ice machines, refrigerators, cold-rooms 
and cold-storage warehouses. Of late large 
amounts are used for the deadening of 
walls and floors in fireproof buildings. The 
mineral wool is used either loose or in the 
form of paper, felting or thick wadding. 


606 


Things ¥Oe All Should K,notv 


HOW ARTIFICIAL SILK IS MADE 

Dr. Frederick Lehner of Zurich, Switz¬ 
erland, has opened an active competition 
with the silk worm by the invention of a 
cheap and simple process of making an ex¬ 
cellent quality of artificial silk. It has 
been known for a good many years in the 
scientific world that a substance of prac¬ 
tically the same chemical composition as 
silk could be made, but the secret of render¬ 
ing the process industrially practical re¬ 
mained undiscovered until Dr. Lehner took 
up the work. The basis of the discovery 
rests on the well-known truth in chemistry 
that many vegetable fabrics, such as waste 
cotton, cloth, flax, jute and wood, when di¬ 
gested by treatment with acids and alkalis 
are transformed into cellulose, a substance 
forming the walls of cells. By combining 
this material with nitric acid, certain ni¬ 
trates of -cellulose are formed, the higher 
compounds of which are such well-known 
explosives as cordite and tonite. The lower 
or pyroxylin nitrates are less explosive, 
being a gelatinous substance. If this be 
drawn out it will divide into numerous 
short threads or strings of a fine, shiny tex¬ 
ture, somewhat like gun-cotton, and most 
inflammable when dried. To this point a 
great number of chemists succeeded in get¬ 
ting, but they could not give the product 
of their test-tubes a sufficient viscosity to 

j 

admit of being drawn out into long threads. 
Dr. Lehner tried various solutions, but 
even when the amount of the pyroxylin was 
reduced to 7 per cent the compound was 
still too gelatinous to be worked. 

At last he discovered that by adding di¬ 
lute sulphuric acid to the alcohol ether so¬ 
lution, a part of the water was taken up 
and “split off” and the nitrates broken 


down, leaving a 12 per cent solution which 
was perfectly fluid and of the required vis¬ 
cosity. The process having once been dis¬ 
covered, the manufacture of the fluid is an 
inexpensive and perfectly simple operation 
for any chemist. 

The method by which the common-look¬ 
ing yellow liquid is converted into beautiful 
silk threads is most interesting. The ma¬ 
chine used is nothing more than a modifica¬ 
tion of the ordinary spinning frame. The 
great glass jar containing the silk fluid is 
set up on a high bench or shelf and the fluid 
is conveyed downward through pipes to a 
number of bent glass tubes resting in a 
trough of cold water. The orifices in the 
ends of the tubes are exceedingly minute, 
and rest just beneath the surface of the 
water. As the fluid flows through the 
tubes it is quicky cooled and begins to coag¬ 
ulate. On leaving the water about 60 per 
cent of its soluble portion has been 
washed away and the remaining thread 
is of a fine, rich lustre. Six or 
seven of the strands are gathered up 
and twisted together, exactly as silk 
or woolen threads are spun. After it 
has been wound upon the frame the ar¬ 
tificial silk dries and hardens, losing in this 
process the remains of its soluble matter. 
In a week’s time the thread cannot be dis¬ 
tinguished from the real article even bv a 
silk expert except by microscope or chem¬ 
ical examination. 

But the thread in this condition retains 
its characteristics as a nitrate, and is al¬ 
most as inflammable as gun-cotton. Of 
course it would never do for use while 
there was danger at any moment of its 
blowing up. The consequences of wearing 
a dress made of such material may be easily 
imagined. Consequently the thread is sub- 


Things tOe All Should Knoto 


607 


mitted to a last process—that of denitra¬ 
tion, in which by the use of ammonium 
sulphide the nitric acid is all neutralized. 

After the thread has been again dried, 
it is really less inflammable than natural 
silk. It can now be spun to any required 
thickness, and it is said that the resulting 
yarn is much smoother and more even than 
the genuine article. It has another advan¬ 
tage. When the machines are once started 
the threads can be spun to any required 
length—endless, if necessary—thus obviat¬ 
ing any necessity of stopping the cloth- 
looms to splice a thread. In addition to 
this the process can be carried on through 
winter and summer in any part of the 
world. There will be no need of mulberry 
forests or worm hatcheries, for by taking 
a quantity of cast-off clothing, and perhaps 
some wood pulp, and mixing them with 
the acids, the work is done. 

Yet the artificial silk lacks in several 
particulars of being as good as the natural 
product, and it is proposed to make it an 
economic factor in the manufacture of real 
silk goods. The warp of a fabric may be 
made of genuine silk and the woof of the 
artificial silk. In this way the artificial 
silk would take the place of wool or cot¬ 
ton in a mixed fabric, which would be just 
as cheap and much finer. 

The relative strength of the artificial 
silk, compared with Italian pure silk, is as 
68 to 100. Pure silk has but little elastic¬ 
ity, and when stretched does not go back 
to its original length; neither does the arti¬ 
ficial silk, but its stretching quality (be¬ 
fore breaking) is as 73 to 100 relatively. 
Measure for measure, the relative weight 
of the same average diameters of pure and 
artificial silk is 7.25 per cent more in the 
hitter. 


BUTTONS, THEIR INVENTION 
AND MANUFACTURE 

Adam did not wear buttons. Even when 
his wardrobe reached the dignity of con¬ 
taining “other clothes,” he was compelled 
to fasten his apparel with a sash or borrow 
a spike from Tubal Cain. In fact, until 
the beginning of the fourteenth century, 
the world managed to struggle along with¬ 
out these modern conveniences. Buttons 
were first used as ornaments. They were 
sewed on according to the taste or caprice 
of the maker or wearer of clothing, and 
they were seldom placed where they might 
have been of practical service, even had 
there been buttonholes to match them. 
Some time in the latter part of Queen 
Elizabeth’s reign it was discovered that a 
small slit cut in the cloth and shoved over 
the button made these ornaments useful. 
From that time on the making of buttons 
grew until it has become one of the most 
important industries. With the practical 
use of buttons came a revolution in dress. 
The last relic of the flowing rohes handed 
down from patriarchal days was consigned 
to the shelves of museums, and the simpler 
modern dress was introduced. 

It was the fashion in the early days of 
buttonmaking to sew as many buttons on 
the clothing as the texture would bear. 
Even the laboring classes managed to deck 
themselves to a degree which to-day ap¬ 
pears ridiculous. This at once created a 
demand, and the close of the seventeenth 
century saw the button industry well es¬ 
tablished in Europe, the center being then, 
as now, Birmingham, England. The first 
buttons were very expensive. They were 
made chiefly of gold and pearl, rich in de¬ 
sign, and inlaid with precious metals and 



BUTTONS FROM MISSISSIPPI RIVER PEARL SHELLS. 

Showing various stages in the process of manufacture, from the shells to the finished buttons on cards 

ready for sale. 





Things All Should K_notv 


609 


jewels. Following these came the cloth- 
covered and silk-covered buttons, which 
were made entirely with the needle. These 
brought a high price, and the workmen re¬ 
ceived the largest wages in those days for 
needlework. As the demand for buttons in¬ 
creased and man’s inventive genius was 
taxed, machines were produced for the 
making of steel, brass, inlaid, plated and 
lacquered buttons, and later for the rapid 
manufacture of covered buttons. 

These last are made by covering with silk, 
lasting, brocade, twist, velvet, mohair and 
various cloths, metal disks which have 
been previously cut out of sheet iron and 
molded with dies. The frame of this but¬ 
ton consists of two pieces of sheet iron,, the 
under piece being slightly convex and hav¬ 
ing a small round hole in the center 
through which a tuft of canvas is pressed. 
This is for sewing the button to the cloth. 
The upper disk is also slightly convex and 
made a little larger than the lower piece. 
The edge of the upper disk is turned down 
about a sixteenth part of an inch in the 
medium-sized buttons. These disks are cut 
from the sheet, formed and made ready for 
covering by one motion of the “fly press” 
or punching machine. 

For covering, another machine is used, 
simple in construction, but capable of turn- 
ins,' out a e;reat many buttons in a day 
when operated by an expert. It consists of 
a central upright shaft, to the lower end of 
which is attached a die so constructed as to 
press a piece of cloth around and under the 
upper disk of the button. The shaft is al¬ 
lowed to move up and down through two 
heads fastened to a stout frame of iron. 
Below the upper die is a contrivance hav¬ 
ing two dies which may be moved at will 
iu line wjflb. the upper die. In these the 


parts of the button are placed. One holds 
the upper disk and the piece of cloth, the 
other the under disk. A pressure of the 
operator’s foot on the treadle brings the 
upper die on the first lower die. This 
shapes the cloth. The second lower die is 
shoved under, the treadle is pressed and the 
button is complete. The dies have not only 
folded the cloth around and under the up¬ 
per disk, but they have clinched the two 
disks of the button close together. An ex- 
pert worker may make from seventy-five to 
eiglitv-five gross of buttons a day with this 
machine. 

Buttons made of vegetable ivory are 
widely used in this country and in Eng¬ 
land. The material is obtained from a 
palm tree that grows in South America. 
It has the name of “tagua plant,” and in 
Peru it is called “negro’s head.” When 
young the seed of this palm contains a 
milky substance which with age becomes 
very hard and white, resembling ivory. The 
seeds as used in commerce are from an 
inch to three inches in size and almost 
round. Before they go to the buttonmak¬ 
ing machines they are steamed to render 
their cutting easier. Then they are sawed 
into slices of proper thickness. The button 
is cut out with a tubular saw and each 
button is turned separately in a small 
lathe. Other machines are used for drill¬ 
ing holes, polishing and finishing the but¬ 
tons. Vegetable ivory is capable of re¬ 
ceiving almost any color, and the dyeing of 
buttons made from it is one of the most 
important and most carefully guarded se¬ 
crets of the craft. 

Livery, emblem and society buttons are 
made by stamping, the machines used be- 
ting the disks for metal buttons. The de- 
ing the same in principle as those for cut- 


610 


Things XOe All Should K^nobv 


sired figure which the face of the finished 
button is to assume is cut in the upper die, 
the reverse being made in relief on the un¬ 
der die. They are stamped and pressed 
together without soldering. 

Materials employed in button making 
are as varied as the stvles of buttons. In 
addition to metal-covered buttons and 
those made from other metals, glass, porce¬ 
lain, horn, bone, India rubber, mother-of- 
pearl and other products of shellfish and 
various woods are used. The shells for 
mother-of-pearl come from the Persian 
Gulf, the Red Sea, the Pacific coast and 
Panama. Paper buttons have been made, 
hut not extensively. An English invention 
uses slate or slit-stone in making buttons 
and button bodies. 

The first buttons made in the United 
States were of wood, covered by hand with 
different materials, principally silk. The 
oj:>eration was laborious, hut it resulted in 
the invention of machinery which has built 
up large factories in the east, Waterbury, 
Conn., and Easthampton, Mass., being cen¬ 
ters of manufacture in this country. New 
York has several large factories. 

The details of preparing the sheet iron 
for metal and. metal-covered buttons are 
simple. The iron is first scaled by im¬ 
mersing it in acid, after which it is 
punched out with the dies. The neck, or 
“collet,” is japanned, after being cut, and 
before the canvas tuft for sewing on is 
pressed into place. The hollow between the 
neck and shell is then filled with brown 
paper, called “button board.” The making 
of these basic parts of the clotli-covered but¬ 
ton is confined almost entirely to the east¬ 
ern states. Western manufacturers buy the 
material ready to cover. Button shanks, or 
eyelets, are made of wire on a machine 


which cuts the wire into desired lengths, 
bends it into loops and leaves it ready for 
insertion into the low T er blank. 

The name “shell” is given to metal but¬ 
tons made of two disks pressed together and 
fastened without soldering. A cloth-faced 
button is made by gluing a piece of cloth, 
cut the exact size, into the top of a rubber 
or vegetable ivory body. This leaves a 
rim of hard material to protect the edges 
of the button from wearing. In these the 
thread holes are drilled through a knob 
turned or molded on the back of the body. 

The great decrease in the price of buttons 
from that which made the first manufac¬ 
tured a luxury, has been due to the intro¬ 
duction of machinery, which now does al- 
most the entire work. Skilled labor does 
not occupy a large place in the making of 
buttons, which may also account for their 
comparative cheapness. Girls and hoys 
may operate nearly all the machinery, 
which is a combination of automatic fea¬ 
tures, leaving little to the operator but dex¬ 
terity in handling the different pieces for 
the dies. 

One of the curious freaks of buttondom, 
invented some years ago, was a “bachelor’s” 
button. This consisted of an ordinary 
trousers button with a safety pin attach¬ 
ment. It was to answer in cases of emer¬ 
gency, but it has not succeeded in entirely 
banishing the more homely but reliable 
horse-shoe nail. 

& 3 < 3 * 

IN A TYPE FOUNDRY 

Every type in a font, like every link in a 
chain, must be perfect in itself, or else the 
work of the maker counts for nothing. Per- 

O 

haps in no other industry, unless it he 
watch-making, is such scientific accuracy 


Things IB Ve All Should K_noto 


611 


required in every detail. Each measure¬ 
ment must be made to the thousandth part 
of an inch, and if a mold or a die is not 
exact to a hair’s breadth a whole casting 
may be lost. For in this age of newspapers 
every printed page is judged to a certain 
extent from an artistic point of view, and 
if the impressions of some type are heavier 
than those of others, or if the alignment is 
imperfect or the spacing uneven, it is sub¬ 
jected to condemnation. In this way type¬ 
founding becomes a real art. 

One of the largest manufactories of type 
in the world is located in Chicago and the 
amount of type in tons which it turns out 
yearly runs well up into the thousands. It 
is a big, busy building humming with life 
and movement, more than 350 men and 
"■iris working at its benches every dav. 

Follow the superintendent down the 
basement stairs, around the huge boilers 
and engines, and into the little corner room 
where the type metal is melted. Here the 
raw materials are brought, weighed and 
corded up ready to go to the big iron cruci¬ 
ble. There are “pigs” of lead, heavier than 
an ordinary man can lift, “pigs” of tin and 
“pigs” of copper. The antimony comes 
from Japan in square, solid blocks weigh¬ 
ing thirty pounds each, and before melting 
it is crushed to powder between the iron 
jaws of a crushing machine. Formerly 
the workmen broke it up with hammers, 
but the antimony being poisonous, that 
method was abandoned. 

The four metals are mixed according to 
a secret formula—the lead being the largest 
ingredient—and placed in a crucible. An¬ 
timony, which is a most expensive metal, 
is used because it gives hardness to the 
tvpe-composition and because it has the un¬ 
usual quality of expanding in cooling, thus 


preventing the type when cast from “fall¬ 
ing away” from the mold, and produces 
sharpness of the face and body of the type. 
After being melted and thoroughly mixed 
by stirring the metal is run into pans, and 
when cool it is ready for the casting ma¬ 
chines. 

The first step in type-making is the cut¬ 
ting of the letters desired on the ends of 
pieces of hard, fine steel. This is very diffi¬ 
cult work, and the men who do it receive 
high wages. Each letter in a font must be 
exactly the same height and the width must 
be cut according to rule. A separate one of 
these dies or “punches” is required for each 
character in every font of type, and the 
making of them is the most expensive part 
of the business. Some of them cost as high 
as $7. 

When a set of “punches” is complete it 
goes to the matrix department. Here lit¬ 
tle rectangular pieces of pure copper known 
as “strikes'” have been prepared. For min¬ 
ion or long primer type they are about two 
inches long by half an inch broad. At ex¬ 
actly the proper point near the top of each 
the steel die is driven in and then the 
“strike” or embryo matrix goes to the fitter, 
who rubs and polishes it down on big pieces 
of sandstone until it is everywhere square 
and perfect and the depth of the letter is 

exac-tlv the same as in the rest of the font 
€/ 

matrices. An electrotype matrix is also 
made, usually for use in casting display 
type, without going to the expense of cut¬ 
ting steel punches. This is done by immers¬ 
ing in a copper solution a piece of brass the 
size of a “strike” and having a hole at the 
upper end and allowing copper to be de¬ 
posited by the action of electricity on a 
metal die of the desired letter, which is sus¬ 
pended with its face just inside the hole in 


612 


Things XOe All Should K.notu 


the brass. Great pains is taken to keep all 
these molds and dies perfect. More than 
$200,000 worth of them are stored in a big 
vault in the basement. 

Next the mold is made. This work re¬ 
quires the most skilled mechanics in steel. 
The pieces are all cut out by lathes, planers 
and shapers and ground down to just the 
right size and then polished on emery laps. 
There are two main parts to the mold, and 
they may be so adjusted as to make room for 
casting the bodies of letters of any width 
from a 3-m size to an i size. A great deal 


water from above. When the movable arm 
is as far back as possible, a half of the mold 
lifts and the type jumps out. At the lower 
end of each one there is a little “jet” of 
metal which clings and has to be broken otf 
by an automatic device. In some of the 
larger styles of type the “jet” is removed 
by hand. When all of the a’s in the font 
are made, the b matrix is put in, and so on 
to the entf of the alphabet. A casting ma¬ 
chine will turn out from 100 to 175 type a 
minute. 

In casting small fonts where frequent 







TYPE IN THE VARIOUS STAGES OF MANUFACTURE. 

Showing in succession, from left to right, the “punch,” the “drive” or “strike,” the “matrix,” the 

unfinished type with “jet” and the finished type. 


depends on the absolute accuracy of these 
molds. The matrix is now fastened in the 
mold so that it will form one end of the 
hole between the two parts. Then one of 
the parts is fastened to the casting machine 
and the other to a movable arm. The metal 
is kept fluid in a little furnace heated by 
natural gas, and is projected with great 
force into the mold by means of a pump. 
At everv revolution of the crank the mold 

v 

approaches the pump spout, takes a charge 
of metal, and flies back with a fully formed 
type, which is cooled with air-blasts and 


changes are made in the molds, the machines 
are driven by hand-power; but where fonts 
are large, such as those made for newspa¬ 
pers, steam is the propelling power and the 
indefatigable little machines go thumping 
along with little or no attention and do 
their work with a precision that almost 
equals human intelligence. 

The type is not finished when it leaves 
the machine. A fringe or burr, somewhat 
like that which clings to a bullet cast in a 
mold, still adheres to its corners and sides. 
This is taken off by a number of girls who 







































































































Things 'G&e All Should K_nobu 


613 


rub rows of tbe type on sandstone laps. The 
deftness and ease with which they handle 
the type, which would so easily “pi” in the 
hands of an inexperienced person, are 
simply wonderful. All italic and script 
type are sent to be “kerned.” This is a 
process of cutting away and smoothing the 
body around the projecting parts of the 
letter, and it adds materially to the cost of 
these two classes of type. 

The “setters,” nimble-fingered girls, sit 
around low tables, the tops of which are 
cushioned in velvet. Here the type is 
dumped and the girls set them in long lines 
with the nicks uppermost. They now go to 
the “dresser,” who slips the row into a stick 
or dressing-rod about three feet long, turns 
them on their faces, fastens them into a slit 
in an iron bench specially constructed for 
that purpose, and with a plane cuts a groove 
in the bottom, which removes the burr left 
in breaking off the “jet,” and gives 
the type two legs to stand on. He then 
deftlv turns the long row upside down and 
dresses off the uneven places along the up¬ 
per and under sides. One firm in Chicago 
has in use a wonderful new machine which 
performs most of these operations automati¬ 
cally. It casts the type, breaks off the jets, 
rubs down the two sides, dresses off the 
body and grooves the jet end of the type. 
The type are cast singly, and follow one an¬ 
other through channels, which contain the 
dressing and grooving devices, onto a long 
wooden stick. 

The work of the inspector, who now re¬ 
ceives the type, is the most trying and pains¬ 
taking of any in the shop. He sits before a 
big window and with a magnifying glass 
tightly clamped into his eye examines each 
tvpe in the row, and if he sees a single de¬ 
fect in any of them he picks the type out 


with a needle-like awl and it is returned to 
the melting kettle. Long years of experi¬ 
ence and keenness of vision enable the in¬ 
spector to detect imperfections that would 
never suggest themselves even to his asso¬ 
ciates in other divisions of the industry un¬ 
less their attention was especially directed 
to them. In the smaller sizes about one 
type in every twenty is thrown out, and 
sometimes even a greater proportion. 

The lines are now broken up into shorter 
lines and put up in “galleys” or “pages,” 
about four and one-half by six inches in 
size. The full font weighs 100 pounds, and 
if smaller fonts are ordered these are di¬ 
vided into smaller pages, each having its 
due proportion of “sorts” of letters and 
characters. After being wrapped in paper 
and marked they are ready for shipment. 

A type font is sometimes measured by 
weight in pounds, and sometimes by the 
number of m’s which it contains. Job fonts 
are always turned out by count. The pro¬ 
portion of letters in a font is interesting as 
showing how much more some letters are 
used than others. In a 3,000 lower-case m 
font of “minion 3,” for instance, a type 
smaller than that from which this book is 
printed, weighing 280 pounds, there are 
9,000 a’s, 2,000 b’s, 4,000 c’s, 5,000 d’s, 
14,000 e’s, 800 k’s, and 500 j’s. E is used 
more than any other letter in the alphabet. 
It is followed by t, with 10,000; then by i 
and a, with 9,000 each; then by s, with 
8,000. The least used letters are z, with 
300, and j and x, with 500 each. Of the 
numerals 0 and 1 are most used, having TOO 
each. Some of the fractions have fifty 
types to the font and the braces have only 
twenty-five each. 

The great newspaper offices use thousands 
of pounds of type every year. But the in- 


614 


Things tS Oe A. It Should K^noa> 


troduction of linotype machines, which cast 
the type line by line as fast as it is set, has 
severely injured the business of making - 
body type. A great Chicago dealer says 
that the linotype machines have cut in more 
than 25 per cent, the effect being felt most 
in the orders from the big city dailies. An 
effort has been made, however to fight the 
linotype machine with a machine which 
will set real type, and in this the type foun¬ 
ders place much hope for the future. But 
the business of producing new styles of job 
type and casting them is still a great in¬ 
dustry. 

vi* <£ c* 

BINDING TWINE MADE EROM 
MANILA HEMP 

One Chicago manufacturer produces 
enough binding twine every working day in 
the year to reach half way around the earth. 
The capacity of his manufactories, of 
which there are two, is eighteen miles every 
minute-, or about 3,333,330 miles a year. 
The weight of the annual product is 16,000 
tons, and it would stretch from the earth to 
the moon thirteen times, with a loose end 
left over that would girdle the earth nine 
times. If a train were to travel as fast as 
twine is made in the factory it would speed 
from Chicago to Kew York in about forty- 
five minutes. These factories make about 
one-third of all the binder twine consumed 
in the United States. The total amount 
would therefore be about 10,000,000 miles, 
or 48,000 tons. Allowing about two feet 
of twine for every bundle of wheat, the total 
number of bundles harvested would be 
105,600,000,000, a simply inconceivable 
amount. 

Chicago is bv all odds the great twine- 
producing center of the world, and it dis¬ 


tributes its output from China to Peru. 
The largest amounts are used in Minnesota 
and Dakota, hut other states are also great 
buyers. Of foreign countries Argentine is 
far in the lead as a twine consumer, but 
large sales are made in South Africa and 
Australia; in fact, everywhere in the world 
that wheat will grow. 

The best twine is made from East In¬ 
dian manila hemp. It is the product of a 
plant known to botanists as musa textiles, 
a variety of banana palm which grows only 
in the Philippine islands. Some fairly 
good varieties of hemp, although far in¬ 
ferior to the manila, are now being grown 
in southern Mexico. Yucatan supplies the 
much-used sisal, which comes from a plant 
known as the American aloe, resembling the 
century plant in appearance. The fiber 
takes its name from Sisal, a seaport town in 
Yucatan. The work of cutting the fiber, 
stringing it out, suspending it on racks to 
dry, and packing it for shipment employs 
thousands of the natives during a part of 
the year. All the rest of the time they em¬ 
ploy in magnificent leisure, spending their 
earnings and waiting for the next sisal sea¬ 
son. This Yucatan hemp is now much used, 
although it is not as strong and durable as 
the East Indian products. 

The various kinds of hemp come to the 
factory storehouse in bales containing from 
270 to 375 pounds. Some of them are 
bound in rattan and palm leaves, and cov¬ 
ered with cabalistic lettering in some for¬ 
eign language. Recently a little of the 
hemp grown in Kentucky as an experiment 
has been tried, but it was not found to be 
fit for binding twine, which must not only 
be strong and smooth, but uniform in size 
so that it will work well in the machine. 

The warehouse is three stories high, 275 


Things XOe All Should Knott) 


615 


feet long by 100 feet wide, and is packed 
from top to bottom with liemp bales, the 
entire capacity being 5,000 tons. Great 
caution -has to be observed in providing fire 
protection, for if the piles of bales once 
became ignited it would be almost impossi¬ 
ble to extinguish them. The superintendent 
has to keep a sharp eye out when the bales 
are unpacked, for the wily Mexicans do all 
sorts of things to make them weigh heavy. 
Oftentimes great chunks of grindstones and 
cobblestones, to say nothing of wood and 
cheaper grades of hemp, are found packed 
inside of the bales. It pays better than 
hemp-raising, and doubtless the Mexican 
chuckles more over getting money in this 
way than he would if he had earned it. 

The twine factory proper is a great 
building. In one corner of it is one of the 
largest engines in the world. It has the 
thirty-two-foot flywheel which attracted so 
much attention in Machinery Hall during 
the World’s Fair, and the indicator regis¬ 
ters up to 2,000 horse-power. One man 
who stands on the clean, varnished floor is 
the sole master of the great engine which 
keeps the thousands of spindles in the fac¬ 
tory clicking away so busily. 

When the bales of hemp come in from the 
warehouse they are torn apart and the 
workmen shake out each of the separate 
bunches, which are knotted at the end and 
somewhat resemble a horse tail, only they 
are nearly white and very coarse, the fibers 
varying from two to six feet in length. So 
closely is the hemp packed that a bale more 
than doubles in size when it is loosened. 

The hemp now goes to the preparing- 
room, where the roar of the machinery is 
deafening and it is impossible to speak loud 
enough to be heard. The room is remark- 
ably high, so that the thick hemp dust 


which fills the atmosphere will be swept 
out and will not injure the employees. The 
hemp goes first to the scutching frame, 
which is a broad wheel about eight feet in 
diameter, the outer surface being covered 
with short, sharp pegs set close together. 
This is covered all over with a shield, which 
is pierced at one side with a square hole. 
Through this hole the hemp bunches are 
switched until the teeth have combed the 
fibers out straight, tearing away also a good 
deal of dust and short, valueless fibers. 

The hemp now goes to the first spreader 
or breaker. This consists of two sets of 
belts, both covered with short metallic teeth 
or pegs, the first moving more slowly than 
the second. On being fed into the machine 
the hemp is spread out, carded and straight¬ 
ened, the second belting pulling it apgrt 
longitudinally and making the ribbon thin¬ 
ner. From the end of the first spreader 
a girl attendant, who is powdered with dust 
from head to foot, guides the big loose rope 
into high tin pails, from which it is fed 
into the second spreading machine, and so 
on through eight of them until the hemp 
ribbon is smooth and even and much thinner 
and narrower than at first. 

It now goes in high tin pails to the bell 
machines, where it runs over numerous 
spools and rollers, which smooth it down 
beautifully, twist it and draw it out finer 
and thinner, making the fibers more and 
more compact. The picture on page 183 
illustrates this part of the process. After 
going through two of these machines it is 
ready to be sent to the 600 spindles on the 
second and third floors. 

It is difficult to give an idea of the scene 
in the spindle-rooms. Hundreds of ma¬ 
chines, all just alike, with each part moving 
in unison, each belt flapping in line and 


616 


Things tOe All Should K.nobu 


over all a deafening sound of whirring of 
wheels and clicking spindles. Among the 
machines a few girls move about quietly, 
keeping them free from dust and seeing 
that their insatiable mouths are always full. 
Here the ribbon of hemp runs from the 
pails through a very small hole, and then it 
is pulled very fast, so that it grows thinner, 
at the same time being twisted a little. 
Then it is fed on a big spool or bobbin in 
the form of the finished twine—650 feet 
to every bobbin. A very complete system 
of inspection and examination is in use in 
the factory for insuring absolute exactness 
in the size and strength of the twine. The 
binder attachment of a harvester is set up 
in the room, and a bundle of rag bags is 
bound from time to time to see if the twine 
is perfect. 

The bobbins are sent up to the balling 
department. Here a great number of girls 
with incredibly nimble fingers are engaged 
in operating busy little machines which 
wind the twine from the bobbins into the 
well-known shape of the twine-balls. The 
balls are so made that the twine unwinds 
from the inside out, instead of from the 
outside in. The balls are now weighed, and 
twelve of them are placed in a fifty-pound 
package and covered with burlaps ready to 
be shipped to the farmer. Twine mills are 
operated only about ten months in the year, 
beginning in the fall and continuing until 
late in the summer. The selling season is, 
of course, before and during harvest time. 

^8 & 

HOW VARNISH IS MADE 

Varnish-making is a veritable aristocrat 
among trades. The varnish-maker goes 
about his work as serenely and leisurely as 


though he wore fashionable attire instead 
of the spotless suit of overalls, which seems 
to be a superfluous article of clothing. The 
varnish factory is as quiet as the chapel of 
a deaf and dumb institution, except when 
the tap of an easy heel or the distant rum¬ 
bling of a rolling barrel breaks the spell, 
ddie rush and whir of machinery, the hiss- 
ing of high-pressure steam escaping from 
a poor joint, the rattle of loose belting and 
the quarrel of clashing metals are unknown 
in the calm precincts of a varnish factory, 
for the only machinery in the place is the 
little engine which drives the humming 
dynamo and the slow-moving pumps, which 
breathe so softly that they are noticed 
simply because they take up some space in 
the engine room. 

The making of varnish requires but little 
manual labor, for the raw material is 
handled only in the case of the gums and 
shellac; the oil, turpentine and other 
liquids are pumped from the barrel to the 
finished varnish. It is in the handling of 
the raw material and finished product that 
the modern varnish factory is superior to 
the old-time ones, for the art of making 
varnish is the same to-day as it was eighty 
years ago. 

Varnish was made in kettles years ac;o, 

O 7 

and it is made in kettles to-dav. It was 
made of gum, linseed oil and turpentine 
half a century ago, and gum copal, Calcutta 
linseed oil and Vorth Carolina turpentine 
mixed together at varying degrees of heat 
make the finest and most expensive varnish 
which polishes and preserves the wood of 
sleeping cars and carriages to-day. There 
is not a varnish-maker who does not sur¬ 
round his business with trade-secrets, and 
the uninitiated is led to believe that var¬ 
nish-making is an inherited art, handed 


Things XOe All Should K_nobo 


617 


down from father to son, and something 
that cannot be tanglit by book learning or 
transmitted by word of mouth. But a var- 
nisli-maker who has received yards of blue- 
ribbon honors and dozens of diplomas and 
medals from various expositions, national 
and international, said not long ago that the 
true art of making varnish lay in the proper 
selection of raw materials and the intelli¬ 
gent handling of them in the process of 
manufacture by experienced men. 

The base of varnish is gum copal, or the 

fossil gum found in Zanzibar, Sierra 

Leone, Xew Zealand, the Philippine islands 

and other places. The best gum is that of 

Zanzibar, and the poorest is the Manila 

from the Philippine islands. When the 

cum is received in the factorv it is broken 
© ** 

up into pieces about the size of small egg 
coal. The man who breaks it up, at the 
same time selects the gum, for in one chunk 
of the amber-like material there may be 
both transparent and almost opaque 
streaks; the white, transparent gum goes 
into the making of the best grades of var¬ 
nish, the dark-colored gum into the poorer 
grades. After the gum copal is broken, 
it is run through a series of hand sifters 
which divide it into block, nut, chip and 
dust. This separation is made for con¬ 
venience and economy in handling, and cuts 
no particular figure in the results. The 
gum copal is now ready for the kettle. 

Por first-class varnish only Calcutta lin¬ 
seed oil is used. This oil, as its name indi¬ 
cates, is made from the flaxseed of India, 
which, however, is crushed in England or 
Germany. The preference of American 
varnish-makers for linseed oil made in Eng¬ 
land or Germany to that made in this coun¬ 
try, even though Calcutta flaxseed is used 
alike in alHhe linseed-oil mills, shows the 


relative value placed on linseed oil cake ur 
meal in America and Europe. In America 
the cake and meal, which are a residue of 
the oil-pressing, have less value commer¬ 
cially than the oil itself-, so the American 
linseed oil man tries to get as much oil out 
of his flaxseed as he can, and sometimes he 
succeeds in obtaining 92 to 96 per cent of 
the oil from the seed. From the linseed 
oil man’s point of view this percentage is 
first-class, but the varnish man does not 
like it, because the extra pressure required 
to secure so high a percentage of the oil 
let-s loose what are called “foots”—little 
particles that will not melt with heat, will 
not be filtered out, and in spite of all the 
varnish-maker can do, persist in discoloring 
his varnish and forming sediment in the 
bottom of the storage tanks. 

In England and Germany the Calcutta 
oil meal and oil cake are regarded as de¬ 
sirable food products, and commercially are 
of more value than the oil. In his desire 
to obtain as much cake as possible from a 
given amount of seed, the English and Ger¬ 
man oil man is satisfied with about 80 per 
cent of the oil in the seed. Xo “foots” 
appear in the English crushed Calcutta oil, 
and that is the reason American varnish- 
makers prefer it to home product. 

Before the linseed oil is mixed with the 
gum it is boiled. The turpentine used for 
thinning the varnish is the best and purest 
grade of Xorth and South Carolina tur¬ 
pentines. The boiled oil and the turpentine 
are kept in large storage tanks, and drawn 
out when needed. 

The stack is the soul of the varnish fac¬ 
tory. Here the gum is melted, the oil is 
mixed with it, and the dark and secret arts 
which enter into the making of varnish 
are practiced. The stack is a high brick 


618 


'Things *€Oe All Should K^notu 


chimney, around the base of which are 
grouped a number of fireplaces, somewhat 
like open coke fires, which occupy hooded 
recesses. The fires are flush with the floor, 
and are supplied with air by means of air- 
ducts which pass from the outside of the 
building under the floor to the grates. The 
copper kettles in which the melting and 
mixing are done are on truck wheels, so 
that they can be rolled over a fire or taken 
off easily. Far above each fire is a large 
vent, leading into the stack, for the escape 
of inflammable fumes or gases loosed dur¬ 
ing the melting and mixing process, for 
those fumes must be kept away from the 
coke fires or there will be an explosion. By 
sending the gases of the coke fire up the 
chimney by means of flues at the base of 
the stack, and allowing the fumes arising 
from the kettles to escape through the vents 
far up the stack, all danger of explosions is 
avoided. 

The copper kettles in which the gum 
copal is first melted are about three feet 
high and two and one-half feet in diameter. 
A loose cover fits over each kettle, and 
through a hole in the cover the varnish- 
maker stirs the melting gum with an iron 
tool. While the gum is melting, steam in 
large quantities escapes through the little 
funnel in the center of the lid. One of the 
secrets of the varnish-making trade comes 
into play while the copal is melting, for 
while one kind of the gum can be handled 
safely with 200 degrees of heat, another 
goes up to 600, and to mistake one for the 
other or keep the melted gum longer than 
it should be > means a bad mess. There 
seems to be an intuitive knowledge pos¬ 
sessed by the varnisli-maker on this tem¬ 
perature question, for, while all the gum 
looks alike to the unlearned spectator, the 


varnish-maker allows one kettle to bubble 
merrily at 300 degrees, while its companion 
on the other side of the partition is splut¬ 
tering at 500. After the gum has melted, 
a tool somewhat like a gigantic egg-beater 
is introduced and the melted gum is 
whipped, preparatory to letting in the 
boiled linseed oil. When the oil has been 
mixed with the liquid oil, the kettle is run 
back over the fire once more and the gum 
and oil boiled again. Then it is set away 
to cool, after which the kettle is taken to 
a room where a quantity of turpentine is 
mixed with the gum and oil, and the var¬ 
nish is made. 

But the varnish-maker, having ever be¬ 
fore him a bugaboo of specks and foreign 
matter which might have been caught in the 
translucent, ambeiMxdored liquid, first 
strains the varnish through cotton before 
it is pumped into the big storage tanks, 
where it is left to age for at least six 
months and perhaps two years, for varnish, 
like wine, improves with age. 

That is all there is in making varnish. 
The varnish-maker must know just what 
heat is best for the different gums he uses; 
he must know just how long and at what 
temperature he must boil the combined var¬ 
nish and oil, and he must know to a point 
how much turpentine to put into his var¬ 
nish. Every stage of the process at the 
base of the huge stack is watched with a 
thermometer in the kettle, for no guess 
work or rule of thumb is permitted while 
the kettle is on the incandescent coke. 

Shellac varnish is made in “churns,” or 
barrels revolving on journals. The shellac 
as it comes from India looks like amber 
colored mica, for it is in thin sheets and 
almost transparent. This shellac is mixed 
with the proper amount of alcohol in the 


Things *€Oe All Should K.nobu 


619 


revolving churn, the belt shifter is thrown 
over and the briskly turning barrel mixes 
the shellac and alcohol together. 

The Zanzibar gum copal comes from the 
coast of Africa, between the Juba Kiver 
and Cape Delagoa, contiguous to the island 
of Zanzibar. It is dug out of the ground 
by the natives, who bring it on their backs 
to the traders, and are said to be gloriously 
cheated by them. These African copals are 
the hardest, most transparent of all gum 
copals, and are used only for the most ex¬ 
pensive varnishes. The Kauri gum copal 
comes from the northern island of Xew 
Zealand. It enters largely into the making 
of the middle and most used grades. The 
production of this gum is an important in¬ 
dustry, amounting to about 7,000 tons an¬ 
nually valued at more than $2,000,000. 

Gum copal is found sometimes on the 
ground, but usually some feet under the 
surface. It is the fossil resin or gum of 
trees that are now extinct. An exception 
to this is the Kauri copal, which is the fos¬ 
sil gum of trees which are growing over 
the ground where the gum is dug up. 
Sometimes the natives mix in gum from 
living trees with the true gum copal, hut 
the deception is easily discovered, for true 
gum copal has a “goose skin,” as the pitted 
surface is called. Then, again, the false 
gum copal melts in the mouth, and the 
genuine is not soluble even in alcohol. In 
the office of a Chicago varnish company 
is a lump of gum copal which weighs 400 
pounds, and this is said to he the largest 
piece ever found. In the cabinet of gums 
in this office are several specimens of clear 
gum in which insects have been imprisoned, 
and it is estimated that those hugs were in 
those hits of gum copal at least 6,000 years 
aga 


BEESWAX AND HOW IT IS 
PREPARED 

Since the enterprising chemists and re¬ 
finers went into active competition with the 
honey of bees and made a pure, white wax, 
or paraffin, out of petroleum, the use of 
beeswax in the manufacture of sperm can¬ 
dles, wax flowers and carbon papers has 
gone down, hut the cobblers, tailors and 
harnessmakers still stick by the honey bee, 
and declare that no petroleum v T ax can 
equal beeswax when it comes to waxends 
for slipping through awl-holes. Chemists, 
artificial flower-makers, laundries and other 
users of wax have not all gone over to the 
enemv, as the 500 tons of beeswax consumed 
annually indicate that the honey bees have 
hosts of friends left. 

But many of these friends require white, 

or nearlv white wax, and the vellow wax 

made bv the- bee must first be whitened or 
«/ 

bleached before it is put on the market. 
The sun is the bleacher, so all bleacheries 
are in the country away from the dirt and 
smoke of the cities, and usually in the -cen¬ 
ter of large honey districts. The beeswax 
is sent to the bleaching house in the shape 
of loaf-cakes, each weighing about twenty- 
five pounds. These cakes are broken into 
small pieces and put into a vat or tub made 
of cedar, about five feet high and three feet 
across. In the bottom of this vat are two 
square wooden pipes, crossing each other at 
right angles. The tops of these pipes have 
a number of holes bored in them and both 
are connected with a steam pipe which 
brings the steam to them at a pressure of 
about sixty pounds to the square inch. 
From 1,200 to 1,800 pounds of wax are 
placed in one vat at a time, and enough 
water is run in to float the wax. Then the 


m 


Things *€Oe All Should Kjnobif 


steam is turned on, and it jets up through 
the holes in the wooden pipes, melting the 
wax. The dirt in the wax falls to the bot¬ 
tom of the vat, and the melted wax, about 
three hours after the steam is turned on, 
is ready to be drawn from the vat. 

Not far from the vat in which the wax is 
melted is a wooden roller about five feet 
long and a foot and one-lialf in diameter. 
This roller revolves in cold water, and when 
the melted wax, after first passing through 
"a sieve, falls upon it in narrow ribbons, it 
chills at once, and, sticking to the roller, 
is carried around into the water. The 
roller turns once every second, and when 
the chilled ribbons of beeswax are carried 
around into the cooler water they fly off the 
roller into the water-bed. 

From the cooling bed the wax is lifted on 

o 

wooden forks, placed in boxes, and car¬ 
ried outside to the bleaching beds. These 
are called frames and stand -about three 
feet above the ground. Each frame is about 
100 feet long, 15 feet wide and a foot deep. 
In each frame half a ton of wax is spread, 
and there it stays for a month or five weeks, 
depending on the number of sunny days, 
for the wax is exposed to the full light of 
the sun. Several times a day the wax is 
sprinkled with water to keep the sun from 
melting it, and once each day two men liar- 
row it with a rake which extends across the 
frame, so that in the month of bleaching 
every bit of wax has all of its sides exposed 
to the sun several times. 

At the end of a month the yellow wax 
has turned a creamy white, and it is then 
taken back to the melting vat and remelted, 
run through the screen over the wooden 
roller, and brought back to the bleaching 
frames for another stay, this time, how¬ 
ever, for only two weeks. By this time the 


beeswax is pure white, and is ready to be 
put into marketable shape. The boys take 
about 500 pounds of wax and melt it in a 
small tub. Near the tub is a table on 
which stand a large number of pans about 
four inches in diameter and a quarter of 
an inch deep. The pans are arranged in 
rows, for the melted wax is poured into one 
row at a time. Above the pans and across 
the full width of the table is a movable 
copper cylinder. It is really a double 
cylinder, one inside of the other, and the 
space between the two is filled with hot 
water. The melted wax is poured into the 
inside cylinder, and is kept in a liquid 
shape by the hot water jacket. 

A number of small tubes lead from the 
inner cylinder through the wafer-jacket, 
and one valve turns the melted wax into 
all the tubes, so that the boy who is filling 
the little pans can move the cylinder along 
until it is over a row of pans and then can 
turn the valve and fill the entire row at 
once. In an hour the wax in the pan¬ 
molds is cold and ready to be shipped. 

& S 

TAR AND ITS USES IN THE 
SCIENCES 

Down in the Carolinas the edges of the 
hills frown with almost endless forests of 
great pines, dark and silent. From the 
size of the trees the casual observer would 
imagine that they could be used to excellent 
advantage for the mainmasts of great ves¬ 
sels, or could be cut into lumber with which 
to build a city. But the “poor white” of 
the mountains knows better. He has seen 
the great boles of pines perspire with 
sticky pitch, and he knows that if they are 


Things XVe All Should K.notej 


621 


cut open the wood will appear pockmarked 
with endless knots and rotten places. Yet 
they have a value all their own, and the 
“poor white” knows how to make the most 
of it. 

In the first place, the trees may be 
“sapped” for turpentine by making the 
proper incisions in the trunks, or they may 
be burned for tar. All through the forests 
mounds of earth—deserted tar-kilns—may 
be seen at the center of patches of clearing, 
and not far away a ruined shanty, where 
the tar-burner made his home while the fir¬ 
ing was going on. The work is eminently 
adapted to the capabilities of the “poor 
white,” because it enables him to work very 
hard for a few days in getting the mound 
made, aud then lie about for weeks hunt¬ 
ing a little, talking a little, and preparing 
as elaborate meals as the countrv will af- 
ford until the burning is completed. 

Slightly sloping ground on the hillside is 
usually chosen for the site for burning tar. 
A hole or basin from sixteen to twenty feet 
in diameter and three feet deep at the cen¬ 
ter is scooped out, connecting with a cov¬ 
ered trough through which the tar is to 
flow. The workmen then fell the green 
pines around them and cut them up, roots 
and all, into pieces three or four feet long 
and a few inches in diameter. The “piler” 
takes these sticks as they are brought to 
him and stacks them up on end in the shape 
of an Indian wigwam, one tier above an¬ 
other, until the top dwindles to a point. 
Sometimes more than 100 cords of wood 
are heaped in a single hole, the amount de¬ 
pending usually on the energy of the burn¬ 
ers. Damp earth and sand are heaped 
over the completed pile to the depth of sev¬ 
eral inches, and it is sometimes further 
covered with green boughs. A flue is made 


at the top to furnish the necessary draft, 
and a number of small holes or dampers are 
left at the bottom. 

When everything is ready the pile is ig¬ 
nited, and as the fire spreads through the 
wood the apertures at the bottom are grad¬ 
ually closed up and slow combustion goes 
on for about ten days. It has to be closely 
watched in order that the fire neither goes 
out nor burns too fiercely. At the end of 
the firing period the pile has settled so 
much that the top caves in and a bright 
blaze leaps up, only to be extinguished by 
the addition of more moist earth. About 
this time the spout at the bottom of the tar- 
hole begins to trickle with a lazy-moving 
brown liquid which has a pungent odor. 
This is the beginning of the tar flow, and 
is always greeted with much joy by the 
watchers, who knoAV that their work is be¬ 
ginning to bear fruit. During the first few 
hours the flow is usuallv full of sand and 
charcoal, and it is promptly discarded. As 
soon as the stream is fairly clear it is run 
into barrels and allowed to cool, after 
which it is ready for shipment. About 17.5 
per cent of the wood burned is converted 
into tar, and the flow lasts sometimes for 
two or three weeks. As high as 150 barrels 
of tar are taken from a single hole, but to 
secure so large a product the pile of wood 
must be very large. 

This crude method of burning is exceed¬ 
ingly wasteful, all the gas, the acetic acid, 
and much charcoal being entirely lost. The 
tar, when taken from the holes, is usually 
distilled in retorts, giving off wood spirit 
and pitch oils. The black residuum is 
poured while still hot into barrels, where 
it soon hardens and becomes the ordinarv 

o 

tar of commerce. It is largely used in mak¬ 
ing tar pavements, tar roofs, tar paper and 


622 


Things XOe All Should K^nobv 


in calking skips and sidewalks to make 
them impervious to water. 

This method of procuring tar was for¬ 
merly much used, but of late years tar is 
so much more easily obtained as the result 
of the manufacture of ordinary illuminat¬ 
ing gas that it only pays for the “poor 
whites” to engage in the work. So plenti¬ 
ful, indeed, was coal tar at one time—and 
that was not so very long ago—that it was 
almost a waste product. But the process 
of distillation has now become so perfect, 
through the discoveries of chemists, and 
the use of the product thus obtained is so 
extensive, that almost all the tar is utilized. 
It is simply astounding what a quantity of 
things can be made out of the black, foul¬ 
smelling substance which the pavement 
builders use so lavishly on the boulevards. 
Besides numerous substances which have 
become household and commercial necessi¬ 
ties, dozens of drugs are manufactured 
from it, so many, in fact, that the ordinary 
drug store could not do a day’s business 
without having many inquiries for them in 
some form or other. 

In manufacturing these various products 
the tar is taken from the gas works and al¬ 
lowed to stand for some time in a pond, 
until the tar water, consisting largely of 
ammonia, has risen to the top. The tar is 
then drained away and pumped into a 
large upright cylinder or still of iron, and 
heated to a moderate temperature. More 
water is forced out and drained away, and 
then the heat is gradually raised. 

The first product is a number of highly 
combustible and poisonous gases which are 
allowed to escape. Between the tempera¬ 
tures of 105 and 110 degrees, the prod¬ 
ucts distilled are called the “first run¬ 
nings,” which include benzine and benzol, 


the uses of which are well known. On 
raising the temperature to 210 degrees, nu¬ 
merous light oils or benzols are distilled 
off, and beyond this temperature the car¬ 
bolic oil appears, and it is removed for the 
well-known carbolic acid. When the heat 
gets up to 240 degrees, creosote oil is given 
off, and it has been found a valuable sub¬ 
stance in pickling timber and for various 
uses in the arts. Above 270 degrees an- 
thracine oil appears, and this product by a 
separate process is converted into anthra- 
cine and numerous other compounds. 
Naphthalene is distilled off more or less dur¬ 
ing the whole process, and can be collected 
in the form of crystals and utilized. 

The residue at the end of the distillation 
is a thick, black liquid, which, upon dry¬ 
ing, hardens and becomes as brittle as 
glass. It is then known as “hard pitch,” 
and upon melting it again, with possibly 
the addition of the creosote and anthracine 
oils, from which all the valuable parts have 
been removed, it is used extensively in mak¬ 
ing asphalt pavements. In such form it is 
familiar to the average citizen. By dis¬ 
solving this hard pitch in certain tar oils, 
various varnishes are made, and by burn¬ 
ing it until all the volatile parts have dis¬ 
appeared it becomes a high quality of coke, 
much used in the better class of metal work¬ 
ing. Lamp-black may also be made by 
subjecting the tar to a partial combustion 
on hot-iron plates and conveying the smoke 
into cool chimneys, where it deposits its 
carbon. 

Among the drugs which are the result of 
the distillation of tar are antipyrine, which 
became popular during the epidemic of 
“grip” that swept over the country a few 
years ago, and antifebrin, which is made 
from the acetic acid and aniline oil. Acet- 


Things '€Ve All Should K.nobu 


623 


anilid is used bj some physicians in prefer¬ 
ence to antipyrine, for the reason that the 
smaller doses of it accomplish the same pur¬ 
pose as larger doses of the other drug. 
Phenacetine and saccharin are two other 
products of tar. Saccharin is 2S0 times 
sweeter than sugar, so that a single grain 
of it will sweeten a cup of coffee without 
the slightest difficulty. It is used princi¬ 
pally in treating gout and diabetes. 

Another product, sulphonal, is used in 
treating mental diseases. Its real scientific 
name is diethylsulphondimethylmethan, 
and the patient may consider that he has 
fully recovered his brain power when he 
can pronounce it correctly and fluently. 
The action of sulphonal in common with a 
number of other tar drugs is hypnotic, 
causing a quiet, restful sleep in cases of in¬ 
somnia caused by worry, fatigue, or even 
dementia and acute alcoholism. Besides 
those named there are scores of other drugs 
produced by the distillation of tar, all of 
them well known to the medical profession. 

Salophen is a compound of carbolic acid 
with a number of other ingredients. It is 
said to be a valuable remedy in the treat¬ 
ment of articular rheumatism. The very 
latest in the long line of coal-tar products is 
gallanol. It is prepared by boiling tannin 
with aniline. It is introduced as a substi¬ 
tute for pyrogallic acid, having the advan¬ 
tage of being non-toxic and non-irritant. 
In the treatment of skin diseases it has been 
used with marked success. Cazeneuve, the 
introducer of the drug, reports that one of 
its principal uses is in the treatment of 
psoriasis by painting the spots with gallanol 
suspended in chloroform and covering them 
with a solution of gutta percha in chloro¬ 
form. 

The making of dyes and colors from tar 


products has become an important industry 
in the last few years. Any color or shade 
can be exactly reproduced in a beautiful 
and lasting form, and new combinations 
are being discovered every year by the 
chemists. 

& & « 5 * 

TURPENTINE AND RESIN 

Dialect writers find a fruitful field 
among the “tar-heels” of the Carolinas, Al¬ 
abama and Georgia. In the cool depths of 
the turpentine woods, with the gashed trees 
yielding up their resinous gum, the balmy 
air and the picturesque ‘‘hackers,” “dip¬ 
pers” and “scrapers,” with the ever-vig- 
ilant “rider” watching everything, is a 
phase in southern life which has long been 
the delight of authors and the pleasure of 
the artists. The crudity of the implements 
and the stills used in the making of turpen¬ 
tine and resin lends additional interest to 
this old industry, and the gypsy-like habits 
of the turpentine-makers add to their rag¬ 
ged, illiterate charms. 

Turpentine is the distilled gum of the 
pine trees of Xorth and South Carolina, 
Alabama, Georgia and part of Florida. The 
season begins when the first spring sap 
rises and ends when cold weather checks 
the flow of the tree’s blood. In January 
or Februarv the “hacker,” with his keen- 
bkded ax, begins the round which ends 
with the season. He is the expert of the 
woods and knows his trees, and just how 
much hacking they will stand. His task is 
to cut the “boxes” in which the thick gum 
of the wounded tree will collect. A box is 
a wide incision about six inches deep, a 
wedge-shaped cut in the tree, and he hacks 
from 90 to 100 boxes a day. The first 


624 


Things '€Oe All Should K.nobo 


boxes are cut near the roots of the tree, and 
they are cut as close together, to the height 
of a man’s head, as can be done without 
killing the pine. The hacker leaves a width 
of bark between each box, so as to preserve 
the vitality of the tree. When the trees 
are leased to the turpentine-makers the 
terms of the lease limit the number of boxes 
to each tree, but when it is desired to work 
the pine to the fullest extent the gashes are 
carried up to a height of twenty feet or 
more. 

After the hacker comes the man who 
“corners” the boxes. This “corner” is a 
cut in the top of the box, to guide the sap 
into the cavities left for the gum, and the 
man who “works” the “crop” goes sys¬ 
tematically from box to box, starting the 
sap anew with fresh incisions, working in 
this way 10,000 boxes during the season. 
The sap or gum fills the boxes with a clear, 
sticky, thick fluid, and this is removed by 
the “dipper.” Scattered through the woods 
are barrels in which the “dipper” deposits 
the gum, which is then hauled to the still. 
About a quart of sap is taken from each 
box by means of the trowel-shaped scoop 
used by the dipper, and then the hacker 
comes along and starts the flow afresh by 
wounding the tree again. The turpentine- 
maker watches his men closely, for the tar- 
heels are an easy-going people and require 
to be urged by the “rider,” who goes through 
the woods on horseback, examining the 
crop, hurrying the dippers and hackers, 
and sending the barreled gum to the still. 

The first or “virgin” sap, which flows in 
the spring, makes the best resin, and the 
poorest is the product of the hardened gum 
which is left on the sides of the boxes when 
the sap “turns down” in the fall. This is 
removed by the “scraper,” who moves 


through the woods with his scraping tool, 
gathering the leavings. 

The still is a large copper vat, flooded 
with a close-fitting air-tight cover, in which 
is a funnel which in turn is connected with 
the worm of the still. The worm runs down 
into another vat near at hand, and in this 
vat the fumes or vapors of the heated gum 
are distilled into turpentine. Fire under 
the copper heats the gum, and the volatile 
parts rise to the funnel, pass into the still 
and are condensed by the water in the sec¬ 
ond vat into spirits of turpentine. The re¬ 
siduum left in the vat is the resin of com¬ 
merce, which is passed through a series of 
strainers and sieves to the barrels, which 
are made on the spot. The turpentine, 
however, cannot be barreled so easily, for 
it will work through an ordinary barrel. It 
is placed in white pine barrels, which have 
been coated inside with several coats of 
strong, hot glue, until the barrel is imper¬ 
vious to the subtle fluid. 

The trees are worked for five or six sea¬ 
sons, and then the turpentine-maker moves 
to another part of the woods. lie started 
in North Carolina, crossed over to South 
Carolina, and is still moving toward the 
gulf. Forest fires destroy the pines faster 
than the hacker does, for the inflammable 
trees catch the sparks readily, and the flames 
sweep over the large areas before they die 
out. Careful owners of turpentine woods 
have the pine straw and fallen underbrush 
raked away from their trees before the sea¬ 
son begins, and, collecting this material in 
some safe spot, wait for a quiet day, when 
there is no wind, and then they burn the 
rakings. 

Negroes are the common laborers of the 
turpentine w^oods, but white men are plenti¬ 
ful. They live in rough shanties in the 


Things tOe All Should K^notv 


625 


woods, with the stables for mules and 
horses near at hand. No work is more 
healthful than turpentine making, for it is 
all out of doors in the depths of the balmy, 
health-giving pines, free from the malaria 
of the swamps and from sudden changes of 
weather. 

DYES FROM COAL 

Not many women know that the beauti- 
«/ 

ful reds, blues, greens and browns in their 
dresses are made from the substance which 
glows in their coal-heaters. 

It was not so many years ago that cochi¬ 
neal and madder furnished the reds, log¬ 
wood the black and indigo the blues, and 
the expense of dyeing was sometimes almost 
equal to the cost of the fabrics. But that 
was before chemists had begun to examine 
coal and its products. Everybody * knew 
that coal could be burned, and that was the 
end of it. No one thought of the wonder¬ 
ful substances which nature had fastened 
up in the little black lumps. At last an 
experimenter discovered how to make gas 
for illuminating purposes, and as soon as 
the process began to be generally used it 
was noticed that a brownish, pungent-odored 
syrup, which bore a strong resemblance to 
w T ood tar, flowed away as a troublesome by¬ 
product. After a time the scientists named 
it coal-tar, and then began to pick it to 
pieces. Marvelous substances were ex¬ 
tracted, one after another, in quick succes¬ 
sion, until now the number reaches well up 
toward one hundred, and nearly all of them 
can be converted into beautiful dyes. 

The first of these—aniline, which is now 
a common commodity—was brought out in 
1858 by a man named Perkins, and a num¬ 
ber of rich mauve and purple dyes were 


made from it. Within a dozen years scores 
of patents were taken out for all sorts of 
coloring compounds made from tar prod¬ 
ucts. To-day the vegetable and animal 
colors, with the possible exception of log¬ 
wood, have almost wholly given place to the 
mineral products from coal-tar, and the cost 
of dyeing has become far cheaper. 

Some idea of the products from coal may 
be had from the following diagram: 


Gas. 

Ammonia j Ammonia. 

Liquors. | Salts. 


Benzine 
group of 
products. 


Magenta dyes. 

Blue dyes. 

Violet dyes. 

Azo dyestuffs, 
includin g 
Bismarck 
brown and 
chrysoidine. 


Coal. .j Tar. 


(. Coke. 


Naphthalene 
group of 
products. 


Anthracene 
group of 
products, 
including 
I, aniline. 


Azo dyestuffs. 
Orange dyes, 
j Scarlet dyes. 
Red dyes. 
Black and 
brown dyes. 


[ Artificial ali¬ 
zarin or 
! madder, 
used as a 
Turkey-red 
dye. 


The red, the blue and the yellow are re¬ 
garded by dyers as the primary colors, and, 
by mixing them in various proportions, al¬ 
most any color can be made. The combina¬ 
tion of all three colors gives black. Indeed, 
coal-tar colors are practically innumerable, 
and a number of great business concerns 
are engaged in producing them in con¬ 
venient forms for the use of dyers. 

In most cities where fabrics are not made 


to any great extent the business of dyeing 
is conducted mainly by small concerns, 
which are rather renovating establishments 
than dye-houses. Here faded goods, cur¬ 
tains, draperies and all manner of dress 
fabrics are recolored beautifully. The 











626 


Things XXJe Alt Should K.notv 


woman who has a gown of faded blue silk 
and concludes that she would like it better 
if it were a deep wine-color sends it to a 
dye-house. Here it is ripped apart with 
great care, and all the dust and grease are 
carefully beaten and washed out of it. 
Then it goes through the various liquids of 
the process and comes out with a beautiful 
new color. 

The exact principle of dyeing is difficult 
to explain. Scientists are not yet quite 
agreed whether the action on the fabric 
fibers is chemical or only physical. Besides 
this it is not known why some varieties of 
dyes will stick by simply being poured over 
the fabric while others will color only those 
fabrics which have been prepared with a 
mordant. The first of these two kinds of 
dyestuffs are some of the aniline colors. 
The whole process consists simply in plac¬ 
ing the dye in a big kettle with water, 
using enough of it to produce the required 
shade, and when the solution is hot, dipping 
the fabric into it. After a thorough stir¬ 
ring the fibers take up all the color, and 
the liquid left in the kettle is almost color¬ 
less. 

But the great majority of dyes belong to 
the second class, those requiring mordants. 
In the original meaning the word mordant 
was applied to an adhesive composition for 
attaching gold-leaf to wood or metal, and it 
was appropriated by the early dyers to desig¬ 
nate a chemical which would fasten color¬ 
ing matter to the fibers of a fabric. Mor- 
dants are of a great many kinds. For 
“setting” certain kinds of purple dyes on 
cotton, sumac or any other form of tannic 
acid, combined with salts of tin or tartar 
emetic, is commonly used. 

The dyeing process, while it is extremely 
simple, requires a good deal of caution and 


experience. If the cotton is unbleached it 
must be bleached, and this is usually done 
by washing it first in a slightly alkaline 
solution, which is kept boiling furiously. 
When the cloth comes out it is clean, but 
still of a brownish-gray color. It goes then 
to the “chemical-box,” where it lies three 
or four hours in a solution of chloride of 
lime, where it becomes as white as snow. 
The chloride is neutralized by dilute sul¬ 
phuric acid, and the cloth is then ready for 
the dye-room. 

Here it goes to a big tin tank filled with 
the mordant. The tank must be all tin, 
for if any copper or iron comes in contact 
with the cloth a stain will be the result. 
After remaining half an hour in the hath 
the cotton is taken out, washed and rinsed, 
and if necessary a little ammonia is added 
to neutralize the free acids, and then it goes 
to theylyc vat. It takes great skill to deter¬ 
mine just how much color will dye a given 
fabric to the desired shade, and the cloth 
must not remain in the vat too long. It is 
then taken out and usually passed through 
a solution of scrap soda to fix the colors, 
after which it is dried. 

Wool as it comes to the factory is first 
washed and scoured to remove the grease, 
alkaline salts and earthy impurities, and 
it is then bleached with dilute sulphuric 
acid. If hot solutions of caustic alkali 
were used, as in the case of cotton, the 
wool would be dissolved. After this clean¬ 
ing it may be dyed, or woven and dyed 
afterward. In either case it is boiled in the 
salts of tin solution and then goes to the 
color vat. 

Red liquor or acetate of aluminum is 
frequently used as a mordant, giving bright 
shades when used with certain alkaline 
colors. Turkey red oil, two to five pounds 


Things XV e All Should Knotv 


627 


to the gallon of water, is also a good mor¬ 
dant. 

Cochineal and madder reds, indigo blues 
of all shades, the use of which in dyeing 
was a complicated process, and fustic, quer¬ 
citron bark and Persian berry yellow, have 
been mostly superseded by coal-tar colors. 
Logwood black is still used. 

< 3 * ^ < 3 * 

CARBON BLACK AND ITS USES 

Few readers of books and papers have 
any very clear idea of the source of the 
black substance from which the ink used in 
printing is made. The general idea is that 
it is lampblack, the sort produced in burn¬ 
ing resin, turpentine or crude oil with an 
insufficient air supply. Up to ten years 
ago this was the base of all the ink used, 
but since the wide development of natural 
gas, lampblack has been mainly superseded 
in good ink by a very superior article 
known as carbon black. This is made en¬ 
tirely from natural gas in the gas region of 
Pennsylvania, Ohio and Indiana. 

The factory for its manufacture is a very 
simple affair, consisting of a long, low 
wooden building, through the whole length 
of which run double rows of gas pipe, eight 
to ten inches apart. These have either 
holes drilled in them every ten to twelvo 
inches, or small tips, such as are used in 
house jets, set in at about the same distance, 
from which the gas burns. Above each 
of these double rows of jets is placed a long, 
narrow sheet-iron pan about four inches 
deep. 

A stream of water covering the bottom of 
the pan is kept flowing steadily by means 
of pumps. The jets are lighted and the big 
flames play up against the pan, “smoking 


it," as a piece of cold tin held above the 
gas jet would be smoked. Very little air 
is allowed to enter, and as the water keeps 
the pan comparatively cool the deposit of 
soot is heavy. 

About every half hour a sheet-iron car 
with a scraper above it is drawn under the 
pan its whole length, scraping off and col¬ 
lecting the carbon black. These cars work 
in pairs, the cars of two lines of jets being 
drawn by the same wire rope. As one goes 
to the lower end of the building, the other 
comes to the upper end. The rope is 
wrapped around a drum operated by an en¬ 
gine. 

V hen the car is full it is emptied into a 
large trough, and the black, which is some¬ 
what damp, is taken to the dryer, a broad 
shallow pan with a fire beneath. When dry 
the lumps are crushed. The substance is 
then bolted or sifted, coming out as fine as 
flour, and is finally packed in barrels lined 
with paper bags to prevent sifting out. 

The product is almost pure carbon, of an 
intense black and very light. A barrel of 
it packed under a screw weighs only fifty 
pounds. It is so much blacker than lamp¬ 
black, which has a grayish tinge, that it has 
two and a half times the value of the latter 
in producing a given depth of color. That 
is, one weight of it will produce the same 
depth that two and a half times its weight 
of lampblack will produce. It is also very 
free from the fault of packing and sticking 
together. To these last two properties it 
owes its great value as an inkmaker, pro¬ 
ducing a very brilliant black ink that runs 
freely and is less pasty and sticky than that 
from lampblack. 

Besides being used in inks, carbon black 
enters into the composition of black paints, 
varnishes and lacquers, gives brilliancy to 


628 


Things XOe Alt Should K.nobu 


stove-polishes, and forms the body of the 
best shoe-blacking. A large quantity—per¬ 
haps 50 per cent of all that is made—is 
shipped abroad. 

^ & £ 

PEARLS FROM AMERICAN 
RIVERS 

We think ordinarily of pearls as rare and 
precious products of the orient or the south- 


Fisli Commissioners prepared a report on 
the subject, from which in part the follow¬ 
ing facts are drawn. 

Pearls consist of carbonate of lime, inter- 
stratified with animal membrane, found in 
the shells of certain mollusks. They are 
believed to be the result of an abnormal 
secretory process caused by an irritation of 
the mollusk from an accident, disease, or 
the intrusion into the shell of some foreign 
body, as a grain of sand, an egg of the mol- 



PEARL FISHERMEN AT WORK ON A WISCONSIN RIVER. 


ern oceans, where dusky native divers bring 
from the depths of the sea the treasured 
shells wherein are concealed the gems which 
are to shine in some costly necklace. Yet 
within the last few years an industry of 
great importance and profit has grown up 
in the fresh water pearl fisheries of our own 
country. So widespread has been the inter¬ 
est in this subject that the United States 


lusk itself, or a parasite. They may occur in 
almost any molluscan shells, though chiefly 
confined to certain species, and their color 
and luster depend upon those of the in¬ 
terior of the shell next to which they are 
formed. Thus the pink conch of the West 
Indies yields the beautiful rose-colored 
pearls, while those of the common oyster 
and clam are dead white or dark purple. 




Things \V&e All Should K*.nohv 


G29 


The true pearl oyster, found in the Pacific 
and Indian oceans, yields the hulk of com¬ 
mercial pearls. Many rivers, however, in 
South America, Europe and North Ameri¬ 
ca, support species which produce beautiful 
and valuable pearls, and it is in the Missis¬ 
sippi valley that the production of late has 
become so important. 

Pearls are of several distinct kinds, dif¬ 
fering in shape and perhaps in origin. These 
are first what are known as free pearls— 
those that are found loose and separate from 
the shell. Then there are those which lie 
against the shell or are attached to it, very 
irregular in shape. As many as a hundred 
small pearls have been found in a single 
shell, but as a rule these have little or no 
value. All these varied kinds are found 
in the marine pearl oysters as well, but the 
fresh water mollusks have the additional 
beauty of great variety of tints and of par¬ 
tial transparency in their “nacre,” as the 
pearl material is called. From very early 
historical times pearls have been sought and 
found in river mollusks. Scotland, Eng¬ 
land, Ireland, Mesopotamia, Saxony and 
Bavaria are countries known in this con¬ 
nection. 

It has long been the habit of the Chinese 
to produce artificial pearl objects by intro¬ 
ducing little flat metallic figures, usually 
images of Buddha, between the valves and 
the mantle of a large river mussel of that 
country. These little figures are inserted 
carefully so as not to injure the animal, 
which is then returned to the water and 
left for some months or a year. When again 
dredged up and opened, the figures are 
found to be entirely coated over with the 
pearly material, and slightly attached there¬ 
by to the inner surface of the valve. They 
may then be easily removed and used for 


ornaments or charms. The Chinese also 
sometimes insert strings of small beads, 
which become apparently pearls, and carry 
out this same method by other ingenious 
devices. 

That so few American conchologists have 
paid attention to American pearls is per¬ 
haps accounted for by the fact that they 
are found more frequently in old, distorted 
and diseased shells, which are not so de¬ 
sirable for collections as the finer speci¬ 
mens. Collectors who have opened many 
thousands of Unios have never observed a 
pearl of value. Pearls are usually found 
either by farmers who devote their spare 
time to this industry and, if no result is 
obtained, suffer no loss, or by persons in 
country villages who are without regular 
occupation, but are ever seeking means for 
rapid increase of fortune. The general 
method of collecting shells in the most prim¬ 
itive manner is for boys and men to wade 
into the mill race or into the river to their 
necks, feeling for the sharp ends of the 
Unio shell which always project. When 
one is discovered, the finder either dives 
after it or lifts it with his feet. 

It was the custom formerly to open the 
shells in the water, and once during the 
process a pearl as large as a pigeon’s egg 
is said to have been dropped into the water 
and was never recovered. Multitudes of 
shells that do not contain pearls are de¬ 
stroyed. Many brooks and rivers have been 
completely raked and scraped, often in a 
reckless manner, and consequently with lit¬ 
tle result. This wholesale destruction has 
no doubt exhausted many varieties of these 
shells, together with the depredations of 
hogs, which have exterminated whole shoals 
of Unios when the brooks were low, and 
impurities introduced into the water by 


630 


Things ¥Oe All Should Knot*) 


manufactories. The eastern states are so 
densely populated, and the streams so con¬ 
taminated with refuse and sewage from fac¬ 
tories, that animal life is rapidly disappear¬ 
ing from the watercourses in many locali¬ 
ties. 

Although the gathering of pearls from 
the fresh-water shells of North America is 
a matter of comparatively recent date 
among the present inhabitants, it really 


Jersey. It became known as the “Queen 
pearl” and was sold to the Empress Eu¬ 
genie of France for $2,500. It is to-day 
worth four times that amount. The news 
of this sale created such an excitement that 
search for pearls was started throughout 
the country. The Unios at Notch Brook 
and elsewhere were gathered by the million 
and destroyed, often with little or no result. 
A large round pearl, weighing 400 grains, 



GROUP OF PEARL. FISHERMEN IN CAMP. 

Showing the long-handled tongs with which the shells are drawn from the bottom of the rivers. 


goes back very far into the unrecorded past. 
The first European explorers speak fre¬ 
quently of the number and beauty of the 
pearls in the possession of the natives. No 
particular attention, however, was given 
to the subject in the United States until 
about forty years ago. 

In 1857 a pearl of fine luster, weighing 
93 grains, was found at Notch Brook, New 


which doubtless would have been the finest 
pearl of modern times, was ruined by boil¬ 
ing to open the shell. Within one year 
pearls were sent to the New York market 
from nearly every state—in 1857 fully 
$15,000 worth. The excitement eraduallv 
abated, however, until in 1868 there was a 
slight revival of interest, and manv fine 
pearls were obtained from the Little Miami 



























Things *€Oe All Should K_nobu 


631 


river, Ohio. Some of the finest American 
pearls came from near Waynesville, Ohio, 
in 1876. Since 1880 pearls have come from 
comparatively new districts farther west 
and south, Kentucky, Tennessee, Texas 
and Florida first contributing to the supply. 

Next the interest extended to the north¬ 
west. During the summer of 1889 a quan¬ 
tity of magnificently colored pearls were 
found in the creeks and rivers of Wiscon- 


duced nearly $500,000 worth of pearls 
since 1889. 

The' northwestern pearl excitement sub¬ 
sided in a few seasons, as the others had 
done in turn before, by the exhaustion of 
the mussel beds. About every ten years or 
so a new wave of interest rises in connec¬ 
tion with fresh discoveries, at some point 
where the shells have lain long undisturbed ; 
it again absorbs the attention and excites 



A BARGE LOAD OF PEARL SHELLS. 


The gathering of shells from the rivers of the upper Mississippi valley has become an industry of great magnitude. 
Such cargoes of shells are brought to the button mills, and buttons are made out of them, after the 

search for pearls has been completed. 


sin. Of these more than $10,000 worth 
were sent to New York within three 
months, including one -worth $500, and 
some were equal to any ever found for 
beauty and coloring. These discoveries led 
to immense activity in pearl hunting 
through all the streams of the region, and 
in three or four seasons the shells were al¬ 
most exterminated. Wisconsin has pro- 


the imagination of the country around, and 
spreads to other parts of the country; a 
fresh campaign of ignorant extermination 
is carried on for several summers, then the 
yield is exhausted, and there is nothing 
more but to leave nature to recuperate, if 
possible, and slowly to restore, in limited 
amount, the abundant life that has been 
destroyed. 












G32 


Things t3 Oe All Should K.notv 


In 1897 Arkansas developed a rich yield 
of pearls, and the excitement extended to 
Indian Territory, Missouri, Georgia, Ten¬ 
nessee and Kentucky. In fact hardly a 
state has been exempt from a period of ex¬ 
citement over pearl discoveries. The upper 
Mississippi valley, of late years, has proved 
to be a fruitful field for the pearl fishers. 
Streams in Iowa, Illinois and Wisconsin 
have been worked with great regularity and 
large profit. Farmers’ wives and daughters, 
as well as the men of the families, have 
shared in the search of the streams flowing 
into the Mississippi. 

Along the Mississippi river several large 
factories have been established for the mak¬ 
ing of buttons and ornaments from the 
beautiful pearl shell of the mussels. The 
largest of these are at Muscatine, Daven¬ 
port and Sabula, and at Cedar Rapids, on 
the Cedar river. In the past the valuable 
material has been entirely wasted in the 
search for pearls. 

The shells are most abundant in swift 
and clear water, where the bottom is sandy 
or gravelly and the country rock calcare¬ 
ous. While still numerous in many 
streams, they have greatly diminished with¬ 
in a few years past, wherever the pearl¬ 
hunting enterprise has extended, and are 
at some points nearly exterminated. The 
pearls found are few, and those of 
marketable value represent the destruction 
of thousands of shells for every pearl ob¬ 
tained. The wealth of Unios that fills our 
rivers and streams is rapidly being de¬ 
stroyed by ignorant and wasteful methods 
of pearl hunting. Either some form of pro¬ 
tection is important, or if that be not pos¬ 
sible, a diffusion of information as to bet¬ 
ter methods and the introduction of the 
tools used in Germany for opening the 


shells far enough to see if there are pearls 
contained without destroying the animal, 
which may then he returned to the water. 

<£ & & 

PRECIOUS STONES, REAL AND 
ARTIFICIAL 

A recent conversation with Mr. Kunz of 
Tiffany’s on attempts that have been made 
to produce artificial rubies and diamonds 
and on other subjects relating to precious 
stones, elicited the following information: 

“In 1888 quantities of artificial rubies 
were sold in Paris,” said Mr. Kunz. “They 
were readily distinguished from the genu¬ 
ine by experts because of tints of color pe¬ 
culiar to them, and by the presence of 
round bubbles, proving them to be of igne¬ 
ous origin. Quite a number got into 
the New York market before they were 
discovered, and several dealers in gems 
were bitten. The Paris jewelers at first 
insisted on the arrest of the swindlers, hut 
the latter returned the 800.000 francs tlie\ 

r 

had been paid for the bogus rubies, and 
the gems must now be sold as artificial, and 
not as real, under the penalty of the law. 
I described the difference at that time be¬ 
fore the Academy of Science, and received 
letters from the other side inviting my co¬ 
operation in floating the artificial stones, 
which are still ocasionally sold as real 
rubies. 

“They were made by fusing an alumin- 
ate of lead with a silicate and bichromate 
of potash. The color was very good. A 
buyer sent to Ceylon for sapphires once was 
cleverly deceived in the matter of color 
by being shown sapphires in the blue room, 
where they appeared to be of a decidedly 
blue tint; but when he got them out of the 


Things 'We All Should K_no&> 


633 


blue room their tint was gone. Dealers 
often place stones before mirrors which 
throw light through them. A diamond in 
no place looks so well as before a mirror 
with candles. An electric light is station¬ 
ary, but the flicker of the candles gives the 
stone unnatural brilliance.” 

“Didn’t Mr. Edison once attempt to 
make artificial diamonds ?” 

“Yes, and rubies and sapphires, and 
there was so much talk about it in the pub¬ 
lic press that I wrote to ask him whether 
his results were satisfactory. He responded 
as follows: ‘The experiments to which 


far as it relates to the subject of artificial 
diamonds, they never having produced 
any. Therefore another reputed artificial 
diamond discovery has been withdrawn. 

“An impression seems to prevail that a 
diamond will not break if struck with a 
hammer on an anvil, and more than one 
fine stone has been shattered in attempted 
tests, thus proving the fallacy of the asser¬ 
tion. While the diamond is verv hard, it is 
also very brittle and can easily be broken, 
and, although every substance from the 
hardness of feldspar up—including a cleav¬ 
age or cut diamond—will scratch glass, 



DIAMOND CUTTING AND ITS TECHNICALITIES. 


you refer were given up because it was 
found impossible to produce stones free 
from bubbles, which render them useless 
for cutting edges.’ This referred to their 
use as points for the phonograph, but the 
same objection would render them value¬ 
less as gems. In reference to a published 
statement that the Cowles Electric Smelt¬ 
ing and Aluminum Company is suffering 
an infringement on its patent for making 
artificial diamonds by means of an electric 
furnace, Mr. Cowles, the inventor, informs 
me that the statement is incorrect, in so 


nothing but the natural edge of a diamond 
crvstal will cut it. If a stone will scratch 
corundum and is not scratched by a 
diamond, it is safe to assume that it is a 
diamond. It is well to make the trial on 
a smooth or polished surface, otherwise the 
scratch will not be perceptible. 

“The largest diamond mine in the 
world,” continued Mr. Kunz, in reply to 
a further inquiry, “is owned by the De- 
Beers Mining Company at Kimberley, 
South Africa. The stock of that company 
now amounts to about £20,000,000, or 















634 


Things i €£Je All Should K.nobv 


$ 100 , 000 , 000 , and since tlie company was 
organized it has found 38,000,000 carats 
of diamonds, weighing over nine tons. In 
the rough they were worth more than 
$250,000,000, and after cutting, over 
$600,000,000, which is more than the en¬ 
tire yield of the world during the preced¬ 
ing two centuries, hut of the whole product 
not more than 8 per cent can he said to be 
of the first water, 12 per cent of the sec¬ 
ond water, and 25 per cent of the third 
water, while the remaining 55 per cent is 
called bort, a substance which, when 
crushed to powder, is used for engraving 
and cutting hard substances. This bort, 
however, must not be confused with the 
bort-carbon (carbonade) found in Brazil, 
an incrystalline form of the diamond 
which, from its structure, is adapted for 
use in drills for boring and tunneling rocks. 
It has never been found in South Africa, 
and is worth from six to ten times as much 
as bort.” 

“What was the most important diamond 
found in South Africa ?” 

“I should say the Victoria or Imperial 
diamond. The original crystal weighed 
457^ carats, or over three ounces Troy. 
Strange to say, although this is the largest 
diamond of modern times, its early history 
is very obscure. It is reported that the 
stone was found in the Kimberley mines 
in the month of July, 1884, by a mining in¬ 
spector, and sold by him to some illicit dia¬ 
mond buyers, and afterwards to a syndicate 
of European dealers. The stone has been 
cut, and in its finished condition weighs 
100 carats. It is a beautiful, perfect steel- 
blue diamond, and the largest white bril¬ 
liant known. It is valued at $ 200 , 000 . 
Among some other large diamonds may be 
mentioned the Du Toit, which weighed 244 


cjfrats when found; the Jagersfontein, 209^ 
carats; the Tiffany yellow, weighing 125 
3-8 carats after cutting; the Great Orange, 
110 carats; the Porter Bhodes, weighing 
60 carats after cutting; the Dudley, 462 - 
carats, and a number of others. More 
diamonds weighing over 75 carats after 
cutting have been found in the African 
mines than were ever before known. 

“There was a question at one time 
whether the Kimberley mines could be 
profitably worked at all, because from one- 
fifth to one-quarter of all the yield, it was 
estimated, never reached the proper own¬ 
ers. The native diggers swallowed and 
concealed the diamonds in every possible 
way. It became necessary for the com¬ 
panies, in self-defense, to take extraordin¬ 
ary precautions against this great loss. 
Overseers or special searchers were ap¬ 
pointed, who made the most thorough ex¬ 
amination of all who left the mines. The 
natives use very ingenious methods for the 
concealment of the gems. On one occasion 
some officers, suspecting that a Kaffir had 
stolen diamonds, gave chase and caught up 
with him just after he had shot one of his 
oxen. Ko diamonds were found upon the 
Kaffir, it is needless to say, for he had 
charged his gun with them, and after the 
disappearance of the officers dug them out 
of his dead ox. Diamonds have been fed 
to chickens and a post-mortem examination 
held a few years ago over the body of a 
Kaffir revealed the fact that death had 
been caused by a sixty carat diamond which 
he had swallowed. Early in the history 
of the mines a detective force consisting 

O 

of men, women and children was formed, 
and the severest punishment is still in¬ 
flicted on transgressors of the diamond 
act. 


Things tOe All Should K.notv 


635 


“None but those authorized by law, 
termed patented agents, less than fifty in 
number, are allowed to purchase or even 
to possess rough diamonds at Kimberley. 
The loss would not have been so great but 
for the irregular diamond buyers, ‘I. D. 
B.’s,’ as the ‘fences’ are called, who lowered 
the price of stones by underselling the com¬ 
panies in the London market.” 

“Have any diamonds been found in the 
United States?” 

“Yes, frequently; but none of great 
value. The occurrence of diamonds in the 
United States is chiefly confined to two 
regions, geographically very remote and 
geologically quite dissimilar. The first is 
a belt of country lying along the eastern 
base of the southern Alleghenies, from Vir¬ 
ginia to Georgia, while the other extends 
along the western base of the Sierra Xe- 
vada and Cascade ranges in northern Cali¬ 
fornia and southern Oregon. In both cases 
the mode of occurrence has several marked 
resemblances. The diamonds are found in 
loose material, among deposits of gravel 
and earth, and are associated with garnets, 
zircons, iron sands, monazite, anatase, and 
particularly with gold, in the search for 
which they have usually been discovered. 
This resemblance is due altogether to the 
fact that these loose deposits, in both re¬ 
gions, are merely the debris of the crystal¬ 
line rocks of the adjacent mountains and 
therefore present a general similarity, 
while the ages of the rocks themselves are 
widely different. 

“The finding of a twin crystal of dia¬ 
mond weighing four and one-third carats 
at Dvsartville, X. C., a three-carat stone 
near Atlanta, Ga., and a three-eightlis-carat 
stone at Montpelier, Adair County, Ky., 
are worthy of mention m connection with 


the finding of diamonds in the southern 
states. 

“During the year 1893, several interest¬ 
ing discoveries of diamonds were made in 
the United States. In December my at¬ 
tention was called by Prof. William II. 
Hobbs, professor of mineralogy and metal¬ 
lurgy in the University of Wisconsin, at 
Madison, to a diamond that had been 
found in Oregon township, two and a half 
miles southwest of Oregon village, in Dane 
County, Wisconsin. Through his courtesy 
the stone was sent to me by the finder, Mr. 
Charles Devine, of the place just named. 
The diamond was found by him while 
husking corn in October, 1893, in a rough 
stony field, which had been under the 
plough for forty years. The bank of clayey 
earth in which it was found contained a 
large number of rounded pebbles of quartz, 
but no other of the associated minerals of 
diamond, and as the entire district con¬ 
sists of glacial drift coming from the north 
a diamond bed is not likely to exist in the 
immediate vicinity, but is rather to be 
looked for in the direction from which the 
drift came. 

“The diamond is a rhombic dodecahed¬ 
ron, deeply pitted with circular, elongated, 
reniform markings. In color it is slightly 
grayish-green. But it is one of those dia¬ 
monds in which the color is likely to be 
superficial, and it would probably cut into 
a wdiite gem. Its weight is 3 14-16 carats. 
This is the second authentic occurrence of 
diamonds in Wisconsin, the other being at 
Plum Creek, Pearcy county, of three small 
stones, the largest of which weighed 25-32 
carat. A 16-carat diamond -was reported 
to have been found, also in glacial drift, at 
Waukesha, Wis., in 1884. Some litigation 
resulted from its finding, and considerable 


G3G 


Things XOe Alt Should K^nobu 


doubt was expressed at the time as to the 
genuineness of the discovery. 

“A small elongated crystal seven milli¬ 
meters long and four millimeters in diame¬ 
ter, weighing three-fourths of a carat, and 
of a bright, light canary color, with polished 
surfaces, was found in the vicinity of 
King’s mountain, North Carolina, during 
the summer of 1893. Mr. Id. S. Durden, 
of the California State Mining Bureau, re¬ 
ports that two small diamonds were ob¬ 
tained in 1892 and 1S93 at Cherokee, Butte 
county, Cal. One weighed two carats.” 

“What do you mean by the expression- 
‘first water’ ?” 

“The expression ‘first water’ when ap¬ 
plied to a diamond denotes that it is free 
from all traces of color, blemish, flaw or 
other imperfection, and that its brilliancy 
is perfect. It is, however, frequently ap¬ 
plied to stones not quite perfect, but the 
best that the dealer has, and they may be 
only of second quality. It is almost impos¬ 
sible to value a diamond by its weight 
only. Color, brilliancy, cutting and the 
general perfection of the stone have all to 
be taken into account. Of two stones, both 
flawless and of the same weight, one may 
be worth $600 and the other $12,000. Ex¬ 
ceptional stones often bring unusual prices, 
while ‘off-color’ stones sell for from $60 
to $100 a carat, regardless of size. The 
poor qualities have depreciated so much in 
value that some are worth only from one- 
tenth to one-fourtli what they were worth 
twenty years ago. This is specially true 
of large stones of the second or third 
quality.” 

“Are rubies worth more than diamonds ?” 

“Yes, the finest pigeon-blood colored rubies 
found near Mandalay, Burma, arc worth 
from five to ten times the value of diamonds 


of equal weight. The acquisition of these 
Burmese ruby mines cost ithe British gov¬ 
ernment a vast sum of money. On the wars 
of 1826 and 1852 England expended $75,- 
000,000 and $15,000,000 respectively; and 
after all that sacrifice of treasure the 
Burma and Bombay Trading company 
claimed that King Thebaw of Burma had 
arbitrarily revoked the leases by which the 
company controlled the output of the ruby 
mines near Mandalay. 

“The war of 1886, which followed, in¬ 
volved the raising of an army of 30,000 
men and an outlay of $5,000,000, but the 
British government gained control of the 
long-coveted ruby mines. The question next 
presented was, how should they be worked \ 
Several firms were desirous of securing a 
lease, and after the Indian government had 
virtuallv closed with Messrs. Streeter & 
Co., the London jewelers, at an annual 
rental of four lakhs of rupees (£40,000) 
for a term of five and a half years it was 
at first revoked, but after a time was given 
to Messrs. Streeter & Co., who organized 
the company known as the Burma Kuby 
mines (limited), and sent a force of 
engineers and a quantity of machinery to, 
Burma. 

“The ruby mines of Burma are situated 
in the valley of Magok, fifty-one miles from 
the bank of the Irrawaddy river and about 
seventy-five miles north of Mandalay, at an 
altitude of 4,200 feet. Concerning these 
mines very little was known, as they were 
always the monopoly of the crown and 
jealously guarded. It was said that they 
paid King Thebaw’s government 100,000 
rupees per annum, and one year 150,000 
rupees. Mining was carried on by forty 
or fifty wealthy natives, who employed the 
poorer townspeople at liberal wages. All 


Things ^COe All Should K^notv 


637 


the gems were sent to Ruby hall, Mandalay, 
to be valued. 

“One thing at least we learned from the 
British occupation of Burma, which is, that 
King Thebaw did not own the dishes of 
rubies which were said to rival anything 
known. An examination of the jewels, now 
deposited at the India museum at South 
Kensington, proved that there was only one 
cabochon ruby of fair, not fine, quality, 
and several polished sections of large infe¬ 
rior crystals of emeralds, of any value 
among his entire crown jewels. 

“In 1SS2 a very remarkable discovery 
of sapphire was made in the Zenskar range 
of the northwestern Kashmir Himalayas, 
near the line of perpetual snow. A landslide 
removed an abundance of sapphires which 
were first used as gun-flints by the natives. 
One writer speaks of having seen about a 
hundredweight of them in the possession of 
a single native. Traders, however, soon 
carried them to the distant commercial cen¬ 
ters, where their value became known. 
There was an instant rush of jewelers’ 
agents to the locality of the mine, and the 
price rose rapidly until about £20 an ounce 
was paid for the rough sapphires. 

“The Maharajah of Cashmere promptly 
exercised his authority and sent a regiment 
of Sepoys to take possession of the mines, 
and harry the natives, who were suspected 
of having stones in their possession, or 
knowledge of new localities where the gems 
could be found. Any one who had money 
was suspected of either having sold sap¬ 
phires or being about to purchase them, 
and was despoiled and even imprisoned. 
This naturally had the effect of compelling 
secrecy. Several crystals were found weigh¬ 
ing 100 to 300 carats each. 

“Public interest in semi-precious stones has 


increased greatly during the last few years. 
Formerly jewelers sold only diamonds, 
rubies, sapphires, emeralds, pearls, garnets 
and agates, but at present it is not unusual 
for almost any of the mineralogical gems, 
such as zircon, asteria, or star sapphire or 
star ruby, tourmaline, spinel or titanite to 
be called for, not only by collectors, but by 
the public, whose taste has advanced in the 
matter of precious stones as well as in the 
fine arts. 

“Cat’s eyes came into fashion when the 
Duke of Connaught gave his bride an en¬ 
gagement ring set with one. The best cat’s 
eyes come from Ceylon and Siberia. Moon¬ 
stones were discovered in the province of 
Canda, Ceylon, during the search for cat’s 
eyes, and they have been so popular that 
at least 100,000 have been sold in this 
country within four years.” 

«5t jt 

VALUE OF DIAMONDS 

Diamonds averaging one-half carat each, 
$60 per carat. 

Diamonds averaging three-quarters 
carat each, $S0 per carat. 

Diamonds averaging one carat each, 
$100 per carat. 

Diamonds averaging one and one-quar¬ 
ter carats each, $110 per carat. 

Diamonds averaging one and one-half 
carats each, $120 per carat. 

Diamonds averaging one and three-quar¬ 
ters carats each, $145 per carat. 

Diamonds averaging two carats each, 
$175 per carat. 

In other words, the value of the gem in¬ 
creases in the geometrical ratio of its 
weight. Four diamonds weighing together 
two carats are worth $120; but one dia- 


038 


Things XOe All Should Knobu 


mond weighing just as much is worth $350. 
Stones weighing over two carats are about 
the same price per carat as two-carat 
stones; they should be dearer, hut they are 
not, simply because the demand for them 
is limited. If the demand for diamonds 
were as imperative as the demand for flour 
or beef, the geometrical ratio would again 
come into play, and five-carat stones would 
be valued in the thousands. 


HOW SHEET MUSIC IS PRINTED 

Millions sing popular songs, but few 
know what a page of music represents. 
Just to give an idea of the subject, it may 
be put down in the outset that an ordinary 
“piece” of three sheets, selling, say, for 10 
cents, involves the use of more than 5,000 
separate types. 

Chicago is one of the great musical pub¬ 
lishing centers of the country, and its daily 
output ranges through all the grades of 
vocal and instrumental literature, from 
the symphony for full orchestra, repro¬ 
duced for the first time from the manu¬ 
script of the Chicago composer, to the 
cheapest reprint of the newest thing in con¬ 
cert-hall music. Woman is on an equality 
with man in this department of the publish¬ 
ing trade. She commands a man’s wages 
for the “composition” and, as the work is 
of the most delicate and annoying kind, 
her patience and dexterity usually give her 
an easy superiority over the men of the 
guild. 

A composer with a piece of music to pub¬ 
lish has his choice among four kinds of 
printing. If he be rich, he may have the 
score engraved on copper and printed as if 
it were an expensive picture, or he may 


have it stamped in zinc, or it may be litho¬ 
graphed. But if he is bent on money-mak¬ 
ing and celebrity he will go to the musical 
type-setter. 

One of the foremost music compositors 
in Chicago thus describes the art of trans¬ 
lating a composer’s copy for the printing- 
press : 

“When we receive the copy we read it to 
see how many measures it contains, how 
long the measures must be, and how many 
of them ought to be set on one staff to give 
the piece its best and most convenient ar¬ 
rangement for the performer. The ‘copy- 
reader’ counts all the notes, rests, sharps, 
dots, naturals, grace notes, appoggiaturas, 
slurs, runs and signs, and estimates just the 
number of ‘ems’ each will require. The 
copy is marked with corresponding direc¬ 
tions and is given to the compositor. 

“The case of the music printer is divided 
into 700 boxes, one of each character, and 
the compositor must have ‘learned her case’ 
perfectly or she will be able to make poor 
headway with her work. First she sets the 
character for the clef and the end of the 
staff. Then she inserts the sharps or flats 
of the signature, and spaces out the staff 
with short pieces of brass rule. Next she 
pieces together figures and staff rule to in¬ 
dicate the ‘time.’ 

“Suppose the first note of the piece of 
music is a quarter-note in the second space, 
with a sharp before it. The compositor puts 
in the sharp first, and fills up the space 
with hits of brass rule to continue the staff; 
then she inserts the body of the quarter-note 
with two lines below, and above it she puts 
the two types necessary to make the stem 
of the note and to keep the staff unbroken. 
If the note is dotted, five more separate 
types must be inserted. 


Things XOe Alt Should K^note. 


639 


“A measure of eight consecutive notes, 
three-four time and a tenor clef indicated, 
seems to contain ten characters. As a mat¬ 
ter of fact it contains seventy-eight at the 
very least, and more if the measure has 
accidentals, or a complicated harmony. 
Even the blank spaces between the notes 
represent five separate pieces of type, but 
when the music has long runs, from the top 
of the keyboard to the bottom, as in Pader¬ 
ewski's ‘Minuet,’ the composition is made 
extremely difficult, for all the added lines 
above and below the staff have to be em¬ 
bedded in a mass of ‘quads’ and spaces so 
that the notes may not be displaced in hand¬ 
ling the form or in taking proofs. 

“The more ornamental or brilliant a 
piece of music is, the more complicated it 
is to set in type, because- all the slurs and 
marks of expression have to be fitted in 
between the notes just as a bricklayer fits 
bricks into a cornice, only the compositor 
cannot chop his type in two to make it fit, 
as a mason can divide his bricks. 

“It takes four or five years for an ap¬ 
prentice to learn the trade through and 
through, and then she keeps on learning 
every day as long as she remains in the 
business. Women are successful at this 
trade and it offers good opportunities to 
them. They get just as much a page for 
composition as men are paid, and they make 
faster compositors, because their fingers are 
more delicate and their natures more pa¬ 
tient. 

“It is asked often whether we have to be 
musicians to set this type. Xo, not exactly, 
though it is essential for us to know enough 
of theory to avoid mistakes due to careless 
or indistinct copy. Composers write illegi¬ 
bly when they are under the influence of 
inspiration, just as poets do, and some¬ 


times they put their notes where they 
should not be. Correcting proofs is not 
pleasant where the types are jumbled to¬ 
gether as ours are, so we try to know 
enough music to avoid errors.” 

Music type is made only in Philadelphia 
on this side of the Atlantic, ajid its cost is 
so great that it never is put to the wear and 
tear of actual use in the press. As soon as 
the proof has been corrected by the com¬ 
poser the form is sent to the electrotyper, 
who makes a matrix in wax and returns 
the form to the compositor. After that 
comes the tedious process of distributing 
5,000 types of 700 different kinds. This 
work is laborious because the electrotyper’s 
wax gets into the spaces and sticks all the 
types together. 

Although the first cost of the typo¬ 
graphical process is several times as great 
as any other, it is the cheapest in the end, 
for when the form has been electrotyped it 
may be reproduced indefinitely for use on 
all kinds of presses and on any kind of 
paper. Xext in importance is the litho¬ 
graphic process. The composer’s copy is 
estimated, as before detailed, and then is 
copied in reverse on a plate of zinc. First 
the plate is put through a ruling engine, 
which engraves the five lines of the staff. 
Then the engraver, with separate dies and 
punches of steel, stamps in the plate the 
notes, rests and bars of the score. The plate 
is hammered on the reverse side until all 
the “burr” is removed. The plate contains 
all the characters, precisely the same as for 
the plate printing. The lines are filled with 
a thick transfer ink, and the plate is care¬ 
fully wiped with a swab and potash. From 
this plate an impression is taken on paper 
in a regular etcher’s plate press, and this 
transfer in turn is conveyed to the surface 


640 


Things XOe All Should K^notv 


of a lithographic stone. From this point the 
process is the same as that used for the 
production of posters in one color, the 
stones being kept wet with water and the 
ink adhering only to the characters of the 
music. 

If it is desired to print only a few copies 
of the music, the expense of lithography is 
avoided by using the zinc plates direct, as 
in card plate work. To do this, however, 
it is necessary to fill the incised lines with 
beeswax, otherwise the impressions would 
take up too much of the ink and be blurred 
or embossed by the heavy pressure of the 
press. 

The ink used in this sort of printing is 
of a special nature, prepared fresh daily 
from Frankfort black and light boiled oil. 
It is a smooth, oily substance, wholly un¬ 
like the tarry ink used on ordinary presses. 
The plate presses themselves are of a pecu¬ 
liar pattern. A heavy bed of iron supports 
the engraved plates with the moistened 
paper laid upon them. A capstan wheel 
with six arms moves this iron bed between 
two large iron cylinders moving in the same 
direction. A heavy blanket of felt around 
the upper cylinder is forced upon the paper, 
and the impression is imparted by the ink 
in the engraved lines of the plate. As these 
presses have to be run by hand, and.as the 
plates have to be inked and wiped after 
every impression, it costs half a cent a sheet 
to print music in this way, but the clear¬ 
ness of the print exceeds that of any other 
process except copper engraved with the 
burin. 

The tools used in punching the zinc 
plates in the process here described are of 
a peculiar kind. Each sort of note, rest and 
expression mark has its distinct tool, but the 
stems and hooks are not connected with the 


bodies of the notes, as the engraver must 
be prepared to copy all kinds of curious 
conceits of the composer. On the face of 
the die used to stamp the body of a note is 
a slight ridge, which fits into the line of 
the staff on which the note is to be indi¬ 
cated. This device makes it possible for a 
skilled man to copy a manuscript with great 
speed and precision. 

After all the body characters of the page 
have been punched, the plate is reversed and 
hammered to straighten it and the work¬ 
man attaches the stems and hooks, puts in 
the grace notes, and cuts the slurs with a 
graver. If the words of a song are required, 
he stamps each letter separately to corre¬ 
spond with the note to which it is to be 
sung. 

In this connection it is interesting to 
note the curious dread felt by some young 
composers lest their compositions be pirated 
and their fame be lost or gained by some 
stranger. In Chicago several engravers are 
kept busy with work which the authors re¬ 
fuse to submit to music publishing houses 
lest they be robbed of their glory. In some 
cases composers are so jealous of their 
laurels that they refuse to commit an entire 
work to any single printer or engraver, but 
parcel out one page to this man and another 
page to some one else. 

Some musical copy is written with notes 
a quarter of an inch thick, on a staff two 
inches wide. A famous Chicago composer 
writes all his scores with a blue crayon, and 
so loosely that the engraver ought to make 
a complete study of harmony and thorough¬ 
bass before he begins to copy the notes. 
Other equally good writers make their notes 
with stub pens, and with such care that any 
musician could read them in concert at first 
sight. 


Things XOe All Should K^nobu 


641 


ROPES AND ROPE-MAKING 

Spinning yarns is a favorite time-killing 
recreation with sailors. It is said that this 
term, used to designate long-drawn-out 
tales of land and sea, is derived from the 
“yarn-spinning” process which is unique to 
the old-fashioned rope walk, in which all 
hawsers, cables and other cordage were 
made in the “good old times.” Literally 
and figuratively, spinning yarn is a long- 
drawn-out process, for a rope walk is from 


the fiber is first “heckled," to remove the 
tow from the “line,” and also to divide 
the fiber into finer strips. A series of the 
“heckle boards” is used, graduating from 
coarse to fine. This board consists of a 
wooden plank, studded with many sharp- 
pointed steel prongs. The workman takes a 
handful or a “strick” of hemp, and draws 
it through the steel prongs, thus combing 
the fibers and straightening out the tangles. 
The loose stuff, dirt and tow, also come out, 
and then the heckled fiber is handed to the 



FROM THE HEMP TO THE FINISHED ROPE. 


1,200 to 1,500 feet long, and 
the spinner, in his work, 
walks backward the entire 
length of the elongated build¬ 
ing;. Machinery has ruined 
this picturesque craft, but 
many rope walks still remain, 
and some sailors prefer the 
hand-made to the machine-made article. 

All cordage an inch and over in circum¬ 
ference, goes under the general name of 
rope. If smaller than that it is known as 
cord, lines, twines and yarns. Excepting 
for steel and iron rope, hemp is the fiber 
which is the staple of the ropemaker. As 
this fiber is seldom longer than three and a 
half feet, it must be twined and twisted to¬ 
gether to unite it into one long yarn, which 
is the unit of a rope no matter how large 
and heavy it is. 

To prepare hemp for the yarn-spinning, 


man before the next heckling board. 

A little oil is put on the hemp to fa¬ 
cilitate the operation, and when the 
hemp is straightened, cleaned and 
split up into fine threads, it is ready 
for the spinner. 

Any boy who has played around a 
hay mow knows how to make a rope 
out of hay. lie knows that by pulling a wisp 
of hay partly out from the mow, and twist¬ 
ing it, walking backward all the time,he can 
twist a long rope, for the twining- hay 
catches more hay, and thus the rope is made. 
Spinning hemp fiber into rope yarn is done 
in much the same way, except that the twist¬ 
ing is done by a “whirl,” and the hemp is 
carried around the waist of the siiinner, who 
feeds it out as he walks backward the length 
of the rope walk. 

The “whirls,” generally a dozen in num¬ 
ber, are set in a frame in which is a large, 












Things XV e All Should K.nobu 


642 


flat-rimmed, wooden wheel. Sometimes the 
wheel by direct friction spins the “whirls,” 
which are simply steel hooks set in wooden 
spools, and sometimes the “whirls” are spun 
around by a belt which passes around the 
wheel and all of the spools. 

The spinner, after placing a bundle of 
dressed hemp around his waist, with the 
ends in front of him, twists some of it in 
his fingers and fastens the twisted fibers to 
one of the whirl hooks. An assistant turns 
the wheel and the hook spins around, twist¬ 
ing the fibers to the right. The spinner walks 
slowly backward, feeding out the hemp 
to the yarn by drawing it from his waist 
with his left hand and letting it slip be¬ 
tween the thumb and fingers of his right 
hand, which are protected by a piece of 
woolen cloth. 

lie takes care to supply the hemp equally 
to the yarn, and sees that it enters the 
twisted part by the ends and not in the mid¬ 
dle. As the yarn lengthens the spinner 
throws it over hooks set in posts to keep 
it from the floor, and when he reaches the 
end of the rope walk a second spinner takes 
the yarn from the whirl, gives it to another 
man, who attaches it to a reel, while the 
second spinner begins his backward journey 
down the rope walk. The first spinner 
holds his yarn tightly so that it will not 
untwist, walks toward the reel as his yarn 
is reeled in, and when he arrives there waits 
for the second spinner, who attaches his 
yarn to the one first made, so that the yarns 
are joined in one continuous piece. 

After “warping” or stretching the yarn 
to one length, it is passed through hot tar, 
if tarred rope is to be made. Tarred rope 
is not so strong as white rope, but it will 
last longer when exposed to water, so that 
almost all rope is tarred. Sometimes the 


yarn is taken from one reel to another and 
made to pass through hot tar on the way, a 
roller squeezing off the surplus tar, so that 
just the right quantity is put on. Yarn for 
cables requires more tar than yarn for liaw- 
ser-laid rope, and for standing rigging it is 
sufficient if the yarn be merely covered with 
tar. 

The next process in ropemaking is to 
form the strand. A rope is made up of a 
certain number of strands, the strand being 
made from two or more yarns. When three 
strands are laid or twisted together they 
make a hawser-laid rope; three hawsers 
laid or twisted together produce a cable-laid 
rope or cable, and when four strands are 
laid around a core or central strand the 
rope is called a “shroud-laid” rope. 

The yarn is twisted to the right; when 
yarns are made into a strand they are 
twisted to the left; the three strands in a 
hawser are twisted to the right, and the 
three hawsers which make the cable are 
twisted to the left. Thus, in each succes¬ 
sive process the twist is reversed, and this 
serves to make the rope tight and hard. If 
the twist is too hard the rope is weakened, 
and the principal fault in hand-made rope 
is due to the fact that the inner strands are 
looser than the outside ones; this throws 
all of the work on the outside strands, for 
they will not stretch as much as those in¬ 
side. 

In forming the strand, two or more yarns 
are attached to a single hook which twists 
the yarn to the left. Then three or more 
yarns are attached, separately, at one end, 
to as many hooks as there are yarns. All 
of the yarns are hooped together in a sin¬ 
gle hook at the other end, and this hook is 
turned in an opposite direction to the turn 
of the other hooks, and this double twist- 


Things XOe All Should K.nobv 


643 


ing, regulated by the ropemaker, who sees 
that each strand gets its proper twist, lays 
the rope. This twisting is done by a ma¬ 
chine called a “former,” which travels on 
rails down the rope walk. Cables are made 
from hawsers in the same way. 

Machines for ropemaking are composed 
of revolving or twisting parts, standing 
parts, and reels or bobbins on which the 
yarn, strands and rope are wound as fast 
as they are made. In the simplest machine 
there is one fixed and one revolving section. 
If that part which holds the bobbins on 
which the yarn or strands are reeled is 
fixed, then the part which receives the 
twisted product on reels or bobbins re¬ 
volves. 

Some machines combine the operations 
of forming the strands and laying the rope. 
In this machine three dying or revolving 
bobbins form the three strands. All of this 
part of the machine revolves, so that the 
three strands are twisted into the rope, 
which is reeled up as fast as it is made on 
the revolving portion, which receives the 
strands and lays them into rope. This 
combination makes a complicated machine, 
with many gear wheels and bobbins and 
reels, and it may be vertical or horizontal. 
Heavy cables, however, are still laid in the 
old-fashioned rope walk. 

The Chippewa Indians in northern Wis¬ 
consin make crude rope in a primitive man¬ 
ner from the inner fibers of basswood bark. 
They loosen the fibers by beating the bark, 
and after cleaning them, twist them into 
yarn and strands, afterward twisting the 
strands into rope. They do not rely on the 
twist to hold the fibers together, but tie 
knots in the rope at intervals, and it is 
strong enough to be used in holding their 
tepee poles together, and for such use as 


the Indians put it to. When the Puritans 
landed in Xew England they found the 
Indians making cord and twine out of wild 
hemp, which they heckled and spun by 
hand. Ropemaking was one of the first in¬ 
dustries established in America, and in the 
eighteenth century American-made rope 
was held in high esteem all over the world. 

^ ^ 

SHODDY—WHAT IT IS AND 
HOW MADE 

Shoddy, in the popular sense, is applied 
to clothing of inferior quality. To the av¬ 
erage mind the term simply means that 
the goods are poor, and the uninformed per¬ 
son has practically no idea of what shoddy 
really is. In reality, shoddy is a commodity 
which admits of a great deal of compari¬ 
son, for in the business world no less than 
forty different grades and qualities of 
shoddy are marked and sold, and instead 
of shoddy always being an indication of 
poor goods it may be that the goods are all 
the better for it. 

Shoddy is the product obtained by shred¬ 
ding woolen cloth into wool again. It varies 
as greatly in quality as do the original 
wools. It is used in combination with new 
wool in the manufacture of all sorts of 
woolen cloth, and if the dame who is too 
proud to consider for a moment a dress 
goods which contains shoddy, could an¬ 
alyze some of the combination cloths of 
wool and silk, and indeed most any of the 
woolen or semi-woolen garments she wears, 
she would be sure to find more or less of 
shoddy in them. The article is never used 
alone, and is chiefly used for weight. 

The manufacture of shoddy commences 
with the collection of the rags from which 


644 


Things XOe A. 11 Should K.notu 


it is made. The rags sold by the prudent 
housewife to the itinerant vender are resold 
to the rag jobber. There are a number of 
dealers in rags in this country who do mil- 
lions of dollars’ worth of business every 
year, and the shoddv manufacturer obtains 

1/ / d 

his stock from these. Before being shipped 
to the shoddy-mill the rags are sorted, and 
the woolen ones are the only ones used for 
the purpose in hand. 

When the woolen rags come to the mill 
in great bundles, they are first dusted. 
Mixed wools from everywhere are thrown 
.together, all colors, soft worsteds, rough 
jackets and all the rest. The dusting is 
done by a machine which very much re¬ 
sembles a grain duster. The rags are 
thrown into a large semicircular box in 
which revolves a large wheel fitted with 
,-tfide paddles. The light dust is blown out 
at the top of the machine and the heavy 
dust falls out at the bottom. After being 
thoroughly dusted the goods are sorted. 

Great heaps of them are thrown before 
'girls seated at long and wide benches. Here 
piece by piece the rags are examined and 
separated into the many different grades, 
by fingers rendered deft by long practice. 
The finer grades, such as the several wor¬ 
steds, the fine black tailor goods, the light 
flannels, stockings and the like—there are 
fortv grades to be made out of the several 
kinds of cloth before the process is finished 
—are thrown to themselves, and the heavier 
grades are kept separate. The work is done 
rapidly, and at the rate of 35 cents a hun¬ 
dred pounds the girls make good wages. In 
England the sorters receive 8 cents a hun¬ 
dred pounds. 

After being thus sorted out, the rags are 
further prepared for dismemberment by 
separating from them all portions of cot¬ 


ton, even to the smallest bit of thread. The 
process is varied and differs in the several 
mills, and one of the secrets of the trade is 
in this portion of the work. In the old 
j^rocess all this work was done by hand, and 
in the old country mills—at least in some of 
them—this practice is still continued. In 
most American mills, however, the compe¬ 
tition has become so strong that a shorter 
and cheaper process has been found neces¬ 
sary, and instead of the hand work the cot¬ 
ton is taken out by a chemical process. 

The rags from the sorting room arc taken 
to another portion of the building, and are 
plunged into a hot bath. The water in 
this bath is chemically treated, and therein 
lies the secret. Sulphuric acid is the chief 
component of the mixture, and the exact 
formula varies. This bath eats out all the 
cotton, rendering it so rotten that the 
woolen pieces will fall away from it when 
there is the least bit of force applied. 
Thence they are thrown into a patent dry¬ 
ing arrangement known as a hydro-ex¬ 
tractor. 

This machine consists of a large, tub¬ 
like vessel of steel, which is perforated all 
over with holes of good size about two 
inches apart. This “basket,” as it is called, 
is about two feet deep and is surrounded by 
an iron vessel constructed so as to catch all 
water which comes out of the perforations 
in the basket, the whole resembling an old- 
fashioned set of miller’s wheels in place. 
The rags are thrown into this basket, and 
the latter is so connected that when power 
is applied it revolves at a rate of about 
1,500 revolutions a minute. The water in 
the rags is thus forced out of the holes in 
the side of the basket by the centrifugal 
force, and when the rags are removed from 
this extractor they are about as dry as 


G45 


Things *COe All Should K_nobi) 


though they had passed through an ordi¬ 
nary clotheswringer. 

From the extractor they are placed in a 
drier, where steam pipes are run above 
them, and a current of air is forced over 
the pipes and through the rags, emerging 
at the bottom of the drier. The current is 
controlled by a revolving fan, and the drier 
generally consists of a long, box-like ar¬ 
rangement, the upper portion of which is 
filled with the steam coils, the rags being 
thrown on wire netting and stretched across 
it transversely. 

When thoroughly dry the rags are run 
through an “extract duster.’’ This duster 
is practically the same as the one used at 
the beginning of the process, except that 
the dusting is more violent. It is designed 
to thoroughly remove every portion of dust, 
cotton particles, such as portions of thread 
or small patches in the garment dismem¬ 
bered, and, in short, all substances other 
than the pure wool. The machine does the 
work very effectively. Then the pure woolen 
cloths are sent to the dyerooms, where they 
are dved as wool from the animal would be. 

Only the principal colors are used—blues, 
blacks, browns and the like — the several 
shades being obtained by the mixture of 
the rags in the process later, just as in the 
work with new wool. The mordant used in 
the dyeing process is the ordinary chrome 
mordant, made from a solution of bi¬ 
chromate of potash and acetic or oxalic 
acid, the former for the blues and the 
browns, the latter for most of the other 
shades. From the mordant bath to the dye 
vats is but a short distance, and after being 
boiled the requisite time in the color vats, 
the rags are again passed through the patent 
clotheswringer, called the hydro-extractor, 
and are ready for the final process, which 


is, in short, the tearing of the rags into the 
original wool. 

Before being shredded the rags are mixed 
so as to fonn the shade desired in the 
shoddy. They are spread out on a floor and 
are mixed by hand, there being no small 
degree of skill required to so distribute 
goods as to bring a new color by the com¬ 
bination, but when they finally are properly 
mixed the rags are wet down with ordinary 
wool oil. This oil is thoroughly shaken 
up and is applied to the rags by a hand 
sprinkler. 

The rag picker comes next. It is a ma¬ 
chine simply constructed, consisting of a 
cylinder revolving in a circular box. The 
rags are fed into it by means of fluted roll¬ 
ers, held in place by weights. On the 
cylinder are 11,000 steel pins, so arranged 
that as they catch the rags the latter are 
shredded. The threads are pulled apart, 
and when the threads are separated, even 
they, too, are separated into the woolen 
hairs which compose them. The rag picker 
also separates the good wool from the bad, 
throwing the latter out at the top and pass¬ 
ing the former out at a point below the 
feeding place, but on the same side of the 
machine. It corresponds to the wool picker 
in the process of preparing the wool from 
the animal, and is preliminary to the work 
of the carding machines which follows. 

The carding machines comb the wool par¬ 
ticles more thoroughly, and turn out the 
product ready for use in the spindles at a 
woolen mill, in connection with the new 
wool used. The product, after it has passed 
over the revolving cylinders of the carders, 
fitted with the thousands of small teeth 
which separate, combine and reseparate 
it time and again until it is thoroughly 
combed out and mixed, is of a uniform 


646 


Things *€Oe A// Shoutd JfCnotef 


shade and in the shape of long, fluffy rolls. 
It is then packed into hales under hydraulic 
pressure, and is shipped in this form. 

As it is used, shoddy may or may not be 
poorer than original wool. The shoddy made 
from the ordinary grades of woolen rags 
is not so good as the new wool, for although 
the product to the ordinary observer re¬ 
sembles the new wool, the hairs are shorter, 
and, after having gone through the wear 
and tear of the life of the garment and the 
process of shredding, are not so strong. The 
shoddy made from fine woolen goods, such 
as worsteds or fine flannels, is in many re¬ 
spects better than the new wool of the ordi¬ 
nary grades, the hairs being longer and the 
texture finer. 

When, therefore, the charge is made that 
shoddy is used in the construction of a cer¬ 
tain cloth, it is well to specify what grade 
of shoddy is used, and what quality of cloth 
the combined product is supposed to be, for 
a cloth containing a good grade of shoddy 
may be better cloth in many ways than 
another cloth which consists entirely of new 
wool. More shoddy is manufactured in the 
United States than in any other country in 
the world. It is the industry which makes 
$7 suits and $10 overcoats possible. 

< 3 * jX S 

BROOM-CORN AND BROOM 
MAKING 

Brooms for the whole world are made 
in America, and the greatest broom-corn 
fields on earth are about Areola and Tus¬ 
cola, Ill. A few brooms are made in 
Europe, but far the greater number are 
imported from this country, and most of 
them from a district included within a 
radius of 200 miles from Chicago. There 
are about 1,100 establishments interested 


in the manufacture of brooms to a greater 
or less extent in this country, and there 
arc as many more establishments engaged 
in the manufacture of the supplies needed 
in broom manufacture. It takes about 
10,000 persons to keep the housewives of 
the civilized world supplied with brooms. 

Broom-corn grows practically the same 
as cane. The standard variety reaches a 
height of about eight feet on an average. 
The dwarf varieties, used in the manufac¬ 
ture of whisk brooms and similar articles, 



BROOM-MAKING MACHINE 


grow to a height of four feet or there¬ 
abouts. Only the top part of the stock— 
the “tassel’’—is used in the manufacture of 
brooms. 

These tassels are shipped to the factorv 
in bales containing from 200 to 300 pounds 
of the long straws bunched together on 
their stems. When about to be used, the 
corn is taken from the bale and immersed 
in water in a large tank, which generally 
is just outside the door of a long, low, 
■wooden building, the typical broom factory. 


























































Things t tOe Alt Should K.notu 


647 


After receiving a bath of water the corn is 
dipped in a dye bath, dark-green in color, 
yet not very strong. This dye brings to 
the corn the greenish tint characteristic of 
good brooms, and colors the red portions of 
the stock to the uniform hue; the red in 
the corn is considered a bad point in qual¬ 
ity. 

After its dve bath the corn is thrown 
«/ 

into a great covered box, through the bottom 
of which arise the fumes of burning sul¬ 
phur. This process of bleaching brings to 
the corn the proper yellow body color and 
leaves the corn in a condition to be easilv 

t/ 

cut with the knives and machines of the 
workmen. When first it comes from the 
field it is too brittle for work. 

After being bleached the corn is thrown 
on a large table, where it is sorted. First, 
the stem is cut off just above where the 
straws commence to grow out. This allows 
the outside and lower straws to be stripped 
off, and these are the best quality of straws, 
and, under the name of “hurl,” are used for 
the outside of brooms. Other straws are 
stripped off and, under the name of “self¬ 
working” straw, form the body of the 
broom. 

What is left, under the name “insiding,” 
is that straw on which the broom is built. 
The insiding sometimes is divided into two 
qualities and the self-working straw often 
is called the “shouldering,” as it is used 
to give to the brooms the “shoulder” por¬ 
tion of their form. 

When the broom straws are thus sorted 
they are turned over to the winder, who 
builds up the broom on a machine pecu¬ 
liarly crude for one which does such good 
work. The machine consists of a table¬ 
like arrangement, at the edge of which is 
a revolving hollow shaft into which a ready¬ 


made broom handle can be placed and there 
securely clamped. 

A spindle of broom wire is arranged so 
as to conveniently play upon the broom han¬ 
dle as it revolves with the hollow shaft. 
Power is applied by means of a “squirrel 
cage,” so that the machine can be turned 
forward and controlled at will, and can be 
reversed. 

In the lower end of every broom handle 
a small hole is bored, and when the work¬ 
man has placed a handle in the winder the 
end of the wire is passed through this hole, 
and a few twists of the machine firmly bind 
it in place. Under the angle of the wire, 
stretched from the spindle feeder to the 
broom handle, the workman places a 
bunch of insiding or coarser straw, and 
gives the handle another turn by means of 
the squirrel-cage arrangement. 

The stub ends of the straw are then 
trimmed off with a knife and after one or 
two rounds of wire have been run around 
the handle, bunches of the shouldering are 
bound down to the handle on opposite sides 
of the piece, and after the stub ends of this 
have been well trimmed, so as to give the 
shapeless mass something of the form it is 
to be later, a strap is slipped around the 
whole and is fastened so as to hold the fly¬ 
ing straws in place. 

The wire, too, is held in place for the 
time being by a strong tack driven into the 
handle so as to cover the wire with the 
head. The workman then takes two large 
bunches of the finer straw—the covering— 
and as the broom handle is revolved he 
dexterously spreads the covering around 
the whole mass. This coating of the finer 
straw is repeated, and the whole is again 
held in place by a strap. The ends of the 
finer straw are trimmed and the wire is 


048 


Things '£Oe All Should K_nobv 


fastened by a tack, around which it is 
wound. 

A “lock,” or tin covering, of fancy shape 
and design, is tacked on the handle so as to 
cover the ends of the straws, and a string 
replaces the strap as the broom is un¬ 
damped from the machine to be passed to 
the presser and sewer. 

The broom press is simply an improved 
form of vise, so made that a broom can 
be placed in it, handle downward, and con¬ 
siderable pressure be applied to it. Most 
hand presses are formed of two very strong- 
boards securely bolted upright to a base, 
which permits them to move. These boards 
are brought together at the top to form the 
vise by a double lever which produces great 
pressure between them with a compara¬ 
tively small use of hand power—two horse¬ 
power pressure being applied in most cases. 
Other presses consist of a similar clamp ar¬ 
rangement worked with a screw. These are 
considered easier, but less effective in op¬ 
eration. Into one of these presses the 
broom is placed and the pressure applied. 
The straw is forced into about the shape 
usually seen in brooms, and the workman 
then sews it. 

A strong flax cord of fancy color is 
passed around the broom twice, and the 
workman then threads his needle with it 
and passes it through the broom at intervals 
of about an inch, all the way across. The 
needle used is large, with blunt ends, and 
has the eye in the middle. The sewer wears 
a thick leather palm for a thimble, and the 
sewing is done with remarkable deftness. 
When the sewing across the broom is com¬ 
pleted the handle of the broom is forced 
further into the press, and another seam is 
sewed. In the best brooms four seams are 
taken, in the cheaper grades three and in 


poor grades only two are taken. After 
being sewed and pressed the brooms are 
“scraped” or combed out by a large wooden 
cylinder, from which project many sharp 
spikes. The finishing process is the trim¬ 
ming of the broom off square at the end. 

The machinery and processes thus de¬ 
scribed are in use in most of the factories 
over the country, especially where the best 
brooms are made. The machinery is 
crude but effective. Steam machinery has 
been introduced with but little, if any, 
success. A workman can press and sew ten 
dozen brooms a day, and a machine is 
claimed to have a capacity of forty dozen 
brooms a day with a man and a boy run¬ 
ning it. This rate, however, is not main¬ 
tained by a machine in actual work. 

There are many special materials de¬ 
manded in broom making. The wire, for 
instance, is a peculiar steel, tin-plated 
article, most of which is made in Massa¬ 
chusetts. The broom handles are generally 
of hard maple taken from the Michigan 
groves. Often they are made of ash and 
basswood. The tacks used are of a special 
make, tinned, strong and not brittle. The 
cord for sewing, generally of yellow or 
green or red, is of a wonderfully strong- 
flax spinning. 

Every season nearly six thousand acres 
of broomcorn are planted and grown along 
the line of the Illinois Central railroad in 
central Illinois. A number of farmers in 
that part of the state have made this their 
principal crop for many years and it has 
proved profitable. Consequently Illinois 
has the largest broomcorn field in the 
world. 

Much corn is raised in Kentuckv, Mis- 
souri, Kansas, Texas and other states, but 
the crops are scattered and irregular and 


Things XOe All Should K^nobv 


640 


are not of so much profit to the producer. 
The corn seems to thrive best on timber- 
land soil, and the rich, black loam of the 
greater portion of Illinois is too rank for 
it, the product from such soil being very 
coarse, red-topped and kinky, the latter 
quality being fatal to its usefulness. 

The varieties considered the best are 
known as Missouri evergreen, Kentucky 
green, and shaker green. The corn is 
graded by its color, fiber and general con¬ 
dition. The corn of the best fiber is raised 
in Texas, where often the straws are four 
feet long. This sort of straw is especially 
valuable for covers. For ordinary work 
short but fine fibered corn is considered the 
best and this is the sort generally raised in 
Illinois. Broomcorn first grew in the 
swamp lands of South America. 

c* 3 

WIRE AND ITS MANIFOLD USES 

This has been called the “age of wire.” 
The man who baptized the last quarter of 
the nineteenth century with this synonym 
for “fin de siecle” referred to telegraph and 
telephone wires, but he builded better than 
he knew. The many common, every-day 
things into which wire enters, either as an 
essential constructive element or an impor¬ 
tant factor, justifies any one in calling 
these years the “age of wire.” Besides the 
hundreds of thousands of miles of wire 
which are strung on telephone, telegraph 
and trolley poles, the hundreds of thou¬ 
sands of miles used for fencing, and 
innumerable miles wound around field 
magnets and armatures of dynamos and 
motors, coils and transformers, and other 
things accessory to the electrical indus¬ 
try, wire is woven into hundreds of thou¬ 


sands of square yards of netting, cloth and 
screens; tons of it are made into pins, 
needles, hairpins, and hooks and eyes; mil¬ 
lions of pounds are cut to lengths, headed 
and pointed into nails of all kinds; vast 
quantities are curled into corkscrews; tons 
upon tons of it are sewed into hooks, pam¬ 
phlets and magazines; miles upon miles of 
it are put into pianos and other musical 
instruments, and every day brings forth 
some new use for the valuable metallic 
string. 

One of the most recent utilizations of 
wire is found in its adaptation as a 
strength-giving covering for steam pipes. 
The plan of winding steam pipes over 
eight inches in diameter with copper wire 
is pronounced by engineers to be an im¬ 
portant innovation, since the wire doubles 
the bursting strength of the pipe so wound. 
Copper pipe is treated in this way, and 
another important result has been secured, 
for the thickness of the sheet 'copper com¬ 
posing the pipe may be reduced to the 
minimum without weakening it. 

In practice the copper pipe is wound 
with steel wire, the copper of the pipe being- 
reduced to the thinnest possible gauge. The 
spaces between the wire and coils are filled 
in with copper, deposited there by the proc¬ 
ess of electroplating, and thus increased 
strength all around is secured. 

Perhaps the most interesting phase of 
this use of wire comes in winding great 
pieces of ordnance to increase the strength 
of the monstrous cannons. Wire-wound 
guns have reached their highest state of 
development in England, and many of 
Great Britain’s new battleships are armed 
with them. Although the practice of wind¬ 
ing guns with wire began but a few years 
ago, in England hundreds of such guns, 


650 


Things *COe A// Should K.nobe) 


ranging from 12-pounders used by the 
horse-artillery, to the enormous 12-inch 
guns which stick their wicked noses through 
the portholes of barbettes and turrets on 
modern English battleships, are found in 
his majesty’s service on land and sea. 

The system of winding a large gun with 
wire is simple, for it is done in a lathe 
which is but an exaggerated form of the 
machine found in any shop. The wire used 
is steel, and is ribbon-shaped instead of 
round. For a 12-inch gun, which weighs 
4G tons, the dimensions of the wire are 
G-lOOths by 25-100ths of an inch, and 102 
miles of wire are wound around the barrel. 

The wire is not wound around the barrel 
proper of the gun, but around the steel 
hoops which are shrunk around the tube 
that carries the projectile. The tube of the 
gun is first surrounded with layers of steel 
hoops, or in the case of the new 12-inch 
guns, with one steel hoop which grips the 
tube from end to end. Over these steel 
hoops the wire is wound in successive lay¬ 
ers, varying in different guns from nine 
to seventy-eight layers in depth. The gun 
to be wound is “chucked” in a lathe, and 
the drum on which the wire is wound is 
, placed over the gun on a shaft which auto¬ 
matically works with the lathe and is con¬ 
trolled by a brake. 

The end of the wire is tucked under a 
ring of metal on the gun and screwed down, 
and then the power is put on to the 
lathe, which turns the gun around, winding 
the wire around as it revolves. The steel 
ribbon is wound on the barrel of the piece 
at an average strain of 10 tons to the square 
inch, and the wire, reeled off the drum, is 
“spooled” on the cannon until the desired 
number of layers are in place. Then the 
last end of the wire is screwed down under 


a metal ring, which is turned down to the 
face of the wire. 

When the winding is complete, steel 
hoops are shrunk on over the wire, so that 
the exterior of the gun does not show that 
wire is used. Thus a wire-wound 12-inch 
gun consists of four tubes or cylinders; 
first, the barrel proper, then the steel hoop 
shrunk over the inner tube, next the wire 
cylinder made of many layers of steel rib¬ 
bon, and last the external steel hoop shrunk 
over the wire. 

Guns are wound with wire to increase 
the transverse strength, so that danger from 
bursting is reduced to almost “nil,” as 
engineers put it. It is said by naval ex¬ 
perts that the powder is not made that can 
hurst a wire-wound gun, for the very nature 
of the material and the way it is laid on 
regulates the tension, so that the whole of 
the material of the gun takes up its proper 
proportion of the strain when the pressure 
is greatest, which is at the moment of fir¬ 
ing. 

The wire is wound on under such great 
tension that it practically becomes part of 
the hoop which it envelopes. This hoop is 
shrunk over the tube with such extreme care 
that it is one with the tube, so that the en¬ 
tire fabric of the gun, although made up 
of four layers, responds at once and at the 
same time to any pressure, and the office of 
the wire is to distribute this pressure over 
the whole piece. The hoops, besides giving 
transverse strength to the tube, also give 
the gun “girder” or longitudinal strength, 
so that it is stiff and will not bend under its 
own weight. The wire does not give girder 
strength to the gun. It is there for another 
purpose. 

It was feared at first that a shock strik¬ 
ing the wire would break through several 


651 


Things 'CfJe A// Should K.nobu 


layers and the wire would uncoil. But it 
lias been found that the friction between 
the strands of wire is so great that, even 
though several layers be cut, the wire will 
not loosen. And then care is taken in wind¬ 
ing the gun to tuck under the wire at in¬ 
tervals. 

The process of winding guns with wire 
has lessened the time consumed in making 
a large piece considerably. Prior to the in¬ 
troduction of the wire-winding system, from 
fourteen to sixteen months were consumed 
in making a twelve-inch gun, but now it is 
made in less than ten months. Of this time 
four to five months are taken up in the pre¬ 
liminary work of forging, turning, anneal¬ 
ing and testing; from six weeks to two 
months are used for winding, and the bal¬ 
ance in finishing the gun. 

The constructive work leading up to the 
wire winding consists of forging the tube 
from the steel ingot and rough-boring the 
forging. At the same time the hoops for 
the jacket are passing through the same 
process, and when the tube is annealed, 
hardened and annealed again the hoops are 
shrunk on by heating them until they ex¬ 
pand enough to permit the workman to slip 
them over the tube. Then the gun is wound 
with the wire, the outer hoops are shrunk 
on, the tube is bored and rifled. The rifling 
is a delicate operation, requiring the best 
tools and most skillful workmen, for each 
groove must be cut separately, and there are 
forty-eight grooves, all of which must be 
exactly alike. 

The hardening at the’Woolwich arsenal 
in England is done by heating the tube and 
plunging it in a bath of oil. In annealing 
the tube it is heated to about 900 degrees 
Fahrenheit in a suitable furnace, and al¬ 
lowed to cool gradually. 


Although wiring guns is a modern proc¬ 
ess, the very first cannons made were wound 
with rawhide and leather to increase the 
transverse strength, and shotgun barrels 
were made some years ago by winding soft 
iron wire on a mandrel and welding: the 
wire in one solid piece. 

< 3 * 

FIREWORKS AND THEIR 
MANUFACTURE 

•p f ■ 

When Thomas Jefferson wrote an ac¬ 
count of the adoption of the Declaration of 
Independence, he said that in years to come 
patriotic Americans, no doubt, would cele¬ 
brate the day by memorial exercises, 
speeches and songs, and by the firing of 
salutes with cannon and the burning of fire¬ 
works and illuminations. It is not likelv 

«/ 

that in his most prophetic moments the 
author of the Declaration foresaw how 
literally and extravagantly his suggestion 
would be carried out. The amount of 
money burned up annually in the ex¬ 
plosion of fireworks on the Fourth of July, 
not to speak of the incidental conflagrations 
that occur in every city as a result of care¬ 
less celebration, is almost incalculable. The 
same amount expended in another way, 
within the course of a century, would erect 
public libraries, schools, memorial build¬ 
ings and monuments to celebrate the gain¬ 
ing of our national independence, in every 
town and village in the United States. 

Nevertheless it is hardly to be expected 
that the national habit will change abrupt¬ 
ly, or that the manufacturers of fireworks 
will find their business diminished as a 
result of a sudden increase in popular wis¬ 
dom. 

The American fireworks makers are far 


Things *€Oe All Should K.nobv 


G32 

ahead of European pyrotechnists, although 

the largest firm dealing in such products is 

an English concern. Even the Chinese 

have fallen behind in the manufacture of 

firecrackers and torpedoes. Nowadays 

bovs care little for the small firecrackers 
«/ 

which formerly came only from China. 
They want something like the cannon- 


of the firecrackers are made in the east, 
and the largest factory is in New Jersey. 
In the town where this factory is located, 
a great deal of the work is done in the 
homes of the operatives, for it is all hand¬ 
work. The smallest firecrackers made 
there are about two and one-half inches 
long, and from that size they run up to 



AT WORK IN A FIREWORKS FACTORY. 

Showing rockets, mines, wheels and Roman candles in process of making. 


cracker, loaded with dynamite, which 
makes a noise like a small cannon. 

Americans began to make firecrackers in 
large quantities only a few years ago, and 
now they are turned out by the thousands, 
and no Chinese cracker can compare with 
those made in this country, so far as noise 
and explosive power are concerned. Most 


those big fellows a foot long and longer. 
The tube of the cracker is made of straw- 
board ; the fuse of spun cotton, soaked in a 
mixture of starch and fine gunpowder, and 
the explosive compound is a mixture of 
powdered charcoal, bichromate of potash 
and chlorate of potash. This mixture is 
supposed to be a secret, but it has been 











Things XOe All Should K^notv 


653 


used for years in making squibs, “devil- 
chasers’ ’ and explosive pin-wheels. The 
Chinese makers of firecrackers are very ex¬ 
pert in rolling the tubes, but right here 
comes in the Yankee ingenuity which meets 
pauper-labor with labor-saving machines 
and devices, and beats it in productive 
capacity. One American girl can turn out 
more firecracker tubes in a day than a 
dozen Chinese can, and they are better 
tubes for the purpose, too. One girl can 
turn out about 2,500 tubes a day. The 
tubes are placed on a rack in a hot room, 
and dried hard for two or three days, and 
are then ready for the filling. 

The bottom of an American-made fire¬ 
cracker is plugged with a piece of cork or 
pith, or with a pasteboard wad. The top 
is plugged with clay or clay-pulp, mixed 
with a strong adhesive, and through this 
clay, which is generally used, the fuse runs. 
The fuse is put in first, and the man who 
does it works the firecrackers off in bunches 
of one hundred. He has a board in which 
are placed in upright position 100 brass, 
wooden or iron pins. These pins are just 
the size and shape of the inside of a fire¬ 
cracker, but are about three-quarters of an 
inch shorter, so that when a tube is slipped 
down over one of the pins, the tube will 
stick up above it three-quarters of an inch. 
Each pin has a round hole running down 
through its center, and before the tube is 
placed on the pin, the fuse for the fire¬ 
cracker is stuck in the hole, leaving a couple 
of inches of it above the pin. The work¬ 
man takes a pinch of prepared clay and 
rams it down in the tube upon the pin. 
This plugs that end of the tube, and fastens 
the fuse in the center as well. 

The tubes with the clay plug and fuse 
are next turned over to a girl who loads the 


firecracker with its explosive. She handles 
100 at a time also, and the loading device 
is as simple as it is ingenious. It is made 
of two boards, in each of which are bored 
100 holes. The holes are a trifle larger 
than the firecrackers, but those in the bot¬ 
tom board do not pass quite through. The 
firecrackers are placed fuse end down in 
the bottom board, and the top board, with 
its holes exactly over the open end of the 
tubes, is placed on top of the crackers. 



MAKING PARACHUTES. 


The girl scoops a quantity of the explosive 
mixture from a box, puts it on the top 
board, and with a brush sweeps the powder 
into the holes, filling the firecrackers. The 
top board is then taken off, and a piece of 
cork, or whatever material is used to plug 
the firecracker, is rammed down to the pow¬ 
der of each firecracker. 

The firecrackers are then coated with red 













654 


Things XOe All Should K.nctv 


paper, by girls who arrange a number of 
sheets of the thin, tough paper upon a 
slanting marble slab, brush paste upon the 
ends of the sheets, and with the palms of 
the hand roll the firecrackers, one at a time, 
over the paper, thus coating them. The 
firecrackers are dried for some time and 
then packed, and are ready for the Fourth 
of July. 

The Chinese or the Hindus were the 
first makers of fireworks, and probably 
gunpowder or something like it was burned 
on festival days several thousands of years 
ago in China. The plains of China and 
India have large deposits of saltpeter, 
which is one of the chief ingredients of 
gunpowder. It is supposed that the first 
man who made gunpowder was an Indian 
or Chinese, and that the discovery was acci¬ 
dental. For years saltpeter was called 
“Chinese snow,” and the records of earlv 
travelers through China show that the Chi¬ 
nese used their “snow” to make “earth 
thunder” and “devouring; fire.” The acci- 
dental discovery that a mixture of charred 
wood and saltpeter would make a flashing 
material, easily led to mixing sulphur with 
it, and gunpowder was the result. 

How nitrate of potash and chlorate of 
potash are two of the most important con¬ 
stituents of fireworks. They supply the 
oxygen which is required in an explosive, 
for an explosive is nothing but quick com¬ 
bustion, and combustion cannot take place 
without oxygen. Heat of course must be 
applied to start the oxygen, and this is 
done either by percussion, as in a cartridge, 
or by a burning fuse, as in a skyrocket. 

In fireworks the colored effects are given 
by the burning of sulphur, sulphides of 
arsenic, iron and steel filings, and other 
metals, such as sodium, which gives a yel¬ 


low fire, calcium red, strontium crimson, 
barium green, and copper green and blue, 
when reduced to powder and mixed with 
the oxidizing agents. 

But whatever the mixture is, it must 
have something to supply the oxygen, and 
it is said the Chinese found that out nearly 
2,000 years before Columbus discovered 
America. How they make their gunpowder 
according to the white man’s method, buy 
immense quantities of roman candles, sky¬ 
rockets and pin-wheels of English and 
American manufacturers, and in a few 
years may have to come to America for 
their firecrackers. 

£ < 3 ® 

MATCH MAKING IN VARIOUS 
COUNTRIES 

One of the evils which the working peo¬ 
ple of France are trying to remove from the 
industrial body is the use of white phos¬ 
phorus in the manufacture of matches. 
The poisonous fumes rising from the pans 
in which the material is heated, and the 
constant handling of the stuff, give the 
workmen in match factories the horrible 
phosphorus necrosis, a disease which at¬ 
tacks the bones, disintegrating the tissues 
and causing untold suffering. The French 
government, which has a monopoly of the 
manufacture, has endeavored to compel 
matchmakers to daily, before leaving the 
works, gargle their throats with chlorate of 
potash, a counter-poison to phosphorus, but 
the working people do not observe the rule, 
and in turn ask the government to use 
amorphous phosphorus and salts of potassa 
instead of white phosphorus. The latter 
material is the cheapest, however, and the 
slow poisoning of French matchmakers 
still goes on. 


Things XOe All Should K.nobu 


655 



The French method of making matches 
differs in some particulars from that em¬ 
ployed in Sweden and this country. The 
French match is made of splints produced 
from fir and poplar wood, except when the 
splints come from Russia, where vast quan¬ 
tities are made from the aspen tree. 

The splints are made 
bv machines, which 

i/ * 

turn out about 300,- 
000 an hour each, 
and one of the great 
government works in 
France uses up over 
24,000,000 of these 
splints in a day. They 
arrive at the factory 
in large cases, and are 
sent through the works 
in batches of 7,000 or 
8,000 at a time, each 
batch being arranged 
in a square frame 
called a “batteau.” 

A splint-laden bat¬ 
teau is placed in a 
machine, which auto¬ 
matically separates the 
splints, so that each of 
the 7,000 has a little 
space around it, and is 
thus isolated from its 


tissue-eating vapors that they work as un¬ 
concernedly as if the air were pure and 
•wholesome. 

The visitor, however, is seldom able to 
remain in the room more than a min¬ 
ute or two at a time, for the fumes 
cause uncontrollable coughing, and chok¬ 


neighbors. When the 
arranged 


PUTTING THE CHARGES INTO ROMAN CANDLES. 


splints are 
in this manner the form in which 
they are held is called a ‘‘press,” and it is 
capped on one side, leaving the other with 
the splint heads exposed. The presses are 
carried to the dipping-room, which is filled 
with the poisonous vapors of phosphorus 
and sulphur. The men who labor in this 
place are so accustomed to the irritating, 


ing and gasping add to the discomfort. 

In one corner of the room stands a vat in 
which melted sulphur is held. The work¬ 
man, taking the press in both hands, dips 
the splints in the compound two or three 
times, withdrawing the press with a jerky 
motion which shakes off the surplus sul¬ 
phur. The splints are prepared for the 
















656 


Things 'COe All Should K_notv 


sulphur bath by being heated. The phos¬ 
phorus compound is made into a paste and 
spread evenly over iron plates, which have 
the same area as the presses. After the 
splints have been dipped in the sulphur, 
the press is laid, open side down, upon the 
paste-covered iron plates, and the splints 
are gently forced into the sticky mixture. 

When withdrawn from the paste each 
splint has a little knob of phosphorus on it, 
and has become a match. A drying opera¬ 
tion, which gives the phosphorus tips a 
glossy consistency, follows, and then the 
presses are taken to a machine which takes 
the matches from the press and places them 
uniformly, and with heads all pointing in 
the same direction, in another form. From 
this form the matches are placed in boxes, 
either by machinery or by the skillful fin¬ 
gers of girl operatives. The form is laid 
in the machine and is covered with glass, 
so that the girl can watch the descent of 
the matches, which fall down of their own 
weight. 

At the bottom of the form is an opening, 
just the size of the inside of the box. Back 
of and opposite to this opening is a plunger 
of the same size, which shoves forward and 
through the opening just enough matches 
to fill the box which is held to the opening. 
Three girls work at each box-filling ma¬ 
chine; one fills the boxes, the other two 
close them. They fill on an average of 
20,000 boxes in eleven hours, and each 
makes about 70 cents a day. In filling 
boxes by hand the girls become so expert 
that they can take up the exact number of 
matches required each time. 

With the exception that neither sulphur 
nor phosphorus is used for tipping matches, 
the process in Sweden is about the same as 
it is in France. The Swedish matches are 


“safety” matches that can only be lighted 
when scratched on a prepared surface, and 
the tipping compound is a paste of chlorate 
of potash. The igniting surface, which is 
placed on both sides of the match box, is 
a paste, of which sulphide of antimony and 
red phosphorus are the principal ingredi¬ 
ents. This paste is laid on the sides of the 
boxes by a machine, which passes the boxes 
between two rollers that are charged with 
paste. As the procession of boxes moves 
between the rollers they spread the paste 
evenly on the sides, and then the boxes are 
laid away until the paste is dry. 

A long, cool, dry room is required in the 
manufacture of wax matches. The splints 
are made of cotton thread, covered with 
stearine or paraffin. The wax match is a 
miniature candle, and its little wick is made 
of from ten to twenty threads, depending 
on the thickness of the match. This cotton 
wick is wound in large balls, held on reels 
at one end of a long room. 

The paraffin is melted in a long bath and 
portions of it are dipped out and placed in 
small pans, through which the thread is con¬ 
ducted. The wax-coated thread passes from 
the first pan of paraffin through a steel die, 
which scrapes off the excess of wax and 
prepares it for the second coat. From this 
pan the twice-coated thread passes through 
a steel die, in which the hole is slightly 
larger than the first, and the third and last 
pan has a die which gives the waxed thread 
the proper diameter. Then the paraffin- 
covered wick is taken to a large drum at 
the far end of the room, on which it is 
slowly wound. 

As the wick hangs in the air in going 
from the last pan to the winding drum, 
the paraffin cools and is quite solid when it 
reaches the drum. If the wick is not coated 


Things tOe All Should K.nobu 


657 


sufficiently the drum is taken to the end of 
the room in which the reels stand, and an¬ 
other coating of wax is put on. The wick 
is cut to match lengths in a cutting ma¬ 
chine, and then the wax splints are dipped 
in the lighting compound. 

Matches that will burn in spite of rain 
and wind are called “fusees.” The splints 
are dyed blue by boiling them for several 
minutes in a composition, and then they 
are dipped. The burning composition is a 
mixture of potash and ground sawdust, and 
this thick paste is put on the splints in three 
dipping operations, which give the match 
head a pear shape. The igniting compound 
can only he fired by rubbing it on a pre¬ 
pared surface, similar to that used for safe¬ 
ty matches. 

In fact, the fusee is hut a safety match, 
with a knob of ground sawdust and potash. 
The inflammable tip ignites this composi¬ 
tion, which sizzles and sparkles for a num¬ 
ber of seconds, no matter how much it is 
exposed to the wind. These matches are 
packed in boxes by hand, for the shape of 
the head makes it difficult for machinery to 
do this work. All of the wooden splints of 
safety and inextinguishable matches are 
paraffined, so that the wood is rendered 
more inflammable. 

The French government pensions its 
matchmakers after thirty years of service. 
The pensions for men average about $120 
a vear and for women $80. And it also 
pays the surgeons who operate upon victims 
of necrosis, caused by the white phosphorus 
used. * * * 

VENEERS FOR FINE FURNITURE 

It would surprise the average man to 
know how little of the genuine there is in 
modern furniture. Not all is mahogany 


that is sold as such, and the “solid” oak 
frequently is two-thirds basswood. Since 
the days of Pliny veneers have been used 
to give a handsome and costly exterior to 
cheap insides, and to-day veneers are used 
more generally than ever before, and their 
use is steadily increasing. Manufacturers 
say that because a piece of furniture is ve¬ 
neered is nothing against it; that as a mat¬ 
ter of fact veneered goods have an advan¬ 
tage over the solid. They neither warp nor 
check, and the matter of cost is an impor¬ 
tant factor to the man of small means and 
large desires in the furniture way. 

. xV bedroom set of solid mahogany would 
cost a small fortune, and with all of its cost 
it would not be as handsome to look upon as 
one in which veneers are used. Veneer cut¬ 
ting has been reduced to a science, and by 
modern methods effects in grain and figure 
are secured which the ancients never 
dreamed of, and which cannot be produced 
by the most ingenious straight sawing. 

Properly speaking, a veneer is a thin 
sheet of wood to lay upon a cheaper ma¬ 
terial to give it the appearance of the more 
costly. Wood is cut thin to be used in the 
manufacture of berry boxes, baskets, casks 
and other commodities, hut the veneer cut¬ 
ter does not regard the producer of berry 
boxes as belonging to his class, any more 
than the cabinetmaker looks upon the car¬ 
penter as one of his craft simply because 
they use certain tools in common. 

New York is the great veneer-producing 
center of the country, and then come in the 
order of importance Boston, Grand Rapids, 
Cincinnati and Chicago, with a few scat¬ 
tering producers at other points. Mahog¬ 
any, the king, queen and whole royal fam¬ 
ily of the cabinet woods, leads the list of 
material most used for veneers. Other for- 


058 


Things XOe All Should K^notu 


eign woods, imported in the log and cut in 
this country, are white mahogany, satin- 
wood, rosewood, cocobola, amaranth, tulip 
wood, sandal wood, olive wood, holly, box¬ 
wood, ebony and vermilion wood. Some 
oak, walnut and ash are imported, because 
the grain and color of the foreign woods 
differ from the native growth. 

Of native woods bird’s-eye and curly ma¬ 
ple, figured birch, figured and plain walnut, 
walnut burl, sycamore and cherry comprise 
the list generally used for veneers. Ebony 
is bought by the pound or ton, as are some 
of the other rare foreign woods, but ma¬ 
hogany is measured by the cubic foot. The 
native woods are bought by the log, in log 
measure, and some particularly fine speci¬ 
mens bring prices that seem fabulous. A 
single walnut tree has commanded a price 
as high as $5,000, and manufacturers’ 
agents have traveled hundreds of miles fol¬ 
lowing the trail of a rumor that a fine fig¬ 
ured walnut could be secured. 

In veneer cutting three methods are used 
—sawing, rolling, slicing and what may be 
called the “reverse roll.” Up to the begin¬ 
ning of the last quarter of this century all 
veneers were made by sawing, and this 
method still is followed exclusively in eb¬ 
ony, rose, olive, quarter-sawed oak and 
quarter-sawed sycamore, and it often is used 
with other woods. An extremely thin cir¬ 
cular saw is used, and it will slice off the 
wood as thin as cardboard, requiring six¬ 
teen and even more thicknesses to make an 
inch. When the saw is used the log is run 
through without previous treatment, except 
to remove the dirt and grit which might in¬ 
jure the saw. 

In the slicing process the log first is thor¬ 
oughly boiled in huge vats, which are tight¬ 
ly covered, the water kept hot by means of 


steam pipes. When cooked through, the log 
is hoisted out in a cloud of steam and is 
quickly rolled into the lathe. The lathe 
is just like an ordinary wood-turning ma¬ 
chine, only it is built on a much larger 
scale, and is big enough to take a log ten, 
twelve and even sixteen feet long. 

Pulleys and chains, so adjusted that one 
man can handle the largest log, are brought 
into play, and the log is hoisted into place 
and clamped fast to the revolving centers. 
The log is rapidly revolved, and as it turns 
around in the lathe a long, razor-edged 
knife is fed into it, a quarter, an eighth, a 
sixteenth or a thirty-second part of an inch 
at a time, according to the thickness re¬ 
quired in the veneer. 

At first a thin slice is taken off of any 
protuberance on the log. The next time 
the log makes a complete revolution the 
slice is larger, and gradually the log is re¬ 
duced to a perfect cylinder, and the veneer 
is peeled off just as paper comes from a 
roll, the full width of the log and of any 
desired length. When the log has been re¬ 
duced to a diameter of six or eight inches 
the lathe stops automatically, and the core 
is removed, thrown on the dump and sold 
as firewood. 

The “reverse roll” is used in cutting ve¬ 
neers from mahogany, figured walnut and 
other kinds of fine wood. Before boiling 
the bark is removed from the log and it is 
cut in halves. Instead of being put in the 
lathe, the half-log is securely bolted to a 
heavy central bar, with the bark side in the 
middle and the heart of the log outward. 

The central bar revolves, carrying the 
half log with it. The knife is adjusted as it 
is for the continuous roll, and at first takes 
off a strip only an inch or two wide, for it 
begins cutting on the edge of the log. The 


Things tOe All Should Knotv 


659 


strips rapidly Aviden as the cutting pro¬ 
gresses, until they are the width of the semi¬ 
circle described, with the outside as a cen¬ 
ter. In the same Avay the width decreases 
until it is but five or six inches, and noth¬ 
ing but the core is left. 

It is in this manner that the beautiful 
tree and fountain effects are obtained in 
mahogany and walnut, effects that can 
never be obtained by sawing or round cut¬ 
ting. The greatest care, experience and 
closest attention are necessary to get out of 
a log Avhat there is in it of beauty and 
value. 

The veneer cut from a log by the reverse 
roll process is kept by itself through all 
subsequent operations, as the veneers are 
similar in color and approximately so in 
figure, so that matching to get the required 
width is easy. The ordinary roll veneers 
are run from the machine to a saAV, Avhich 
cuts them to dimensions required for panels 
and other uses. 

From the saAV or from the cutter the 
A^eneers are sent to the dry kiln to be thor¬ 
oughly and carefully cured. Veneer is sold 
by the square foot and goes into many chan¬ 
nels of trade. It is used by piano makers 
and car builders, and enormous quantities 
are consumed by furniture manufacturers. 
Much of it is used in interior finishing of 
houses. Usually the veneers are put on the 
pianos, cars, furniture, etc., by the manu¬ 
facturers Avho buy them, but often, and 
especially for panels for desks and table 
tops, all of the work excepting adjusting, 
finishing and polishing is done at the ve¬ 
neer factory. 

The usual base for veneers is basswood. 
This is cut on the roll cutter to a thickness 
which varies with the requirements, from 
an eighth to three-eighths of an inch. The 


foundation for the costly coating is built 
up, usually three-ply. The center is three- 
eighths of an inch in thickness and is cut 
to the desired dimensions for the panel. 

It is run through a machine Avhich re¬ 
sembles in looks a laundryman’s mangle, 
where it is covered on both sides Avith glue. 
As the pieces come from the machine they 
are laid in a pile, Avith the eighth-inch 
pieces above and below, laid with the grain 
at right angles to the grain of the center 
piece. When the pile is high enough it is 
trucked aAvay to the press, Avhere, under 
heavy pressure, it remains until thoroughly 
dry. 

The A’eneer is usually applied in the same 
Avay, the base having been run through the 
gluing machine, but greater care is observed 
in adjusting the surface pieces and han¬ 
dling it. The figured A r eneers are always 
matched by expert workmen and the pieces 
that go together to produce the best effects 
are fastened together Avith strips of paper, 
and then, for convenience in handling, are 
folded. 

For rough work—baskets, berry boxes, 
draAver bottoms, backings and similar stuff 
—the ordinary lathe is used to cut the ve¬ 
neers, and the thickness varies from an 
eighth to three-eighths of an inch. The 
Avoods most cut for such purposes are bass¬ 
wood, maple, elm, birch, poplar and AA-liite 
wood. The largest producing section of 
country in the Avorld for this product is 
northern Michigan, AA’here hardwood is' 
abundant and cheap. 

£ 

GRAPHITE AND LEAD PENCILS 

The “leads” of lead pencils are made of 
a mixture of German pipe clay and black 
lead, which is not lead but graphite. But 


660 



Things XOe Alt Should K.nobu 


brother of the diamond and a half-brother 
of coal, lampblack and several other dis¬ 
similar substances. But unlike coal and 
other forms of carbon, graphite will not 
burn. It is so refractory that it withstands 
the most intense heat that a furnace can 
give. Diamond, a pure carbon, is the 
hardest known substance. Graphite, a pure 
carbon, is one of the softest, if not the soft¬ 
est, of minerals dug from the earth. Yet 
a diamond can be reduced by intense heat 
to a cinder, while the block of graphite on 
which the diamond rests will not have its 
sharpest edge dulled by the fire. 

Graphite is found in its natural state 
singularly pure. That taken from the 
Ticonderoga mines, the most important in 
the United States, has been found 99.9 per 
cent pure. It is found in irregular sheets 
or detached masses, with every evidence 
that it is the result of destructive distilla¬ 
tion of vegetable or animal tissue. It is 
supposed that graphite, like coal, originally 
was vegetable matter, which was trans¬ 
formed to its present form by immense 
pressure and intense heat. But why it 
should withstand heat, and why coal which 
came from the same source and through the 
same processes, should burn, is a matter 
that science has not settled to the satisfac¬ 
tion of investigators. 

Ceylon furnishes a large part of the 
world’s supply of graphite. Most of the 
graphite from Ceylon is taken to England 
for distribution and manufacture. In this 
country it is found in many places, and in 
Yew York, California, Massachusetts, Ver¬ 
mont and Yew Hampshire it is mined com¬ 
mercially. 

The graphite is taken in the lump from 
the mines and carried to the reducing mill, 
where it is ground or pulverized in stamp 


the first pencils were made of real lead, 
and the'name has clung to them ever since. 


IN A CEYLON GRAPHITE MINE. 

Graphite or plumbago is a nearly pure 
form of carbon. In this respect it is a 



Things '€Z)e A.U Should Kjnobv 


061 


mills under water. The fine particles of 
the graphite flow away with the water 
through a number of tanks, collecting at 
the bottom of these reservoirs. It is packed 
in barrels and sent to the factory, where 
tens of thousands of lead pencils are 
turned out every day. 

** The pulverized graphite is so fine that it 


powder for the finest pencils settling in the 
last tank. In another series of tanks the 
German pipe clay which is mixed with 
graphite to secure the different grades of 
pencils, from very soft to extra hard, is 
graded in the. same way by floating. The 
finest clay is mixed with the finest graphite, 
and the hardness of the pencil is secured by 



Eg. v -, , 

IW' * 


V 




SORTING AND SIFTING GRAPHITE IN CEYLON. 


reallv is a dust, dingy in color and smooth 
and oily to the touch. It is divided into 
various grades of fineness, by floating on 
the water from one tank to another. The 
coarse dust sinks to the bottom of the fiist 
tank, the next finer to the bottom of the 
second, and so on down the line, the finest 


increasing the proportion of clay in the 
t mixture. Tor the medium grades, seven 
parts by weight of clay are mixed with ten 
parts of graphite. 

After the graphite and clay are ground 
together in water the mixture is put in 
canvas bags, and the water is squeezed out 















662 


Things 'COe Alt Should K.not&> 


under the hydraulic press, leaving a mass 
like putty. This plastic material is placed 
in the forming press, which is a small iron 
cylinder, in which a solid plunger or piston 
works up and down. A steel blade having 
a hole the size and shape of the lead in the 
pencil, is put under the open 6nd of the 
cylinder, and a plunger, pressing down, 
forces the graphite through the hole, mak¬ 
ing a continuous thread or wire of it. As 
long as this thread is moist it is pliable, 
hut it becomes brittle when dry, so it is 
handled rapidly. It is cut into three-lead 
lengths, straightened out, and then hard¬ 
ened in a crucible over a coal fire. The 
leads when taken from the crucible are 
ready for the wood. 

Pine is used for the cheap pencils, an 
ordinary quality of red cedar is used for 
the medium-priced pencils, but nothing but 
the best Florida Key cedar is put into the 
best pencils. The saw mills in Florida cut 
the cedar into blocks about seven inches 
long, and these are sawed into strips wide, 
enough for six pencils. But as pencils are 
made in halves, each strip is only thick 
enough for half a pencil. When the strips 
are received at the factory, they are run 
through a machine which cuts in each one 
six grooves, round or square, and at the 
same time smooths the face of the wood. 
Both strips are grooved alike, for, unlike the 
European-made pencils, those made in 
America have the lead equally in each 
strip. 

The filling of the strips is done by girls. 
The first one takes a grooved slip of wood 
in her left hand, and a bunch of leads in 
the right. She spreads the leads out in a 
fan shape, and with one motion fills the 
six grooves with leads. Kext to her sits 
another girl who takes the filled strip, and 


quickly and neatly lays on it another 
grooved strip, which has just been coated 
with hot glue by a third girl. The filled 
and glued strips are piled up together and 
put into a press, where they are left to dry. 
The ends of the strips are evened off under 
a sandpaper wheel, and then the strips are 
fed into a machine which cuts out the in¬ 
dividual pencils, shapes them and delivers 
them, smooth and ready for the color and 
polish, in six streams. The coloring is done 
in liquid dyes, after which the pencils are 
sent through the varnishing machine. Then 
follow.the stamping and finishing, all done 
by automatic machines, and finally the 
finished pencils are packed around the oval 
grooved blocks, tied and wrapped ready for 
shipment. 

The pencils are counted at various stages 
of the making, and the counting is done in a 
way as simple as it is accurate. The count¬ 
ing board is a board on which two strips of 
wood are fastened the length of the board, 
about four inches apart. In each strip are 
144 grooves. The workman grasps a hand¬ 
ful of pencils and rubs them over the board 
once or twice, leaving a pencil in each 
groove. In this way he counts a gross of 
pencils in a few seconds, and does it with¬ 
out a mistake, for only 144 pencils can be 
placed on the board at one time, and if any 
grooves are empty the workman notices the 
mistake at once. 

Graphite is also used in large quantities 
as a lubricant for the chains of bicycles, 
and another important use is in coating 
molds in electrotyping. Crucibles for 
chemical and other purposes, where intense 
heat is required, are made of graphite 
mixed with fire clay and a little charcoal, 
and then molded while moist, as pottery is 
made. 


Things tOe Alt Should K.notv 


663 


HOW RUBBER GOODS ARE MADE 

When a man throws his worn-out over¬ 
shoes into the alley he has an idea that their 
days of usefulness are over. But there is 
where he is mistaken. The rag-pickers and 
rubbish-gatherers rescue the overshoes out 
of the garbage box and sell them to the man 
who makes more money buying waste ma¬ 
terial than some do in corner lots or deals 
on the board of trade. This man sends the 
old, wom-out footgear which has india rub¬ 
ber in it to the india rubber factory, and 
there the old shoes are worked up into gar¬ 
den hose, wagon springs, door mats, belting 
and a hundred other things turned out of 
india rubber. 

Pure rubber has its limitations in the in¬ 
dustrial arts; it is too soft, too stretchy and 
has not enough “body” and general tough¬ 
ness to withstand the wear and tear to 
which overshoes, doormats and garden hose 
are subjected. Then again the rubber is 
too costly to be put in its pure shape into 
many of the everyday articles which are 
classed as india rubber goods, so the manu¬ 
facturer mixes in rubber which has seen 
service with the pure Para gum, and makes 
it into the thousand and one things which 
are regarded as indispensable by machinists, 
electricians, workmen in all trades, and, in 
short, every person in the civilized world. 
By mixing old rubber, mineral earths and 
other substances with the pure gum the 
manufacturer is able to produce an article 
which he can sell at 17 cents a pound or 
less, when the pure gum is selling for 65 
cents a pound or more. 

The best india rubber comes from Brazil, 
and the best of that from the upper Amazon 
river, and this is the “fine Para” of com¬ 
merce. It is sent to the factories in the 


h nited States in the shape of irregular 
lumps known as “bisquits,” and these bis- 
quits are made by the “seringueiros,” the 
rubber-gatherers of Brazil. 

The seringueiro starts out with his little 
tomahawk about eight o’clock in the morn¬ 
ing, for if he plunged at an earlier hour into 
the rank undergrowth of the forest in which 
the rubber tree grows, the heavy dew would 
soak him through in a few minutes. With 
his tomahawk in hand he goes from one 
rubber tree to another, cutting little gashes 
in the bark, and fastening under the cuts 
small tin or clay cups, not much larger 
than teacups. He “blazes” the tree until 
noon, when he retraces his steps and finds 
that the cups are filled with the milk-white 
sap which has dripped from the wounds he 
made in the bark. 

The sap is poured into a basin-like vessel 
and taken to the hut where the gum is to 
be cured. This is done by smoking the gum 
over a queer furnace shaped like an in¬ 
verted vase, under which are burned the nuts 
of the urucary, a species of palm. The 
nuts make a dense smoke, which pours out 
of the neck of the furnace. The workman, 
squatting beside the fire, dips into the rub¬ 
ber sap a wooden paddle, to which clings 
a thin layer of the sticky juice. Then the 
gum-smeared paddle is held and turned in 
the smoke until the water in the sap evapor¬ 
ates, when the paddle is dipped into the sap 
again. This operation is repeated until 
the gum forms a large lump on the paddle 
about the size of a man’s head. This is cut 
from the wood, and after the “bisquit,” as 
the ball of gum is called, has been exposed 
to the sun for a time, to complete the dry¬ 
ing, it is piled up with the other bisquits 
and shipped away. 

The india rubber manufacturer first 



ROW OP OLD INDIA RUBBER TREES, SHOWING CHARACTERISTIC TRUNKS AND FOLIAGE. 
Rubber trees require a long time to reach this size, but the profits on cultivation are large, and plantations have been started 
























Things XOe All Should K.nob» 


665 


cleans the rubber, for bits of leaves, pieces 
of bark, earth, stones and other foreign 
substances are mixed with it in the bisquit, 
so the bisquit is put in the “washing ma¬ 
chine.” This is composed of a pair of 
toothed rollers, over which a perforated wa¬ 
ter-pipe hangs. The crude rubber is cut, 
squeezed and mashed between the rollers, 
and a spray of water carries off the im¬ 
purities. The rubber comes from the wash¬ 
ing machine in irregular strips, rough as 
hark and resembling somewhat the old slabs 
of lumber which are piled up outside a saw¬ 
mill. The “mixing” machine, to which 
the rubber is taken next, is not unlike the 
washing machine, for it has a pair of steel 
rollers, and over them is a box or hopper 
filled with the compound which the rubber- 
maker mixes with the pure rubber. It is 
at this stage of the manufacture that the 
old overshoes, arctics, garden hose and other 
worn-out goods begin life again. 

In the compound also is the sulphur, in 
one form or another, which “vulcanizes” 
the rubber, and which gives to manufac¬ 
tured rubber those preservative qualities 
the absence of which prevented rubber from 
entering into the industrial arts until it 
was discovered that sulphur was the sub¬ 
stance the chemists had long been looking 
for. The washed rubber mechanically com¬ 
bines with the composition in the mixing 
machine, and it is then either taken to the 
rolls, where the rubber is coated on canvas, 
or else to a machine which kneads the rub¬ 
ber preparatory to pressing it into molds. 
At no stage of the process is the rubber ever 
melted. It is warmed up at times, but 
molded solid rubber goods are pressed into 
molds, not poured in. 

A large proportion of rubber goods ought 
to be called rubber-clad goods, for they are 


made from duck or canvas of different 
weights, coated with rubber, and this is 
done in the frictioning machine, which con¬ 
sists of iron and steel rolls placed one over 
the other, in which the duck and rubber are 
pressed together. As the duck passes be¬ 
tween the rollers, the sheet of rubber laid on 
toj) is pressed into the duck, and the pres¬ 
sure is so great that the duck and rubber 
become almost one material. This rubber- 
clad duck is the basic fabric from which 
garden, fire-engine, steam and other hose, 
belting, packing, gaskets and other rubber 
goods of like character are made. Hose is 
made in fifty-foot lengths, from two to ten 
ply, and it is all made on iron mandrels, or 
rods, which are of the same size as the in¬ 
side diameter of the hose. 

A strip of pure rubber fifty feet long 
and just wide enough to double around the 
mandrel is first wrapped around the iron 
rod, and as the fresh-cut edges are touched 
with naphtha, the rubber unites and forms 
a pure rubber pipe, which is afterwards the 
inside of the hose. The rubber-coated duck is 
next wrapped around the pure rubber pipe, 
which is still on the mandrel; if the duck 
is wrapped around twice the hose is two- 
ply, if four times the hose is four-ply. The 
duck is wrapped around the mandrel by 
machinery, and small rollers press the edge 
of the duck, so that every inch is subject to 
pressure. Then another strip of pure rub¬ 
ber is put around the duck for the outside, 
and the hose, still on the mandrel, is put 
in the “heater.” This is nothing more nor 
less than a gigantic boiler, fifty-five feet 
long or longer. Steam under pressure is ad¬ 
mitted to the heater, and the sulphur in 
the compound becomes chemically united 
with the rubber and the rubber is “vulcan¬ 
ized.” The hose is kept in the heater from 


COG 


Things tOe All Should K.no^ou 


one-half to three-quarters of an hour, and 
then it is taken from the mandrel. Its 
ragged ends are neatly cut, and it is ready 
to receive the brass fittings. In stripping 
the hose from the mandrel compressed air 
is used. The air is admitted between the 
hose and the mandrel, and the hose, ex¬ 
panded by the air, slips off easily. 

Rubber belting for machine shops and 
factories is made from the rubber-coated 
duck, and it, too, is made up into two-ply, 
three-ply, and up to ten-ply, depending on 
the number of times the long strip of duck 
is folded upon itself. When it is folded up, 
however, it is not cured in the heater, but 
in a long hydraulic press which squeezes 
the folds of the rubber-coated duck until the 
several layers of canvas and rubber are 
practically one solid piece. At the same 
time steam is introduced to complete the 
vulcanizing process, and make the adhesion 
better and the union stronger. The belting 
is pressed in sections, as the press is not 
long enough to take in an entire length of 
belting, and each section is under pressure 
from twenty minutes to half an hour. 

Rubber bands sold by stationers and used 
by millions in offices and stores are cut 
from a pure rubber hose which is placed 
on a mandrel in a lathe. As it revolves a 
knife cuts off the sections of the hose, and 
these narrow sections are the rubber bands. 

The large perforated rubber mats which 
cover the floors of halls and rotundas in 
business blocks are cut out by hand. The 
thick rubber sheet is laid on a block and 
with different-shaped dies the pattern is 
punched out. In this way it is easy for 
the manufacturer to make rubber mats to 
order and from special designs, with the 
name of the company or firm in the center 
of the mats. 


BARRELS AND KEGS 

When Pliny, who was born 23 A. D., 
took his first trip into the Alps, he w T as 
surprised to find the natives using casks 
and barrels. The discovery made such a 
deep impression on him that he made a 
note of his find, and, when he returned to 
Rome put the discovery into words which 
have descended to this age. The Romans, 
learning of the novel vessels used to store 
wine and liquids, went into the mountains 
and soon mastered the cooper’s art as it 
existed in those days. They improved on 
the rough casks made by the mountaineers, 
and before many years were turning out a 
better product. Pliny did not fully de¬ 
scribe those first barrels, or if he did the 
description was lost, for history has not 
disclosed what early barrels and casks were 
like. It is supposed that they were rough, 
crude, bungling affairs, with leather thongs 
for hoops and rough hewn logs for staves. 
After Pliny’s time tight casks came into 
general use among the Romans, who spread 
them through the known world. 

Flour, apple and other barrels made to 
contain solids are of more recent date. 
But a short time ago, flour was sent abroad 
in white sacks, which were inclosed in heav¬ 
ier ones. It rarely happens now that flour 
is exported in sacks, for barrels have taken 
their place because modern methods of pro¬ 
duction have reduced the cost of flour bar¬ 
rels until it is cheaper to use them instead 
of sacks, and barrels are much safer in 
every way. 

The manufacture of flour barrels has 
growm to be an industry by itself. It is dif¬ 
ficult to estimate how many are made each 
year in the entire! country, but it is a great 
many millions. Minneapolis annually 


Things tOe All Should K_nobu 


667 


turns out between 2,500,000 and 2,750,000 
flour barrels, with Kansas City, West Su¬ 
perior, Chicago, Milwaukee, Buffalo, and 
many other cities important contributors to 
the total annual output. 

According to the most modern and ap¬ 
proved method, it requires eight men to 
turn out a complete barrel. The work is 
done by the piece and each man performs 
his allotted share and passes it on to the 
next. The cooper has not been entirely dis¬ 
carded, for he does a 
small proportion of the 
labor, such as hooping 
the barrel and finishing 
it ready for the miller. 

Machinery does the rest. 

Staves are of elm, 
taken from the hard¬ 
wood forests of Min¬ 
nesota, W isconsin and 
Michigan. The stave 
factory is located in 
the heart of the woods, 
for the sake of conven¬ 
ience and also as a mat¬ 
ter of economy. When 
it is received at the 
city cooper shop, the 
stave is a flat board 
three-eighths of an 
inch in thickness, narrowing toward each 
end, so that it will draw into the shape of 
a barrel when set up. It was formerly the 
custom to use hickory .hoops. Then those 
made of wire were tried; but each in turn 
has had to give way, and now a hoop made 
of elm is in general use throughout the 
country. The latter has been found more 
durable, stronger and cheaper. 

The “setting up” apparatus is extremely 
simple. Hear the workman is a large pile 


of the staves corded into bundles. It re¬ 
quires seventeen staves for each barrel, and 
they are inserted in a circle between an 
iron “truss hoop” and the “form.” Another 
truss hoop is drawn on, usually a wooden 
one, and the next workman takes the barrel. 
The upper ends are sticking out in every 
direction, and it is his business to bend 
them into shape. He is the “windlasser.” 
A wire rope, working on opposing eccen¬ 
trics, alternately tightens and loosens, the 



MAKING FLOUR BARRELS. 


motion being continuous. The skilled 
workman places the irregular end of the 
barrel into the loose loop, and when the 
coil tightens the staves are brought into 
place. A couple of wooden truss-hoops are 
slipped over the center, and an iron one is 
placed on the drawn end. The barrel is 
rapidly beginning to assume shape, but, as 
yet, there are no heads or chimes or perma¬ 
nent hoops. 

The next step is to the heater. A small 




















































G68 


Things XOe All Should K_nobv 


sheet-iron stove, just large enough to fit 
the interior of the barrel, has been made 
red hot by a rapidly blazing pine fire. The 
barrel is placed over this and allowed to 
remain until the staves are thoroughly dry, 
and they fit as closely as it is possible to 
bring them together. The heat also gives 
the flare or bulge to the center of the bar¬ 
rel. 

The “tapper” takes the barrel, and with 
his cooper’s adze taps the staves from the 
inside until they present a smooth appear¬ 
ance and none of them bulge at the joints. 
He generally places one or two extra truss- 
hoops on the barrel before commencing his 
work. The two following steps are purely 
mechanical ones. The barrel goes into the 
“trusser,” a machine which presses it to¬ 
gether, driving down the truss hoops to 
keep it in place. Then it goes to the “work¬ 
ing-off” machine, where the “croze” and 
the “chime” are worked on it. A workman 
then dexterously knocks off the two iron 
truss-lioops and it is ready for the cooper, 
who adds the finishing touches. 

The cooper is equipped with an adze, a 
sharp spoke-shave, a hoop vise, a wooden 
driver, and one or two other tools of minor 
importance. When the barrel reaches him 
the staves are held in place by three w T ooden 
truss-hoops but it contains no heads. In 
the technical language of the shop there are 
no bottoms; everything is head. 

The heading is put in place, then the 
cooper measures the hoop on the barrel, 
putting it in a vise and nailing the ends 
together with a copper staple, adding 
three small nails. The hoops are then 
“driven” into place, there being eight to a 
barrel. If the working-off machine has not 
done its work completely, the cooper sup¬ 
plements its efforts by running over the 


side with a sharp spoke-shave. The barrel 
is then ready for the mill, and in a few 
hours it is filled with flour, ready for ship¬ 
ment. 

When a cooper shop is run with any de¬ 
gree of system the output for the day repre¬ 
sents a good many barrels. Eighty men, 
sixty of whom are coopers, the other twenty 
operating the mechanical department, can 
produce 4,000 barrels during a run of ten 
hours. If each individual were required to 
make a complete barrel without the aid of 
machinery the output for the same number 
of workmen would be reduced to less than 
a thousand. 

A cooper receives from $2.50 to $3.50 a 
day at piece work, while employes in the 
mechanical department are paid from 
$1.50 to $4 a day, according to their duties. 
It is quite universally conceded among 
coopers that the machinery of to-day is do¬ 
ing the maximum of work compatible with 
a finished and substantial product. 

Paper barrels and barrels made of broad 
sheets or thick veneers of wood, compete 
with barrels made of wooden staves for stor¬ 
ing and transporting dry stuff. The paper 
barrel is made from a single sheet of straw- 
board, curved to a cylindrical shape and 
.held together with metal fasteners, or it is 
made without a joint by a machine which 
by centrifugal motion throws the soft paper 
stuff against a mold. A steel barrel for 
holding oil has been put on the market, and 
barrels made from wood pulp chemically 
treated have been made. 

The importance of the cooperage trade 
is demonstrated by the number of kegs used 
for the single purpose of holding beer. In 
one brewery in Milwaukee more than 
12,000 kegs pass through the establishment 
each day, and that brewery turns out more 


Things XOe All Should K_noto 


669 


than 1,000,000 barrels of beer annually. 
Add to the brewing industry flour mills, 
nail mills, distilleries, pork packers, sugar 
refineries, fruit growers, paint mills, 
varnish works, salt works, lime and cement 
works and a thousand and one other indus¬ 
tries that use barrels, casks, kegs and hogs¬ 
heads by the hundreds of thousands, and 
some idea of the vast number of hooped 
vessels turned out by the cooper each year 
can be arrived at. 

SEEDS AND HOW TO TEST THEM 

"When spring begins to draw near, herald¬ 
ed by alluring and highly colored adver¬ 
tisements of seed dealers and florists, the 
farmer, housewife and amateur gardener 
flood the mails with the seed orders they 
are sending to the dealers. The little paper 
packages, full of promises of lovely blooms 
and plump vegetables, are sent by return 
mail, and then come the planting, waiting, 
anxiety and triumph or disappointment. 
Those who buy their seeds of reputable, 
conscientious dealers have themselves to 
blame if plants, grasses, flowers and shrubs 
fail to spring from the seed; but too often 
the little bags or packages of seeds contain 
sand, crushed quartz, “dead” seed, or in¬ 
ferior seed mixed with a small proportion 
of the genuine, for seed adulteration has 
been reduced to a science. 

Sometimes this adulteration is due to 
sheer carelessness on the part of growers 
and dealers, but more often it is the result 
of careful study and skillful manipulation 
by dishonest men. Europe set the example 
of mixing inferior, dead and cheap seed 
with the good, to increase the profits of the 
grower and dealer, and some of the worst 
pests which trouble farmers were intro¬ 


duced into this country through the medi¬ 
um of adulterated seeds. The Russian this¬ 
tle, a foul weed which covers over 35,000 
square miles of good farming lands and 
seriously interferes with agricultural oper¬ 
ations in seven states, stole into the United 
States more than a score of years ago in 
Russian flaxseed. 

It is said that the average farmer buys 
the cheapest seed in the market and trusts 
to luck for results. This practice is con¬ 
demned by experts, who declare that cheap 
seed is the principal source of the hosts of 
noxious weeds which spring up on many 
farms. Purity is a primary requisite to 
good seed, and adulterated seed is not pure. 
The adulterating matter may be worthless, 
harmless stuff, such as sand, dirt, stones, 
crushed quartz or dead seed, or it may be 
seed of harmful weeds, which so nearly re¬ 
sembles the genuine that the closest inspec¬ 
tion fails to discover the fraud. 

Grass and clover seed are the principal 
victims of the dishonest “mixer.” A com¬ 
mon method of adulteration is to mix the 
seed of wild and inferior grasses with that 
which commands a high price. A grass 
seed which sells for 12 cents a pound will 
be mixed with seed worth 20 cents, and the 
mixture will be sold at the top price, and 
under the name of the 20-cent seed. Some 
sample packages of seed labeled “Kentucky 
blue grass” were examined in one instance, 
and it was found that 35 per cent of it was 
made up of weed seed, dirt and chaff. A 
pound of “orchard-grass” seed in a package 
that was examined, contained 1,400 seeds 
of the sheep sorrel, a worthless weed. Near¬ 
ly 100 samples of clover seed, bought of 
dealers scattered over the country, showed 
adulterations ranging from three ounces to 
forty pounds a bushel. 


670 


Things XOe All Should K_notv 



The reputation of American seeds dropped 
to such a low point in Europe because of 
the unscrupulous “mixing” done by Ameri¬ 
can seed growers and dealers, that the 
United States department of agriculture 
started extensive and comprehensive pure- 
seed investigations. In Europe there are 
several “seed-control” stations where seed 
is tested, and seed investigation now is an 
important feature in many agricultural ex¬ 
perimental stations in this country. 


a personally conducted pure-seed investi¬ 
gation. The method of testing as carried 
on in an experimental station is as follows: 

A fair average sample is secured, and 
this sample is divided into smaller average 
samples, so that several tests can he carried 
on at the same time. After this smaller 
average sample is weighed, the seeds are 
spread out upon a smooth-glazed black or 
white surface, and all of the impurities are 
carefully separated from the genuine seed, 


By courtesy of the Canadian Pacific Railway. 

EXPERIMENTAL FARM IN CANADA, PRODUCING SEED WHEAT. 


The apparatus and appliances used in 
these investigations are complete in every 
particular and somewhat expensive, but 
any farmer or gardener can test his own 
seed and arrive at correct conclusions. The 
points to he considered are genuineness, 
purity, germinating power, and actual 
value of the seed. A good magnifying glass, 
a set of small bottles or tubes provided with 
corks, and a home-made germinating appa¬ 
ratus are all that is necessary to enter into 


weighed, and their percentage ascertained. 
All chaff, sand and foreign mixtures of any 
sort are regarded as impurities. The seeds 
of weeds are identified, if possible, and 
every result is carefully recorded on blanks 
made for the purpose. 

When the test for impurities is complete, 
the germinating test is made. Where the 
tests are made thoroughlv two lots of seeds 
are taken for the germinating test—one for 
the germinating apparatus, and one for out- 








671 


Things tOe Alt Should K.notv 


door or greenhouse culture. For sprouting 
seeds it is necessary to have some sort of 
an apparatus in which all of the different 
factors governing germination, such as 
light, temperature and moisture, can be 
controlled, and this requires artificial heat 
which can be regulated. 

\ arious forms of equipments are used; 
one of them consists of a square chamber 
made with double walls which are filled 
with water to preserve a low temperature. 
The lower part of the chamber is made of 
sheet iron and contains a Bunsen gas burn¬ 
er, connected with an automatic heat ream- 

O 

lator, which is used to control the tempera¬ 
ture. The upper chamber is provided with 
holes for the insertion of thermometers and 
for the admission of oxygen. The chamber 
is provided with shelves made of galvanized 
iron, and on these shelves are copper pans, 
in which the seed may be germinated in 
various ways. 

Before the seed is placed in this or any 
other generating apparatus, it is soaked in 
distilled water or rain water from six to 
fifteen hours to hasten germination. The 
“sprouting bed” is made of some material 
which will soak up water, such as porous 
dishes, thick cloth, flannel or blotting paper, 
asbestos cloth, earth or sand. 

The selected seeds are placed on or be¬ 
tween the sprouting bed, and placed in the 
germinating chamber. The temperature is 
maintained at a uniform degree as it is in 
an incubator, and, in fact, the artificial ger¬ 
minating of seeds and the artificial hatch¬ 
ing of eggs are alike in many respects, and 
a good germinator can be made out of an 
ordinary incubator. The seeds are left in 
the germinating chamber until they sprout, 
and the germinating value of the sample of 
seeds is found by counting the number of 


seeds which sprout within the time allowed, 
and ascertaining the percentage of the 
whole number. 

Usually the time allowed for seeds to 
germinate is as follows: Ten full days for 
cereals, clovers, peas, beans, lentils, sun¬ 
flowers, cabbage, rape, mustard, flax, chic- 
ory, hemp, p°PP.y and tobacco 5 fourteen 
days for beet-seed balls, rye grasses, timo¬ 
thy, carrots, etc.; twenty-one full days for 
grasses, except meadow and rye grasses and 
timothy; twenty-eight full days for meadow 
grasses, birches, alders, acorns, beeches, etc., 
and forty-two full days for white pine and 
stone fruits. Seeds which do not germinate 
within the specified time are counted bad, 
and, in the calculation, figure as such. 

A simple home-made germinating appa¬ 
ratus can be made of a good-sized milk-pan, 
a j)orous dish, such as is used for setting 
flower pots in, and a pane of glass big 
enough to entirely cover the pan. The bot¬ 
tom of the pan is covered with water aud 
the porous saucer is placed in the middle. 
I 11 the bottom of the saucer a piece of thick 
blotting-paper or flannel is laid, and on this 
the seeds are spread, and then another piece 
of paper or cloth is laid over the seed and 
the pane of glass is placed over the pan. 
The paper or cloth is soaked in water be¬ 
fore the seeds are laid in it, and the seeds 
are soaked from six to fifteen hours before 
putting them in the pan. The water soaks 
into the porous saucer and this keeps the 
“sprouting bed” moist enough to sprout 
the seeds. The atmosphere of an ordinary 
living-room is suitable, if care is taken to 
place the pan near the stove or in some 
warm place at night. The pan may be left 
partly open from time to time to permit 
fresh air to reach the seed. 

With this apparatus, and a strong mag- 


672 


Things IS Oe All Should K.noto 


nifying glass to aid in separating the im- 
purities from the sample to he tested, any 
farmer can ascertain the practical value of 
his seed. The sample should be a fair aver¬ 
age of the whole, and it should be weighed 
and the seeds counted so that the proper 
percentage of purity and germinating value 
can be ascertained accurately. 

For cleaning large quantities of seed 
from which to secure a test sample, a seed¬ 
cleaning machine is required. One used in 
an experimental station is like a fanning 
mill. This machine not only separates the 
chatf and dirt from the seed, but divides 
the cleaned seed into light and heavy seeds. 
All that this machine does can be done by 
a farmer with a number of sieves, varying 
in the number of meshes to the inch. With 
a number of such sieves the seed can be 
cleaned and separated quickly and cheaply. 

& £ 

EGGS AND HOW THEY ARE 
INSPECTED 

Christopher Columbus had to smash an 
egg to make it stand upright. The men 
who inspect eggs could have shown the 
great discoverer how to make history with¬ 
out breaking eggs, for, by a twist of the 
wi st and a shake of the elbow, they toss 
eggs from one hand to another, lift them 
out of cases by the handful, finger the fra¬ 
gile things with a sleight-of-hand dexterity 
which is astonishing, and can make an egg 
balance itself on the edge of a case without 
even nicking the shell. 

In the early days of the trade these jug¬ 
glers of eggs were called “egg candlers,” 
because the lowly tallow dip supplied the 
rays which betrayed the interior economy 
of the product of hens’ nests. But the 


development of the industry and the adop¬ 
tion of the electric incandescent lamp for 
the light brought about a change of name, 
and the members of the craft are known as 
“egg inspectors.” 

A good brisk inspector, handling a fair 
run of eggs, can “candle” thirty cases of 
eggs a day; as each case holds thirty dozen, 
the day’s run will average 10,800 eggs. The 
work is carried on in a dark room, in which 
the only lights are those used for inspecting 
the eggs. The condition of an egg is found 
by holding it to the light, and the degree 
of the translucency, color, spots and shape 
of the dark places determines the grade and 
character of the egg. 

In Chicago and all large centers which 
have the electric light the incandescent 
lamp is used. But the candle by no means 
is laid on the shelf. Many inspectors claim 
that the incandescent light hurts their eyes, 
and that candle light is best after all, even 
though its modest flame flickers and sput¬ 
ters when the nimble fingers of the candler 
stir the air about it. The candle usually 
is held upright between three shingle nails 
stuck in the end of a short board, and the 
inspector holds the eggs close to and slightly 
above the flame, so that he looks down upon 
it. 

Gas jets are used in some places and 
“natural” light is employed in others. 
When sunlight or daylight is used the 
window is completely covered except a 
space about four inches long and two inches 
wide. This opening is covered with leather 
and in it are two holes. The eggs are held 
up to the holes and “candled.” The bulb 
of the incandescent light is enveloped in a 
sheet-iron hood, which has a small opening 
in the front part. The eggs are held up to 
this opening, two at a time, and inspected. 


Things tOe All Should Know 


673 


Any man can candle eggs if lie “knows 
eggs,” for the handicraft consists simply in 
holding the egg to the light, looking through 
it and classifying it according to its appear¬ 
ance. But—and the “hut” is a large one—• 
the man who inspects eggs must be able to 
distinguish at one glance the particular 
class to which the egg belongs, and egg in¬ 
spectors recognize twenty grades. A clever 
man with a keen eye, a nice sense of dis¬ 
crimination, an adhesive memory and a 
well-developed knack of handling things 
may became a fair egg inspector in three 
years, hut five years probably will pass be¬ 
fore he is expert enough to go on the list 
of adepts. 

The handling of the eggs is an important 
factor in the craft. Any man can pick up 
a single egg, hold it to the light, turn it 
round two or three times and lay the egg 
back in the crate again, but it takes an 
expert to pick up four eggs in one hand, 
three in another and by the mere working 
of the fingers roll an egg between the thumb 
and two fingers and then roll it out of the 
way to put another one in its place. Gen¬ 
erally two eggs are picked up with each 
hand at a time, so that they are inspected 
in groups of four. 

But the inspector does more than candle 
his wares, for he handles his own cases, 
lifts them to the bench, takes them down 
again, nails on covers, transfers eggs from 
one case to another and tells of marvelous 
curiosities in the egg line, which have 
passed under his fingers'. He mentions 
three-yolk eggs; double eggs in which a 
perfectly formed egg, shell and all, is 
found inside of an egg; eggs with all of 
the colors of the rainbow in their shells; 
eo-o-s with words and dates formed in the 
..shell, and eggs with double and triple shells. 


One of the many interesting “tricks” 
done by the men who earn their bread hand¬ 
ling eggs, is that of transferring them from 
one case to another. Eggs are shipped and 
stored in cases, and are packed in straw- 
board compartments or “fillers,” each of 
which is a tray and holds three dozen eggs. 

A square sheet of strawboard lies under 
each filler. The inspector slips his hand 



under this sheet of cardboard and with his 
other hand on top of the tray lifts it, with 
its load of thirty-six ecgs, out of the case, 
lays it over the empty filler and withdraw¬ 
ing the cardboard allows the eggs in the top 
tray to fall down into the empty one. This 
is a knack of the trade which requires hut 
a trial by a layman to prove its elusive 
nature. 

A strictly “fresh” egg is one without 
flaws of any kind. It may be ten days or 
two weeks old, but it is not more aged. This 
is called a “selected” egg and commands 
the highest price. When eggs begin to 



















674 


Things XOe All Should K_nobv 


grow stale the white shrinks, and this is 
shown to the inspector by a well-defined 
line in the large end of the egg. If shrunk 
too much for the first class, the egg goes 
into the “seconds,” which also include fresh 
eggs that are “checked” or cracked. 

A checked egg is a cracked egg, but the 
crack is not noticed until it is held up to 
the light or is rattled or “ticked” in the 
hand with another egg. A solid egg-shell 
gives a clear sound if ticked against another 
egg, but a cracked or checked egg gives out 
a dead, wooden sound. After the seconds 
come “spots” and “leaks.” “Spots” are 
eggs in which the yolk clings to the shell 
and “leaks” are broken eggs. These are 
the general grades, but each of them is 
subdivided into grades recognized by the 
trade. 

The best eggs are selected to be placed in 
cold storage warehouses from which they 
will be taken and sold when fresh eggs are 
scarce. They are carefully inspected be¬ 
fore they are sent to the icehouse or cooler, 
and most of the inspectors are on this work 
in April and May, and sometimes the early 
part of June. During this period the hen 
is working overtime and sending fresh eggs 
to market; then she takes it easy for a 
time. 

Eggs are kept in cold storage for seven, 
eight or more months. For the first three 
months they retain their original flavor and 
then they begin to deteriorate, and the 
longer they are kept the staler they become. 
When withdrawn they are inspected as 
fhoiigh they were fresh eggs, and divided 
into similar grades. Pickled eggs are those 
kept in some lime or alkali solution, and 
salted eggs are preserved by being packed 
in salt. Of course, none of these preserved 
eggs is as good as the fresh article, but if 


they pass the candler they are good enough 
to eat. 

The inspector can detect preserved eggs 
at once and also can name the “icehouse,” 
“pickled” or “salted” egg when it comes 
up. The icehouse egg is shrunk, its yolk is 
dark and it has a dull ring when ticked. The 
shell of a pickled egg is mottled and gives 
a metallic sound and the yolk is dark, and 
a salt egg has a shell which looks as though 
the salt had eaten into it. A pickled egg is 
apt to burst when boiled, for the lime fills 
up the pores so that the steam is confined. 

A “blood-egg” is bright red when held 
to the light. In “yellow rot” the white and 
yolk solidify together and the egg shows 
yellowish red. A “watery egg” has an air 
bubble which floats on top, no matter how 
the egg is held. A “green” egg is pale be¬ 
fore the light and shows a dark yolk. When 
broken the yolk is seen to be a dirty green 
in color. A frozen egg shows a crack reach¬ 
ing from one end to the other, and a double¬ 
yolk egg has two cloudy spots which swim 
round inside when the egg is turned, and a 
rotten egg is dense black before the light. 

This is the way an egg inspector stands 
an egg on its point. He finds one that is 
somewhat “gone.” Such an egg has a well- 
marked bubble or spot in the top. Holding 
the egg point down the inspector jerks it 
downward several times, so as to drive the 
heavier portion to the small end. Then 
he carefully balances it, and the egg stands 
up, straight as a soldier. 

& S 

MINCE-MEAT MADE BY 
MACHINERY 

Mince pie is Uncle Sam’s national des¬ 
sert. A celebrated Englishman who once 
visited tbi§ country apostrophized it as 


Things XOe Alt Should K.noto 


675 


“the incarnation and quintessence of Amer¬ 
ican independence.” The British have their 
tart, and the French their pate—both un¬ 
doubtedly the works of genius in their way 
—but it remained for the Yankee to rise 
above the traditions of the past and con¬ 
ceive the idea of rolling the favorite des¬ 
serts of both nations into one, adding a 
sprinkling of spice and a dash of cider, and 
inventing the expressive name “mince pie” 
for his creation. Unfortunately history 
does not record the name of the grand¬ 
mother who first mixed mince-meat—she is 
one of the unlaureled and unsung bene¬ 
factors of the human race. Yet as she 
sneezed over the nutmegs for the first pie, 
she may have seen, dimly, through the long- 
vista of the future, the scrambling crowds 
of men and women around the “hot-mince” 
table at the “help yourself” restaurant. If 
she did, she had her reward. 

But mince-meat making, for a long time 
the secret craft of the grandmother, has 
been reduced to a science, and mince-meat 
is now being made throughout the country 
in quantities to supply every man, woman 
and child in the United States with a pie 
a week all the year round. Besides a con¬ 
siderable number of pies are shipped over 
to England and France, where the former 
devotees of those inferior creations, the tart 
and the pate, are wondering vainly and 
enviously how the pies were made. When 
first exported, a French chef who has since 
become famous, invented a new kind of 
fruit cake or plum pudding, which was the 
delight of every epicurean palate and the 
despair and torment of all the rival cooks 
of Paris, who could not imitate the marvel¬ 
ous creation. But it was only mince-meat, 
just like mother used to make. 

In the early stages of its evolution mince¬ 


meat was no higher in the scale of culinary 
progress than ordinary hash. It was doubt¬ 
less the outgrowth of the Yankee house- 
wile’s “nearness.” She had some scraps of 
meat left and some extra apples, so she 
chopped them up together and made them 
into a pie. Out of such humble beginnings 
mince-meat forced itself upward by sheer 
merit, until it stands shoulder to shoulder 
with apple pie. 

At first mince-meat was made soft and 
juicy, and it had to be kept in a cool place 
in the cellar where it would not spoil. But 
there was a far sighted man named Allen 
who saw that it had a glorious future, and 
so he went to work studying its characteris¬ 
tics. After a while he found that it could 
be condensed in dry form so that it would 
outlast a piece of wedding cake. With the 
invention as a basis, a number of large 
manufacturing concerns have sprung up, 
several of which are located in Chicago. 

The beef used in making mince-meat 
comes from the shoulder of the animal, and 
is cut in lean strips. It is taken at once 
in big trucks to the mince-meat factory, 
where it is thrown into a vat, in the 
bottom of which there is a coil of steam 
pipes covered with water. Here it boils 
away, stirred from time to time by a 
brawnv workman, until the blood is all 
cooked out of the fibers. The room in which 
the work is done always has a rich, almost 
dinner-time odor. When the master work¬ 
man thinks the cooking has gone far enough 
the meat is forked out and taken to the 
chopping-machine. This has a big basin 
which can be made to revolve slowly. At 
the center of it a shaft, to which are at¬ 
tached a number of knives, jumps up and 
down and cuts the meat, very much as a 
woman would cut it with a chopping-knife. 


676 


Things *tOe A.// Should K.nobu 


When it is fine enough the “batch” of 500 
pounds of mince-meat is laid aside. 

Dried apples are used, the finest grade 
that can be obtained in Michigan or New 
York. About 500 pounds of them, or a 
quarter of the future “batch” of mince¬ 
meat, are chopped in a machine similar to 
that used for the meat. When they are 
fine enough the workmen trundle them off 
to the mixing-room. 

A small apartment opening from the 
chopping-room contains the spice mills. A 
great number of bags and barrels are stand¬ 
ing at one side of the room and on the 
other side two machines, which resemble 
big coffee mills, are droning pleasantly. 
When the spices come in they are first 
ground in the mills to a fine powder and 
then placed separately in barrels. There 
are allspice, cinnamon, mace, citron, nut¬ 
meg, cloves, ginger and a very little pepper. 
The workman mixes them in just the right 
proportions, about fifty pounds of them be¬ 
ing necessary to properly season a 2,000- 
pound “batch” of mince-meat. 

The currants and raisins come in boxes, 
and before they can be used they have to 
be thoroughly picked over and cleaned. 
This is accomplished by pouring them on a 
fine meshed sieve through which all the 
particles of dust and the little pieces of 
stem will sift. 

Now the ingredients are ready for mix¬ 
ing. The meat is poured into the bottom 
of a long, narrow trough standing on the 
floor, the apples go in on top of it, then 
the raisins and currants and the spices and 
the sugar. A few gallons of New York 
State cider are poured over the mass, and 
then half a dozen big, bare-armed men with 
shovels begin to turn over and mix the 
fragrant mass. When the mixing is com¬ 


plete, the mince-meat is shoveled out into 
a truck, where it is allowed to stand several 
hours. It is almost dry and is rich and 
tempting. 

The packing-room is full of animation. 
Around a long table stand a score or more 
of girls in white caps and aprons. Before 
each of them there is a pair of iron rods, 
crooked at the end and standing upright in 
the table. By a motion of the foot the 
girl can force the rod down until the 
crooked ends slide into two little boxes, just 
as a pumpdasher slides down into a pump. 
The mince-meat is placed on a traveling belt 
which runs along the table and the girls 
take it in handfuls and pack it into the 
little boxes before them. Then the rods 
come whirring down and compress it into 
a solid block hardly larger than a cake of 
stove blacking. This block weighs twelve 
ounces and will make three pies. It is 
passed along to a girl who wraps it up in 
oiled paper and slides it into a little paste¬ 
board box, after which it is ready for ship¬ 
ment. 

About 15,000,000 pounds of mince-meat 
are made annually in the United States, 
and it is consumed largely in the big cities, 
the country housewife still preferring to 
follow in the footsteps of her grandmother 
and make her own mince-meat. 

& ^ 

BUTTERINE AND 

OLEOMARGARINE 

While the Prussians were encamped 
around Paris during the siege of 1870-71, 
the Frenchmen inside of the beleaguered city 
awoke one morning to find that they would 
have to eat their bread without any butter. 
It was one of the first intimations that the 
supply of provisions was running short, 


Things XOe All Should K_nobv 


677 


and it lent color to the fears already ex¬ 
pressed that the city would be conquered 
as much by starvation as by the Prussians. 

One by one other commodities disap¬ 
peared from the stalls and markets, and the 
prices rose higher and higher. Yet a few 
days before the capitulation a sign ap¬ 
peared in the market place advertising but¬ 
ter for sale, and although there was a rush 
to purchase, the supply seemed inexhausti¬ 
ble. At first the street throngs thought that 
some avenue had been opened through the 
Prussian ranks for the transportation of 
food, and the joyful rumor quickly spread 
over the city. But the butter had not come 
through the lines. An.ingenious inventor 
named Mege Mouries, spurred on by want 
and necessitv on every hand, had made it 
in a Paris factorv. That was the beain- 

«/ V— 

ning of the oleomargarine or butterine in¬ 
dustry. 

The French found that the new com¬ 
pound was not only good to eat, but cheap 
and wholesome, and since that time the 
manufacture has grown immensely and the 
capital invested runs far up into millions. 
Much of the world’s product is made in 
Holland from oils transported from this 
country, but the Chicago and other Amer¬ 
ican factories supply not only all the Amer¬ 
ican trade but have a surplus to ship in all 
directions. 

The manufacturer of butterine merely 
uses a new way of producing a well-known 
food product. He does by machinery what 
the cow does by the laws of nature. By 
analysis certain ingredients are found in 
butter, and oleomargarine is made by ob¬ 
taining them from some other source and 
combining them in the correct proportions. 
One of the principal of these is olein, an 
exceedingly rich oil secreted by the udder 


of the cow. The discoverer of the new pro¬ 
cess argued that if olein was found in the 
milk it would probably occur elsewhere in 
the animal, and by analysis he learned that 
caul-fat, which forms a cushion and blanket 
for the intestines, was rich in the substance. 
It was a comparatively simple process to 
extract the olein and make it the basis of 
butterine. 

In one of the great Chicago factories a 
whole building is devoted to obtaining olein 
or oleomargarine oil, as it is more famil¬ 
iarly called, from the caul-fat. As soon as 
the fat comes into the manufactory from 
the slaughter house it is dumped into a vat 
of water, where all the blood and dirt are 
thoroughly washed away from it. It is then 
carried to an upper floor, where it is poured 
into a row of iron kettles, provided with 
steam jackets for heating purposes. Here 
the temperature is carefully raised to 155 
degrees—at a higher temperature than that 
the fat will burn—and the oil slowly tries 
out, assisted by revolving toothed shafts 
not unlike the agitators of an ice-cream 
freezer. 

When the skilled eve of the workman 

«/ 

sees that the fat has been sufficientlv heated 

«/ 

it is drained to the next floor into lar°-e, 
cool kettles or clarifiers, where all the dirt 
and refuse, if there are any, settle to the bot¬ 
tom. The clear oil is then drawn out into 
tin-lined trucks by means of a siphon, and 
trundled away to a big room, where it is 
allowed to cool and granulate for three days 
at a temperature of 85 degrees. 

At the end of that time it is sent down¬ 
stairs to the press room. This is a busy 
place. All the men are clad in neat white 
jackets and their sleeves are rolled to their 
shoulders. The truck, with its yellowish 
white contents, is wheeled to a little table, 


678 


Things XOe All Should K_not& 


around which four men are standing. In 
front of each there is a small rectangular 
box open at the top and fastened to the 
table. Over this the workman spreads a 
piece of stout white duck. Enough of the 
tallow oil is dipped up to fill the box, and 
then the next workman takes it in hand, 
folds the top of the duck over the soft mass 
and passes the cake up to the man on the 
presser. This machine consists of sixty 
pieces of sheet iron loosely fastened at the 
ends to shafts. Between each pair of these 
plates eight of the little white duck pack¬ 
ages of tallow are placed, and when the 
whole machine is full, pressure is given by 
means of a screw at the top. As it increases 
gradually the oil is squeezed out through 
the duck and drips downward into a trough. 
Of the fifty pounds of fat to an animal, 
twenty-nine pounds are oleomargarine oil. 
When the pressure is removed the flattened 
duck packages come out filled with a pure 
white cake, an almost tasteless substance 
known as stearine, which is used as an in¬ 
gredient in making certain brands of lard. 
The oil as it runs from the press is ready 
for use in the making of butterine. Part of 
it goes directly to the factory near at hand, 
and part is barreled for shipment to Hol¬ 
land. 

The oleomargarine factory is a most in¬ 
teresting place. On entering the building 
a visitor is struck almost at once by the 
scrupulous cleanliness of the floors and 
tables. They are polished and repolished, 
until they are almost as white as the pro¬ 
verbial Hew England kitchen floor. All 
the employees throughout the building are 
clad in white jackets and aprons, and the 
girls in the packing rooms wear dainty 
white caps. 

The process of making the oleomargarine 


begins on the third floor of the building. 
Here in one corner of the room a stream 
of oleomargarine oil of a bright umber color 
is pumped into several large steam-jacketed 
kettles, where it is kept stirred by means 
of dashers similar to those in the trying- 
rooms. The temperature is carefully raised 
to 185 degrees to melt the oil thoroughly, 
and then it is conveyed into large tin-lined 
vats, where it is stored and chilled. It is 
then passed through a bath of brine, where 
it is washed and deodorized, and when it 
comes back it looks a good deal like light 
brown sugar, and has a distinctly buttery 
taste. It is packed in tin-lined trays about 
six feet long by three wide, and placed in 
a cool storeroom until it is needed for use. 
Everything about this storeroom must be 
kept free from dirt, for the reason that the 
oil, like butter, is so sensitive that it readily 
takes up foul odors. A single drop of kero¬ 
sene in the room might taint and ruin a 
whole supply of oil. 

Into the storeroom, “neutral,” as it is 
called, or the purest leaf lard, which has 
gone through the process of deodorizing in 
brine, is brought and stored. As these two 
parts of the oleomargarine, both of which 
are practically without taste, are needed, 
they are trundled out on trucks, and two 
workmen with their sleeves rolled up shovel 
them in equal parts into the flaring tin fun¬ 
nel of a chute which leads to the creamerv 

«/ 

below. 

On reaching the next floor the mass falls 
into a big vat or churn, heated to 180 de¬ 
grees, and is rapidly stirred by two men 
with wooden paddles until the lumps all 
disappear. To assist in this operation small 
sieves are also used. When the mass has 
been rendered homogeneous a certain quan¬ 
tity of genuine butter and buttermilk, 


Things XOe All Should K^noiuu 


679 


sometimes to the amount of 20 per cent of 
the whole, is put in, together with a little 
butter-color of the same kind that is used 
in ordinary creameries, and the stirring 
goes forward again. The genuine butter 
used is churned in a revolving churn near 
at hand, the milk being purchased and col¬ 
lected in exactly the same way as in a 
creamery. In fact, one end of the oleomar¬ 
garine churn room is nothing but a small 
creamery. The cheaper grades of butter- 
ine do not contain quite as much butter, 
and they are usually churned by machin¬ 
ery instead of by hand. 

When the oleomargarine comes from the 
churn it has very much the appearance of 
butter. It is dumped on a circular table, 
and a long, conical butter-worker operated 
by machinery squeezes out the buttermilk 
and works in the necessary amount of salt. 
A man in a clean jacket helps along the 
process with a wooden paddle. When the 
butterine has been sufficiently worked and 
loaded into one of the tin-lined trucks it 
looks like real butter, and no one but 
an expert can tell it from real butter. 
The creamery has a capacity of 20,000 
pounds in twenty-four hours, and 100 
men and 100 women are required to do 
the work. 

After standing one day in a clean, cool 
storage room, and then being reworked, the 
oleomargarine is taken downstairs to the 
packing-rooms. Here white-jacketed men 
and girls stand at tables with mountainous 
heaps of the moist yellow butterine in front 
of them. With a deft movement a man 
scoops up a handful and plasters it into a 
mold holding one pound. Then he drops 
it out before a girl, who wraps it up in a 
piece of parchment paper, and it is then 
packed away in boxes. In this department 


the greatest care is taken to have every¬ 
thing sweet and clean. The floor and 
all the tables are scrubbed at least once 
a day. 

All the boxes and firkins have to be 
marked and stamped with great care; for 
Uncle Sam is very particular about butter¬ 
ine, and when a manufacturer wishes to 
make it he has to pay a license fee, and 
there is a further tax on all the product 
manufactured. Each package must bear 
the factory number and the name “oleo¬ 
margarine” in plain type, so that no one 
will be mistaken and take the product for 
butter. Besides this, many of the states 
have separate laws on the subject which 
more or less restrict the sale. But in spite 
of all these impediments an enormous quan¬ 
tity of the product is manufactured and 
sold every year. Many persons prefer it 
to butter, especially in the large cities. 

Chemically butterine is almost identical 
with butter. Here is the analysis of the 
two: 



Butterine. 

Butter. 

Water. 

.12.01 

12.13 

Palmitin . . . 

.18.31 

16.83 

Stearin . 

.38.40 

35.31) 

Olein . 

.24.05 

22.93 

Casein . 

.74 

.48 

Salts . 

. 5.22 

5.22 

Glveerides of the lower fat- 


ty acids . . 

. 1.2G 

& J* -2t 

7.01 


PEANUTS AND THEIR USES 


The American peanut industry flourishes 
mostly on account of the craving of the 
small boy. Wholesale commission mer¬ 
chants and grocers ship the raw nuts from 
the south in great, rough sacks, and they 
are sold out in small quantities to the 
street-corner fruit venders. But the charms 









C80 


Things *£Oe Alt Should Kjxo^d 


of the pudgy bag with its two little ears 
hold their own with difficulty against the 
wedge of sticky candy with its conglomera¬ 
tion of nuts. Besides the sale in these 
forms confectioners within the last few 
years have been making a good many salted 
peanuts, and some persons prefer them to 
almonds. 

But outside of the consumption of pea¬ 
nuts in these forms—and the voracity of 
the small boy makes the quantity enor¬ 
mous—the peanut has other increasing uses 
in this country. The manufacturers of 
health foods and cereals are beginning to 
use it in various ways. Many a table has 
peanut sandwiches with salad dressing fre¬ 
quently served, and peanuts are used in 
omelets and with other fancy cooking. 
Furthermore, many a person with epi¬ 
curean tastes who orders a salad at a 
downtown restaurant, and pours over it 
what he believes to be a rich oil of the 
olive, is using only a product of the humble 
peanut. Indeed, so tine is the peanut oil 
made in foreign countries, that it is difficult 
for even the most expert dealers to tell it 
from the genuine olive oil. Being a great 
deal cheaper, it is therefore much used as 
a substitute. 

The manufacture of peanut oil in Mar¬ 
seilles, France, and in Germany, has 
grown to be, within the last ten years, a 
great industry. The peanuts used come 
from the east and west coasts of Africa, 
Mozambique, India and the United 
States, and a very few from the Argentine 
Republic. The best grades for the produc¬ 
tion of oil come from the valleys of Sene¬ 
gal in Africa, yielding about 51 per cent of 
oil in weight. The American peanut is 
smaller in size, but much finer in grain and 
of a far better flavor. The oil, however, is 


not of as good a quality, and the nuts yield 
only about 4-2 per cent of oil. 

The process of expressing the oil is 
similar in a good many respects to that used 
in the cotton-oil mills of the south. Most 
of the nuts are imported shelled, owing to 
the greater ease with which they arc ship¬ 
ped. As soon as they reach the factory 
they are placed in a machine which resem¬ 
bles the American fanning mill for wheat, 
and the dust and pieces of shell are blown 
out. They are then ejected into a cylinder, 
through which they are propelled by an 
Archimedean screw to a pair of heavy iron 
rollers, through which they pass and are 
crushed. These rollers are so constructed 
with springs that if a hard body, like a 
pebble or a piece of iron, gets between them, 
they will spread apart enough to let it 
through. 

Passing the first crushing machine the 
partly broken nuts are carried forward to 
the second, where the pressure is greater, 
and they are again crushed. From here 
they are bolted through a sieve, the finer 
peanut “flour” as it is called, shaking 
through, and the coarser remaining to be 
ground over again. The flour is conveyed 
along by means of another Archimedean 
screw to a pair of mill-stones, similar to 
those used in an old-style flour mill. As it 
sifts out of the spout it is carried to a large 
vat, where it is slightly heated and then 
pressed into “scourtins” or woven bags of 
horse hair. The scourtins are conveyed to 
the hydraulic machine, where they are sub¬ 
jected to the tremendous pressure of 2,850 
pounds to the square inch, and left for an 
hour. At the end of that time all the oil 
that can be obtained in the first yield, 
about 40 per cent, has been extracted. This 
is tlie most valuable product of the nuts. It 


Things XVe All Should Knote) 


readily brings from $7 to $8 per 100 
pounds, and is a fine, clear oil of about the 
color of olive oil. 

After the first pressure the meal is re¬ 
moved from the scourtins and raised to a 
temperature of about 158 degrees, after 
which it is again pressed and this time 
yields about 13 per cent of oil. This second 
pressing is worth only about half as much 
as the first. 

Besides the use of the oil for salads it 
is extensively devoted to the manufacture 
of fine soaps, for which France is noted. 
The greater proportion of it is consumed 
in this way. The finer parts of the first 
pressing are also used extensively in the 
manufacture of oleomargarine and other 
compounds placed on the market as substi¬ 
tutes for butter. 

The shells and husks of the peanuts are 
sometimes ground up and fed to cattle, but 
for the most part they are regarded as 
valueless. But the refuse left in the scour- 
tins after all the oil has been extracted, is 
becoming yearly more valuable. Indeed, 
it is now regarded in Germany as the main 
product of the oil factories. As a food for 
cattle and sheep it has a value of $30 to $40 
a ton. It is also fed to horses in cold 
weather, but in summer it has been found 
to be heating. Within the last few years 
its usefulness has been much extended by 
the preparation in Germany of peanut flour 
for the use of the army and for general 
consumption. It is exceedingly rich in 
nitrogenous substances, and is therefore 
an excellent substitute for meat. 

It is made in several forms: First, pea- 
nut-grits, the coarse meal dried, purified, 
bolted and packed in papier-mache boxes 
containing one German pound, and sold at 
retail for 12 cents each. In this form it 


381 

is used for soups and cakes. Peanut-flour, 
the second product, is much finer than the 
grits and it is a most palatable dish. When 
cooked it tastes a good deal like oatmeal. 
Peanut biscuits or crackers are the third 
manufactured product, and they are said to 
be not only toothsome but nourishing. A 
biscuit is also made with the addition of 
a little chocolate for the use of persons suf¬ 
fering from diabetes or from excessive 
stoutness. Its richness in protein, and its 
low proportion of carbohydrates, like starch 
and sugar, give it its medical value. 

Extensive experiments have been made 
in Germany in feeding the inmates of the 
hospitals, and, although many of them were 
afflicted with dyspepsia and other alimen¬ 
tary diseases, it was found that the peanut- 
flour food was not only c.ijoyed by the pa¬ 
tients but well assimilated. The German 
government has also tried it as rations for 
soldiers, and it will probably be more exten¬ 
sively used in the near future. Peanut- 
oilcake food may, before many years, be 
as common on the restaurant bills of fare 
in American cities as buckwheat cakes. 

<$> * 

IN A MACARONI FACTORY 

Each year the Americans grow fonder 
of macaroni. They are pressing the Ital¬ 
ians hard, as lovers of the flour-paste tubu¬ 
lar dainty, and every restaurant now is 
prepared to serve up macaroni, spaghetti 

and vermicelli in a dozen different wavs. 

«/ 

Italians brought to this country with their 
appetite for macaroni the tools for making 
it. All they needed besides the tools were 
flour and water, and little macaroni fac¬ 
tories sprung up in New York and Chi¬ 
cago. In them the macaroni was made as 
it has been made in Italy for a century or 


682 


Things XI) e All Should K.nobu 


more. The kneading, mixing and other 
parts of the simple process were all done 
by hand, until the Americans happened to 
think that the macaroni business was bound 
to grow, and then machinery began turning 
out the tubes. 

In Chicago, not far apart, are two 
macaroni factories. In one, Italians with 
bared arms work over the flour and carry 
it through all the processes by hand. In 
the other, the paste is kneaded under iron 
knuckles, rolled beneath granite boulders, 
and squeezed into long tubes by steam 
power. The machine can turn out more 
macaroni in a day than the Italian can, 
but the Italian’s factory is more interesting 
to the man who wants to know how maca¬ 
roni is made. 

Only the hardest and flintiest wheat is 
used to make macaroni. Hard Minnesota 
and Dakota wheat is the best. The Italian 
takes his wheat, washes it and dries it care¬ 
fully. After it is dry, the wheat is ground 
or pounded into coarse, cracked wheat, and 
it is then put into a revolving screen which 
is turned by a crank. This screen makes 
the first separation, dividing the starch, 
bran and hard parts of the wheat. Then the 
broken wheat is sifted through a number of 
hand sieves, beginning with a coarse mesh 
and ending with a fine mesh. The knack 
of swinging the sieve, tossing the grain 
from one side to the other, and bringing all 
the bran to the middle or on top, is ac¬ 
quired only after long practice, but when 
the broken wheat has gone from one sieve 
to the other it is clean, bright, free from 
bran, and almost polished. In this stage 
it is called semolina. 

The coarse flour is next mixed with warm 
water, and kneaded by means of a lever 
which has on it a three-faced block of wood, 


with the sharp edge of the prism down. 
Two men work this lever and block of wood 
into the dough, sometimes with a chopping 
motion and then sidewise. A spring lifts 
up the levers so that the men have nothing 
to do but bear their weight on it to force it 
down. 

After it has been kneaded and worked 
for an hour or so, the dough is ready to be 
made into tubes. This is done by pressure. 
The dough is placed in a cylinder, which 
stands upright, with the top open, but the 
bottom is closed with a perforated plate, 
the holes being the exact size of the maca¬ 
roni sticks. A quantity of dough is put 
into the cylinder, and then a plunger is put 
on top of the dough. Half a dozen men 
take hold of the lever and bring it down, 
and fifty soft, pliable macaroni tubes shoot 
through the perforated plate. 

The sticks are made hollow by means of 
little round plugs, held in the center of 
each hole by pins. Of course, these pins 
split the macaroni into two half-tubes as 
it passes through the perforated bottom of 
the cylinder, but the dough is sticky and 
joins together again, below the pins, so that 
the tubes show no signs of having been 
separated. While the macaroni sticks are 
coming through the perforated plates, they 
are fanned briskly to keep them from stick¬ 
ing together, and they are cut off about 
every ten feet, and hung over wooden 
frames, where they are kept until dry, hard 
and brittle. 

Italians are the workmen in the Ameri¬ 
can factories too. They first put about 
100 pounds of the semolina into a mix¬ 
ing machine. This is of iron, about 
three feet deep and two feet in diameter. 
Down the center is an upright shaft, which 
has round bars of steel sticking from it 


Things \ZOe All Should K.nobu 


683 


like quills on a .porcupine. The broken 
wheat, mixed with hot water, is worked in¬ 
to a dough by the steel bars moving around 
in the mixture, and when the dough is stiff 
enough it is taken out and put into a rolling 
machine. The rolling pin of this machine 
is a granite wheel which looks like an enor¬ 
mous grindstone and weighs about three 
tons. This granite roller moves around in 
a circle over the dough, which is placed in 
a circular strip on the wooden bed around 
the edge. For three-quarters of an hour the 
granite rolling pin squeezes the macaroni 
dough until it has a satiny feeling. 

Next comes the kneading machine. In 
this machine conical shaped iron-cogged 
wdieels dig their hard knuckles into the 
dough and thoroughly work cut any hard 
spots that the granite roller has missed. 
After half an hour in the kneading ma¬ 
chine the dough is ready for the press. The 
cylinder of the press is somewhat like the 
hand press of the Italian, only it is larger 
and stronger, for a pressure of 1,000 
pounds is brought to bear on the dough, 
squeezing about 100 pounds of macaroni in 
three-quarters of an hour. The macaroni 
tubes are cut off every ten feet, and then 
are taken to a table where they are cut into 
proper lengths for packing. Then the 
macaroni is taken to the drying room, and 
kept there on racks for eight days, when it 
is packed in boxes for shipment. 

j* jt 

VINEGAR AND ITS 
MANUFACTURE 

No farm cellar in the apple region is 
quite complete without its vinegar barrel. 
Each fall as soon as the sweet cider comes 
in from the presses, a part of it is funneled 
into a dusty barrel that occupies a place 


in the corner of the room. It is given 
every opportunity to turn “hard” and then 
sour, as sour as the sourest vinegar. Some¬ 
times the housewife hurries the operation 
bv adding a little “mother” — the thick, 
velvety growth, a product of fermentation, 
which sometimes rises in her cruets and 
jugs. By the next spring or summer, if 
conditions have been favorable, the cider 
has become vinegar and is readv for use 
with the early lettuce. 

But that is a slow process and only small 
quantities are made at a time. If the city 
epicurean depended on such a source of 
supply, he would have to take his salads 
without the acid element. For this reason 
great manufactories have sprung up, and 
many of them weekly make more vinegar 
than all the farmers of Michigan or any of 
the other apple states make in a whole year. 

The visitor is warned of his approach to 
a vinegar factory while yet a long way off. 
There is a pungent odor not unlike that of 
long confined smoke, and the atmosphere for 
blocks in every direction fairly reeks with 
it. On approaching nearer it grows more 
and more acid, until inside of the building 
one has the rather novel sensation of tasting 
air. It is almost equal to eating pickles. 

Vinegar is of two or three different kinds. 
The most expensive is made from red wine, 
and is of a deep purple color. It is very 
strong in acid, so strong, indeed, that it 
fairly bites the tongue. It costs about 40 
cents a gallon. Then there is the cider 
vinegar of farm fame, and it is most popu¬ 
lar of any for general household use. It 
retails from 12 to 16 cents a gallon, and it 
may be said in passing that some disrepu¬ 
table concerns make a variety of “cider” 
vinegar that is wholly guiltless of apples. 
Great quantities of white-wine vinegar are 


6 84 


Things *COe Alt Should K_nobv 


also made, usually from corn and rye. It 
is perfectly colorless, very sharp to the 
taste, and is usually used for making pickles 
and condiments of various kinds. 

The process of manufacturing this white- 
vine vinegar is most interesting. In the 
first place, the manager starts out just as 
if he were going to make genuine corn 
whisky, hut when he gets part way through 
with the work he suddenly switches otf and 
the product is vinegar. The corn and rye 
come to the side of the factory in cars, and 
are elevated to the top floor, where they 
go into big bins. In the morning when the 
superintendent gives the word, a workman 
pulls the slide from a spout that leads down 
through four stories and into the top of 
the cooler, a huge iron boiler holding 100 
bushels. The corn comes rattling down, 
and it is soon boiling away under a steam 
pressure of sixty pounds. At the end of 
two hours it has been reduced to mash—a 
well-known whisky term — and is quite 
toothsome enough to tempt any cow home 
from a June pasture. 

It is now blown through a pipe leading 
upstairs to the great mash-tubs, holding 
8,000 gallons each. Here fifty bushels of 
malt, fresh from the maltsters and ground 
to a pulp in a little mill on the next floor, 
are dumped in, and two awkward paddles 
begin to revolve, churning the mass until it 
looks like the surface of a geyser. 

The cooking of the corn separates the 
starch, and the addition of the malt, to¬ 
gether with a temperature of 148 degrees, 
turns the starch into sugar. At this period 
of the process the mash has a really sugary 
smell, like molasses candy on the hack of 
the kitchen stove. After being beaten and 
churned for three or four hours, cold water 
is turned into a coil of pipes in the bottom 


of the huge tub- to cool the mash. In the 
meantime some workmen have been pre¬ 
paring the yeast in a little room at one side. 
Malt and rye are boiled together in a cop¬ 
per-lined kettle holding 200 gallons, and, 
a little of the yeast ferment being added, 
the plant begins to grow. When the pro¬ 
cess has gone far enough, just the right 
proportion of the yeast is taken out and 
“planted” in the mash-tub, where without 
more ado it begins to make itself felt. 

How the mash is allowed to slide down 
through a pipe to the fermenting tanks, 
where it sizzles and bubbles away for seven- 
ty-two hours, hard at work fermenting. The 
alcoholic spirits are being slowly extracted 
by the “working” of the sugar. Thus far 
the process has been almost identical with 
whisky-making. 

A busy, chugging link-pump now sends 
the mash upstairs to the stills—real whisky 
stills, except in the nse of “worms” or coils 
of pipe for collecting and condensing the 
alcoholic spirits. A “worm” would be used 
in vinegar manufacture, but Uncle Sam is 
afraid that some day a very well-meaning 
charge of corn might by some mistake turn 
to whisky instead of vinegar. Uncle Sam 
always looks after such things in a prompt 
and business-like way. 

The alcohol is forced out of the mash 
and into the still by means of steam, which 
rapidly vaporizes it. The pipe in the still 
is surrounded by cold water, which quickly 
condenses the alcohol and collects it below 
in a receptacle. All the rest of the mash 
—“slops,” as it is known to the vinegar 
man and the whisky man—is carried off to 
one side where it is stored up ready to sell 
to the stock raiser for cattle feed. It con¬ 
tains all the corn except the alcoholic parts, 
and it therefore makes very rich food. 


Things XVe All Should K.nobu 


685 


The spirits are now pumped to the gen¬ 
erators, the only distinctive vinegar-making 
devices in the whole process. These con¬ 
sist of tall, cylindrical tanks of white wood, 
bound with iron hoops. They extend from 
floor to ceiling, with an appliance on top 
for allowing the alcohol to trickle in and 
a cock at the bottom through which the 
vinegar may be drawn off. Several floors 
are covered with these generators as thick 
as they can stand, and the visitor who goes 
among them is compelled to sneeze in defer¬ 
ence to the pronounced acidity of the at¬ 
mosphere. 

The tanks inside are filled from top to 
bottom with beech shavings—nothing more. 
When the alcohol drips in at the top, it 
spreads over the shavings where the air has 
ready access to it. The oxygen pounces 
upon it and changes it without more ado 
into acetic acid or vinegar, in which con¬ 
dition it runs out at the cock and into a 
trough that carries it down to the next floor 
into a huge storage tank. The shavings in 
the generators are merely for the purpose 
of providing a great amount of surface 
over which the spirits must flow. 

After having seasoned for a time in the 
tanks, the vinegar is pumped out into bar¬ 
rels, labeled, and sent all over the country 
to the pickle manufacturers. Every bushel 
of corn makes about four gallons of white- 
wine vinegar, which sells at all the way 
from 1 to 10 cents a gallon. 

The cider used for vinegar comes almost 
entirely from Michigan, Ohio and New 
York, enough being secured every fall to 
last a whole year. The barrels are corded 
up in endless rows—a whole great room 
filled full, with only little alleyways pierc¬ 
ing it,—and allowed to stand until the cider 
is quite hard enough to make an old cider- 


drinker dizzy-headed. When at last it has 
sufficiently fermented, it is run over the 
shavings in the generator and becomes a 
light-brown cider vinegar. It is now run 
into old whisky barrels, and allowed to 
stand as long as possible. The whisky bar¬ 
rels assist greatly in the ripening process, 
which so much improves vinegar. Only a 
few firms in the country have this method 
of making their product more palatable. 

Red-wine vinegar is made just like cider 
vinegar, a shade greater care being taken, 
j)erhaps, to keep it clean and pure. The 
wine used comes largely from California 
and Ohio, which of late vears have been 
making a good deal of it. The factory can 
easily turn out eighty barrels a day, and 
when one considers that a teaspoonful at a 
meal is a very large average for the ordi¬ 
nary adult, it will be seen how far such a 
quantity will go. The prices are now so 
cheap that the farmer can hardly afford to 
make vinegar, even for home consumption. 
He can sell the cider to better advantage. 

3 

HOW FRUIT FLAVORING 
EXTRACTS ARE MADE 

Since soda water became the regular dis¬ 
sipation of the summer girl, the extract¬ 
making industry has assumed enormous 
projx>rtions. Where ounces of lemon and 

vanilla were used bv housewives and chefs a 

«/ 

dozen years ago, gallons are now consumed 
in the corner drug store. To accommodate 
thisgreat growth in business,manufacturing 
plants have sprung up through the coun¬ 
try, and they are yearly adding to their 
equipment in order to supply the ever-in¬ 
creasing demand. 

Vanilla comes almost entirely from Mex¬ 
ico, in the form of long, brown, shiny 


686 


Things '€Oe All Should K_nobv 


beans, which are tied up in half-pound 
bundles and kept in hermetically sealed re¬ 
ceptacles, so that the rich odor may not 
be dissipated in the air. The bean grows 
on a peculiar vine which is said to derive 
quite as much nourishment from the air as 
it does from the soil. It is planted in cut¬ 
tings by the Mexicans, and as it grows it 
is trained on lattices or palm trees. In the 
third year it begins to bear, and for thirty 
summers the crops continue good. In a sin¬ 
gle month the vanilla bean will grow to its 
full size, but requires fully six months 
longer for it to ripen. 

After the beans are picked—and their 
value depends largely upon having them 
neither overripe nor underripe—the pecu¬ 
liar rich aroma is developed by a compli¬ 
cated process of fermentation. They are 
first stored under cover until they begin to 
shrivel, and then they are sweated by heat¬ 
ing and inclosing them in air-tight boxes 
over night. In the course of two or three 
days the beans have obtained a rich brown 
color, and present a moist appearance. 
After being exposed for several months in 
the sun to dry, they are packed in little 
bundles and shipped to the United States, 
which is the greatest extract-making coun¬ 
try in the world. Thousands of Mexicans 
make their entire living by raising and 
curing vanilla beans. The cost ranges from 
$6 to $12 a pound, according to the length 
and quality of the beans, the prices being 
now pretty high owing to the large demand 
and the insufficient supply. For this rea¬ 
son vanilla extract is frequently adulter¬ 
ated with tonka or snuff beans, which cost 
only $2 a pound. They impart a very 
pungent odor, and a somewhat sharp and 
bitter taste to the extract. 

The unpacking room of the extract fac¬ 


tory is as fragrant as a little corner of Cey¬ 
lon. When the workmen open the tin cans, 
each of which contains about thirty pounds 
of beans, the rich aroma rushes out, filling 
the room. The beans are taken from the 
bundles and placed in chopping machines 
that resemble a sausage-cutter, from which 
they come out as fine as mince-meat. A 
quantity of the best lump sugar is now 
mixed with the mass, according to a secret 
formula, and the whole fragrant “charge” 
is thrown into a big jacketed kettle. Here 
the temperature is gradually raised by 
means of steam, and retained at about the 
boiling point for forty-eight hours. The 
sugar absorbs the aroma to a large degree, 
and when the “charge’ is taken out it 
strongly resembles the grounds of coffee 
after the liquid has been poured off. 

A certain amount is now poured into a 
twenty-gallon keg, five gallons of deodorized 
spirits are added, and the keg is placed 
in a great storeroom where hundreds of 
others just like it are arranged in long 
rows. Each keg is labelled with the date of 
entrance, and at the end of a full year, dur¬ 
ing which time the alcohol has dissolved 
all of the vanilla from the sugar and from 
the pieces of bean, it is ready for the next 
process. The kegs fill the whole of one 
great storeroom, and they are valued at 
more than $150,000. 

The kegs are emptied into a large re¬ 
ceptacle, -and the liquor of vanilla, as it is 
called, is forced under great pressure 
through an ordinary filter press, where the 
impurities, including the bits of vanilla 
bean from which the essence has been ex¬ 
tracted, are removed. 

The stream which flows from the press is 
of a deep brown color, and the odor sug¬ 
gests cakes, ice cream and a great many 


Things We All Should Kncte 


687 


other good things. It is the pure vanilla 
extract. After being allowed to stand for 
a day or two in a small tin tank, the vanilla 
is drawn off into small receptacles provided 
with a faucet at the bottom. In this way 
it goes to a long table, around which a 
number of neat-appearing, nimble-fingered 
girls are sitting. One of them fills bottles 
of sizes varying from one-sixteenth of a 
pint to a quart, another plugs in the corks, 
another pastes on the labels, another slips 
the bottles into small pasteboard boxes and 
then a man comes and carries the bottles 
away to be packed in sawdust and sent out 
to the market. 

Vanilla is a rather expensive food com¬ 
modity, and unless the supply of beans 
from Mexico can be largelv increased dur- 
ing the next few years, it is destined to go 
still higher. Vanilla has been growing 
popular within the last few years. Origi¬ 
nally there was at least three times as much 
lemon sold as vanilla, but now the compara¬ 
tive amounts have almost changed places. 

The process of making lemon extract is 
not so difficult as that of vanilla. All of 
the best essence or oil used by manufac¬ 
turers comes from Sicily, where the best 
lemons in the world are raised. The crop 
is harvested in Xovember or December, the 
best and largest fruits being picked and 
packed for shipment to the big cities of 
Europe. Just before the small and imper¬ 
fect fruits are entirely ripe, they are picked 
and divided into sections. After lying in 
the sun for a day, the lemons are taken, 
one by one, by Sicilian girls, who scrape off 
the pulp and squeeze the lemon oil from 
the rind out into a sponge. When the 
sponge is completely saturated it is pressed 
and the oil runs into a specially made cop¬ 
per vessel, which can be hermetically sealed 


as soon as it is full. A good workman will 
squeeze a pound of oil or essence every 
day, the market price of the oil being $2. 
It takes from 400 to 500 fruits to make a 
pound of oil. 

In this form it comes to the Chicago fac¬ 
tory. To get it out of its sealed case the 
workman chops holes in the copper with an 
ax, and the oil to the amount of twenty- 
five pounds runs out. The first process in 
preparing extract of lemon is the removing 
of the balsamic oils. Many persons will 
remember having eaten cake or ice cream 
which had a distinct taste of turpentine. 
This was probably owing to the fact that 
the lemon extract was a poor brand from 
which the balsamic oils had not been re¬ 
moved. The process is entirely secret, each 
manufacturer having his own methods of 
doing the work. 

When the oil conies out it is yellow and 
almost clear, with the delightfully pungent 
odor of lemon-rind. It is now “cut” with 
deodorized spirits and then sent into the 
filter room. This is a great apartment con¬ 
taining tables loaded full of big glass bot¬ 
tles. In the top of each there is a funnel 
fitted with ordinary druggist’s filter paper. 
Everything is kept scrupulously clean, so 
that the filtering may go forward without 
allowing the liquor to collect any dust. 
There are hundreds and hundreds of these 
bottles and funnels, and it keeps several 
girls busy all the time, pouring the liquor 
into the filters. The room smells like a 
doubly concentrated Sunday school picnic, 
where a whole bevy of girls are making 
lemonade. When the liquor is strained 
through into the bottles it is clear and yel¬ 
low, ready for bottling. One pound of oil 
makes, with the spirits added, one gallon 
of extract. 


688 


Things XVe All Should K.nobv 


When the cook uses vanilla or lemon the 
process of seasoning is simple. As soon as 
the cake or custard into which the extract 
has been put is heated, the spirits holding 
the real essence in solution are volatilized 
and driven otf, and the essence remains to 
give flavor and aroma to the cookery. 

Orange extract is made exactly like 
lemon, the oils of the two fruits being 
hardly distinguishable when they arrive at 
the factory. The same factory makes ex¬ 
tracts of cinnamon, chocolate, almond, nut¬ 
meg, cloves, celery, ginger, onion, allspice, 
and many more, the process in several cases 
being exceedingly complex and difficult and 
usually hedged in with secrecy. 

Extracts from the fruit of the straw¬ 
berry, the pineapple, the raspberry, the 
banana, the pear and the apricot cannot be 
made, although many experimenters have 
worked on the problem. These fruits con¬ 
tain so much water that it is impossible to 
get them condensed enough to secure the 
true essence. Artificial extracts with the 
flavors of these fruits may, however, be 
made. The process is entirely chemical, 
and the flavors produced are really stronger 
than the fruits themselves. Many of these 
extracts are used in cooking and in soda 
water fountains, but they are all more or 
less injurious to the health. The pro¬ 
prietors of many of the best soda fountains 
refuse to use them, preferring to keep a 
supply of crushed fruits always on hand. 
Peach extract is made from peach pits. 

S S 

EXTRACT OF BEEF AND ITS 
PREPARATION 

After many centuries of absolute sway 
over the destinies of the kitchen soup-ket¬ 
tle, the place and power of the soup-bone 


is being rapidly usurped by extract of beef. 
It is so easy and convenient for the house¬ 
wife, especially if she happens to be a mem¬ 
ber of the Ibsen society or the Browning 
club, to take a teaspoonful of black paste 
out of a little earthenware jar, stir it up in 
a sauce pan, sift a pinch of pepper and salt 
and possibly some vegetables, and announce 
that soup is ready. 

Of course this short cut to culinary suc¬ 
cess will be decried by the New England 
housewife, who sees the art of her ancestors 
being thus reduced to a science which any 
one may master. Her way was to buy the 
soup-bone herself, being very particular to 
see that it was a white, juicy joint, with as 
little meat clinging to it as possible. Then 
it was ensconced in a kettle and allowed to 
simmer awav all the forenoon, fillino- the 
house with the suggestions of a far-away 
dinner. It was peppered and salted and 
sipped from time to time to see if it was 
just right, and when the soup was done it 
was, of course, delicious. 

But the extract of beef method is much 
more compatible with this latter day hurry 
and worry, and there are those, even 
among the housewives whose grandmothers 
were veritable geniuses at cookery, who 
have wandered so far from grace as to in¬ 
sist that soup made by the new method is 
better in flavor and richer than the old 
style soup. 

Extract of beef was invented in South 
America a good many years ago. Down in 
Uruguay, Paraguay and the Argentine Re¬ 
public, vast herds of half-wild cattle 
roamed the pampas, and the drovers who 
owned them, by right of being expert wi ti¬ 
the lasso, found that it hardly paid to 
slaughter them owing to the absence of a 
market for the beef. Some of the quarters 


Things ^££Je All ^Should K^notsj 


689 


were “jerked,” or dried in the sun, and the 
hides had a value of their own, but the rest 
of the carcass u 7 as ordinarily left to decay 
in the hot southern sun. At last some man, 
whose name certainly ought to decorate the 
pages of history, discovered a way of boil* 
ing down the beef, very much as the old- 
fashioned nurse made beef tea, until the 
nutritive portions had all been extracted. 

After certain filtering processes it was 
bottled up and sent over to Europe, where 
it was sold as a tidbit to tickle the palates 
of the aristocracy. After a time, like every¬ 
thing that economizes labor, it was success¬ 
ful, and every-day people who ran to their 
luncheons with their heads seething full of 
figures began to eat it. And once estab¬ 
lished as a food commodity, the beef-pack¬ 
ers of other countries began to devise means 
of improving it. Chicago took the lead in 
the work, and to-day the best extract in 
the world is made in the stockyards packing 

house of that citv. 

«/ 

While the principle of the processes con¬ 
nected with its manufacture is simple 
enough, the actual mechanical operations 
are full of complexities, great care and 
skill being necessary to secure a product 
which will be acceptable to persons who 
know w 7 hat good soup is. 

In the first place, the beef is cut from the 
cattle in the slaughter house. It is mostly 
fine, lean meat from the forequarters, no 
shanks or gluey parts of the animal being 
used. After being thoroughly washed it 
is loaded into trucks holding about 2,000 
pounds, and trundled away to the cooking 
department, a long room almost filled with 
two rows of round copper boilers or “ket¬ 
tles,” as the men call them. These consist 
of an upper and low 7 er hemisphere, so built 
that they can be fastened together hermeti¬ 


cally. The lower hemisphere is built 
double like a custard-cooker, the interven¬ 
ing space being filled with hot water. 
I rom the upper hemisphere, which is 
punctured with a huge, Cyclopean eye-glass, 
there extends a pipe, which is connected at 
the further end with a vacuum pump. 

The charge of 2,000 pounds of meat is 
placed in the kettle with a little w r ater, the 
air is pumped out, and the hot water is 
turned into the jacket. After six or eight 
hours of cooking the meat is thoroughly 
disintegrated, and the liquor which sur¬ 
rounds it is thick and pasty. The workmen 
know when the cooking is complete by ex¬ 
amining the mass inside through the glass 
window. The whole secret of this process 
is to cook the beef at a low temperature 
to avoid scorching, and this is done by boil¬ 
ing in a vacuum. In South America no 
such care is given to the process, and the 
extract is often very black and bitter. 

The liquor is now drained off and clari¬ 
fied by a secret process, after which it is 
pumped through two or three filter presses, 
one after another. The filter presses are 
constructed of solid-iron, corrugated, double¬ 
concave disks punctured in the middle and 
separated with layers of ducking which 
catch any impurities and retain all the 
fibers still left in the mass of extract. 

From here it pours into a vacuum pan 
7 feet high, 12 feet long and 6 feet broad. 
The entire bottom part of this is filled with 
steam coils and from the top a pipe runs to 
the exhaust pump. Enough extract liquor 
is allowed to flow into the pan to cover the 
pipes, and here the free water in it is 
quickly evaporated, the heat and the 
vacuum both assisting the process. From 
the first vacuum pan the extract passes to 
the second, and when it at last runs out it 


690 


Things Alt Should K.nobu 


has been condensed to a thick brown paste, 
containing only about 20 per cent of mois¬ 
ture. In this condition it goes to a mill 
of the kind used in grinding paint, where 
it is rendered thoroughly homogeneous. 

The packing room is a marvel of neat¬ 
ness. Around a long, narrow table a score 
or more of girls are arranged, each in a 
tidy dress, and a natty white cap and 
apron. The first two or three in the row 
fill the little white crockery jars one by 
one from a spout which brings the extract 
down from the room above. Another girl 
deftly plugs a cork into the jar, and then 
in quick succession it is capped, labeled 
and wrapped ready to go to the boxing 
room. 

Each pound of the extract contains all 
the nutritive matter in forty-five pounds of 
meat, and it will make several gallons of 
soup. Its use is largely confined to the 
great cities, although it is rapidly gaining 
a foothold in the smaller towns. In many 
hospitals it has totally usurped the place of 
beef tea as a food for convalescents. Many 
exploring and camping parties have also 
used it with success, there being no more 
condensed form of food manufactured. 
The product of one factory alone amounts 
in value to more than $1,000,000 every 
year, and it is growing rapidly. As yet 
the consumption of the Chicago output is 
confined largely to the United States and 
Canada. 

PEPSIN AND ITS PRODUCTION 

Everyone is familiar with the methods 
of repairing humanity with artificial legs, 
glass eyes, false teeth and wigs, but it may 
not be generally known that a factory at 
the stock yards in Chicago is busy all the 


year round in making artificial diges¬ 
tions. 

For it is the purpose of pepsin to relieve 
the man whose stomach has rebelled at 
harmful methods of eating. After each 
meal he simply takes a little tablet of the 
digestion, which he carries in a convenient 
vest pocket, swallows it, and forthwith for¬ 
gets—in theory at least—his troubles. 
Anyone will admit that this is a charming 
arrangement. 

In health, manufactured pepsin is not 
necessary, because the stomach furnishes its 
own supply. There art millions of little 
cells that have no other duty than to fur¬ 
nish the ferment, and when the food comes 
down they eject the supply which they have 
been saving up, and by its peculiar proper¬ 
ties the marvelous process of digestion goes 
forward. But if a man overworks his 
stomach by eating too much or too often, or 
by going to work too soon after eating, the 
cells grow tired, and finally fall sick, and 
cannot perform the task set for them. To 
remedy this difficulty, some inventive 
genius conceived the idea, about ten years 
ago, of taking the pepsin from the stomachs 
of hogs and concentrating it into a con¬ 
venient form of use. Since that time the 
process, which was then confined to the 
chemical laboratory and was conducted on 
an exceedingly narrow basis, has assumed 
the proportions of an industry, and thou¬ 
sands of persons are using the product. 
There are even varieties of chewing gum 
which are said to contain pepsin in small 
quantities. 

No one knows just what pepsin is. It 
has never been isolated from the cells of the 
stomach, and no chemist has ever been able 
to analyze it. It is to the stomach what 
magnetism is to the magnet. The United 


691 


Things XVe A.il Should K_nobu 


States pharmacopeia defines it as follows: 

‘Pepsinum (Pepsin): A proteolytic 
ferment, or enzyme, obtained from the 
glandular layer of fresh stomachs from 
healthy pigs, and capable of digesting not 
less than 3,000 times its own weight of 
freshly coagulated and disintegrated egg 
albumen. A fine, white, or yellowish-white, 
amorphous powder, or thin pale yellow or 
yellowish, transparent or translucent grains 
or scales, free from any offensive odor, and 
having a mildly acidulous or slightly saline 
taste, usually followed by a suggestion of 
bitterness. It slowly attracts moisture 
when exposed to the air.” 

The whole process of making pepsin, 
many steps of which are secret, consists in 
the isolation of the ferment to as great a 
degree as possible, there being no way of 
getting it entirely separate from the cell 
walls of the stomach. 

The laboratory in which it is made is lo¬ 
cated close to where 1,500,000 hogs are 
killed annually, and within an hour from 
the time the animal breathes its last, the 
part of its stomach (about the size of a 
man’s hand) in which the pepsin can be 
found, is in the hands of skilful work¬ 
men. The pieces are placed at once in 
rows of crocks containing dilute hydro¬ 
chloric acid, .002 per cent solution, w T herc 
they are left all day long. They are then 
taken out, and the men put them through 
a secret chemical process to remove the 
peptone, or the product of the digestive 
action of the pepsin on the membranous 
parts of the stomach, with which it conies. 
It then goes to a vacuum pan, where, by a 
steady low heat, the moisture is partially 
removed, after which it is spread out on 
glass plates, where it dries down to thin, 
fine yellow scales, having a peculiar bril¬ 


liant luster. Girls pack the product in 
bottles, and it is ready for shipment. 

The market price is about 75 cents an 
ounce, and it takes ordinarily about 100 
hogs’ stomachs to make a pound of pepsin. 
Numerous tonics composed of wine and 
pepsin are also made at the factory. 

From the stomachs of calves comes the 
extract of rennet which is also made at the 
laboratory and largely used in cheese-mak¬ 
ing. The process of manufacture is sim¬ 
ple. The stomachs are chopped up in a 
sausage machine into fine bits, and macer¬ 
ated in a solution of salt and water. The 
material is then ready for packing and 
shipment. Because cheese contains so much 
of the digestive ferment—pepsin—it is said 
to “digest everything but itself.” Perhaps 
this is the reason cheese goes with pie as 
the end of a meal. 

& J* & 

STARCH AND HOW IT IS MADE 

Starch has a greater diversity of uses, 
perhaps, than any other vegetable com¬ 
modity. Here is a family at dinner with 
a guest or two who have come to spend the 
evening. Those tea biscuits which the ser¬ 
vant has just brought in are light and flaky 
because the cook used baking powder in 
making them, and baking powder is more 
than one-third starch. The shirt bosoms 
of the men about the table glisten with a 
polish imparted by starch, and those delicate 
desserts are nothing but starch and water 
and flavoring. The heavy Brussels carpet 
on which the feet of the diners rest was 
fairly saturated with starch during the 
process of manufacture, and that is why it 
is now so firm and stiff. One of the girls 
wears a cotton waist. In making the cloth 


G92 


Things X£Je All Should K^noto 


the cotton fibers were “sized” again and 
again in starch, and the sewing thread used 
was treated in a similar manner. The dab 
of powder on the nose of the hostess is 
nothing hut starch, and if she ever uses 
rouge or complexion preparations—of 
course she doesn’t—they, too, are largely 
starch. Many of these candies, and they 
are the purest made, contain more or less 
starch—starch, possibly, that has been first 
made into artificial gum arabic. 

The dinner over, the company moves to 
the library—a veritable starch realm. All 
the paper has been sized in starch, the pic¬ 
tures on the wall have been pasted with it, 
and the book-covers remain in place largely 
because of the starch used. Possibly, too, 
the wall paper is fastened on with starch. 
A young doctor in the party could tell won¬ 
derful stories about the part starch plays 
in materia medica, and how important it is 
in the preparation of splints and surgical 
bandages. And there are a great many other 
less important uses. 

The quantities used are something enor¬ 
mous. The annual production in this coun¬ 
try is 500,000,000 pounds of corn starch, 
2,000,000 pounds of wheat starch and 30,- 
000,000 pounds of potato starch. Of these 
the most expensive is wheat starch, which 
is used largely in very fine laundry work. 
The largest consumers of starch are the 
makers of cotton and linen goods, and of 
carpets. Besides these familiar kinds of 
starch there are tapioca, from manioc-root; 
arrow-root, from the macanta, and sago, 
the pith of a species of palm. A kind of 
starch is also made from the horsechestnut, 
but the quantities manufactured are small. 

Although starch-making is a simple pro¬ 
cess it was not understood until within the 
last century. When the corn first comes 


into the factory, it is taken to a big room 
filled with vats in which it is placed after 
all the readily removable dust has been 
blown away. Warm water is poured over 
the mass, and changed from time to time 
for three days. The corn is then soft and 
pulpy. 

It next goes to the grinding mill, com¬ 
posed of buhr-stones, like those used 
in old-fashioned flour-mills. Here it is pul¬ 
verized and washed at the same time, by a 
stream of water which is kept passing al¬ 
ways over the stones. The water carries off 
the pulverized mass to long screens made 
of bolting cloth, where it spreads out and 
is further washed by means of pipe sprays 
above. All the starch that will go through 
the sieve cloth is caught below and the 
husks and germs of the corn remain above. 
This refuse matter makes very excellent 
feed for cattle, it being rich in oil and 
nitrogenous matter. 

The “starch milk” is now run out on 
numerous low tables set at an incline. Be¬ 
ing insoluble in cold water it quickly pre¬ 
cipitates, the water running off. It is now 
dug up and washed repeatedly in agitator 
tanks, to get out the gluten and other im¬ 
purities. Water is the most important fac¬ 
tor in starch-making, for unless starch can 
be washed scores of times it is valueless. 

When it has reached the required degree 
of purity it is packed in wooden molds 
which are perforated and lined with fine 
cloth, thus allowing the water to escape. The 
blocks come out in masses about six by eight 
inches in size, and they are taken at once 
to the dry-room, where they are submitted 
to a high temperature. 

The heat not only dries them out, but 
draws out other impurities which form in 
a crust on the outside. This crust varies 


Things *€Oe Alt Should Kj\otv 


603 


from one-fourth to one-half an inch in 
thickness, and is scraped oif bv boys and 
girls, the scraping being washed. Then the 
blocks are wrapped in paper and sent to 
the low temperature drying-room, where the 
heat breaks them up into the familiar ir¬ 
regular crystals. The starch is now ready 
for shipment. Certain laundry starches are 
treated with an alkali before being placed 
on the market and cooking starch is passed 
through a pulverizer. Corn will yield from 
twenty-four to twenty-eight pounds of 
starch to the bushel. Wheat starch is made 
exactly like corn starch. 

t/ 

Of late years potato starch has become 
very popular. It is easily made, the pota¬ 
toes being simply ground and submitted to 
a series of washings. Since the sand lands 
in northern Wisconsin and Minnesota be¬ 
gan to be used extensively for potato grow¬ 
ing, numerous starch factories have sprung 
up and great quantities are produced. Being 
so near the source of supply the work can be 
done very cheaply. Ordinary American po¬ 
tatoes yield only about eight pounds of 
starch to the bushel, while German potatoes 
yield twelve pounds. The department of 
agriculture has, however, found a potato 
that will grow in Utah and will produce 
as much starch as the German variety. 

jZ J* S 

GLUCOSE AND HOW IT IS MADE 

Glucose is connected in the minds of 
many people with all that is bad. Some 
think it is made from dead horses; others 
believe that it comes from glue, and most 
of them are sure that it destroys the lining 
of the stomach. The fact is, glucose is a 
sugar, resembling cane and beet sugar in 
many of its properties, but it is not quite 


so sweet. It is perfectly harmless, and can 
be used to advantage as a substitute for the 
more expensive sugars in preserving fruits, 
and also making candies, jellies, syrups and 
like purposes. 

A great deal of it is used in the manu¬ 
facture of wines and beers, for glucose can 
be converted into alcohol by fermentation. 
Glucose can be made from anv substance 
containing starch, and practically all of 
the glucose turned out of this country is 
made from com. In Europe potatoes are 
used as a source of glucose. A bushel of 
corn yields about forty pounds of glucose. 

Corn can be converted directly into gdu- 
cose; that is to say, it can be ground with¬ 
out preliminary treatment, and then boiled 
with water and acid until the starch is en¬ 
tirely converted into glucose. But this 
process is attended by so many drawbacks 
that most manufacturers prefer to use the 
longer but more satisfactory process of 
separating the starch from the remaining 
constituents of corn, and then using the 
starch so obtained for making the glucose. 

The first step in this process is the 
“steeping” of the corn. Large wooden 
tanks are used for this purpose, and from 
2,000 to 3,000 bushels of corn are run into 
one of these tanks and covered with water. 
The temperature of the water is kept at 
nearly 80 degrees Fahrenheit during the 
whole steeping stage. The fumes of burn¬ 
ing sulphur, known to chemists as “sulphur 
dioxide,” are blown into the tank from be¬ 
low, and in this way the water and corn 
become strongly saturated with sulphurous 
acid. 

The object of the steeping process is to 
soften the corn so that it can be easily 
ground, and to dissolve the gummy sub¬ 
stance which binds together the starch and 


694 


Things XOe All Should K_nobv 


the gluten. From one to three days are 
required to properly steep the corn. Then 
the “steep” water is run into the sewer, 
the corn is washed with fresh water, a door 
in the bottom of the tank is opened, and 
the corn is taken by a screw conveyor to 
the mill. 

There the corn is ground, either between 
millstones or rollers. If a grain of corn 
is examined, it will be found that on the 
pointed end of the grain is a soft, pliable 
mass which can be easily removed from the 
starchy part of the grain with a penknife. 
This soft part is the “germ,” and if this 
germ is pressed between the fingers it will 
exude an oily substance, for there is about 
50 per cent of oil, known as “corn oil,” in 
the germ. 

It is valuable as a salad oil, and is used 
in the making of toilet soaps and in mix¬ 
ing paints. By an ingenious mechanical 
process the genus are separated from the 
starchy matter by some of the more enter¬ 
prising manufacturers. This is done by 
crushing the corn, before it is thoroughly 
ground, by running it between corrugated 
rolls. The crushed corn is then run into 
a tub of starchy water, which is stirred 
mechanically. 

The germs are much lighter than the 
starch, and float on the surface of the 
water, and are carried off through an exit 
pipe, whose mouth is just below the surface 
of the water in the tub. The germs are 
then washed on a gently moving sieve which 
retains the germs but permits the starchy 
water to run through. 

The germs are freed from the greater 
part of the water they contain by rotation 
in a centrifugal machine. They are then 
dried in hot air, ground, and shaped into 
cakes.; the cakes are put into a power¬ 


ful hydraulic press, where they are sub¬ 
jected to a heavy pressure, and the oil 
runs out in a steady stream and is collected 
in a tank. The cakes that remain are a 
rich food for cattle, and are known com¬ 
mercially as “oil cake,” which is worth 
from $10 to $20 a ton. Most of it is ex¬ 
ported to Europe. 

The starchy mass left after the germs 
have been extracted is now ground until all 
of it has disappeared. The glucose makers 
recognize four substances in corn—starch, 
gluten, oil and bran. The germs contain 
nearly all of the oil and a large part of the 
gluten, and they carry with them some of 
the bran. It is now necessary to separate 
the remaining bran and gluten from the 
starch. 

The ground material is run into a tank 
and mixed with water until it has the 
necessary consistency, and it is then forced 
in a powerful stream on to a mechanical 
sieve, known as a shaker in glucose fac¬ 
tories. The shaker is a frame about eight 
feet long and three feet wide, covered with 
fine bolting cloth. It is inclined at an 
angle of 30 degrees to the horizontal, and 
in order that the corn may move along it 
in a steady stream, flowing into the screen 
at the upper end and dropping off at the 
lower end, the screen is kept in constant 
vibration, a suitable mechanism causing it 
to move back and forth. Numerous jets 
of water play about the screen at different 
points. In this way the fine particles of 
starch and gluten are washed away from the 
bran, which drops off from the end of the 
screen and is carried away. The bran is 
either sold as wet feed, or is dried for ship¬ 
ment as dry feed. 

At this point there is left a yellowish 
milky mash containing starch and gluten, 



Things tOe All Should K.notv 


and the manufacturer takes advantage of 
this fact to separate them. The milky 
liquid is allowed to run over slightly in¬ 
clined tables, about 200 feet long. The 
heavy starch settles near the head of the 
tables in great quantities, and in less quan¬ 
tities throughout the length of the tables. 
A large factory will have perhaps one hun¬ 
dred of these tables. The gluten floats away 
with the water and runs through a pipe at 
the end of the tables into large settling 
tanks. 

Here it is allowed to settle for a day 
or two; the water, which is almost clear, 
is run into the sewer. The gluten that is 
left in the tanks still contains a large 
amount of water; most of this is removed 
by forcing it into a filter press, which re¬ 
tains the gluten and allows the water to 
escape. The press consists of a series of 
grooved iron plates with a central orifice; 
cloths are placed between the plates in such 
a manner that the solid gluten cannot pass 
the cloths, but must remain between them 
and the plates, while the water escapes 
through the pores of the cloth and leaves 
the press by a suitable opening. The liquid 
enters the press by the central orifice. After 
the spaces between the plates have become 
filled with gluten the pressure is removed 
by means of a screw, and the cakes of 
gluten are removed after separating the 
plates. 

The gluten is thoroughly dried by means 
of hot-air or steam driers; it is then placed 
in bags and is ready for the market. It is 
a gray or yellowish coarse flour, and sells 
for $20 a ton. It is valuable as a cattle 
food. 

Having now got rid of all his by-prod¬ 
ucts, the manufacturer can proceed at once 
to the preparation of glucose. The starch 


095 

is well mixed with water in a tank, and is 
then pumped into the converters, where it 
is mixed with about twenty-five pounds of 
muriatic or sulphuric acid. The con¬ 
verter is a large copper boiler, into which 
live steam is introduced by means of a per¬ 
forated pipe. The starch is heated in the 
converter for about an hour at a pressure 
of thirty to forty pounds. The heating is 
entirely done with steam. The conversion 
is finished wdien a simple chemical test 
shows that no more starch is present. 

The action in the converter is nothing 
but a chemical change from starch into 
glucose, or grape sugar, as it is sometimes 
called. A fair sized converter will convert 
750 pounds of starch at a time to glucose, 
the yield of glucose being in the neighbor¬ 
hood of 1,000 pounds. After conversion 
is complete, the operator opens a valve and 
allows the glucose to enter the neutralizing 
tank. The glucose, as it enters the neu¬ 
tralizer, is a yellowish-brown liquid, con¬ 
taining about 30 per cent solid matter. 

The acid which was added to the starch 
is still present in the glucose, and the next 
operation is the addition of a neutralizing 
agent. If muriatic acid was used for con¬ 
verting, soda is used for neutralizing, but 
if sulphuric acid was used, marble dust is 
used for the latter purpose. The workman 
must be careful to add the exact amount 
of soda or marble dust required to effect 
neutralization, for a perfectly neutral prod¬ 
uct is desired. After the goods are neutral¬ 
ized, some solid matter separates; it A 
removed by filtration through filter presses, 
or sometimes by filtration through long can¬ 
vas bags. 

The weak solution of glucose is known 
as “bag liquor,” or “press liquor,” at this 
stage. It must now be clarified, which is 


696 


Things XOe All Should K.nota>> 


effected by passing it over filters of bone 
coal. These filters are iron tanks twenty 
feet high, and filled with animal charcoal 
or bone coal. Animal charcoal possesses 
the wonderful property of absorbing mat¬ 
ter from sugar solutions, and absorbs only 
a small amount of sugar. 

The bag liquor is allowed to percolate 
through this filter, and comes off the coal 
looking perfectly clean. After a certain 
amount of liquor has passed over the coal 
it becomes saturated with impurities, which 
are then removed by washing with acid and 
burning in a kiln. The liquor from the 
coal is known as “light liquor;” it con¬ 
tains 65 to 70 per cent of water, and most 
of this must now be removed by evapora¬ 
tion. If a solution of sugar or of glucose 
be heated in the air it will soon turn brown, 
owing to oxidation or burning. So, in 
evaporating a solution of glucose, resort is 
had to a vacuum evaporator. 

! Water will boil at a much lower temper¬ 
ature in a vacuum than in air, and there¬ 
fore the evaporation of a saccharine liquor 
can be conducted in a vacuum without 
danger of charring. Ordinarily a system 
of three evaporators is used together. This 
is called a triple-effect system, and by using 
it all the waste steam is utilized. The 
evaporation is continued in the triple-effect 
system until the liquor contains about 60 
per cent of sugar. It is now filtered over 
bone coal to remove any remaining color, 
and is then boiled in a vacuum pan — a 
large copper boiler heated by means of a 
steam coil and connected with a vacuum 
pump—until it has reached the desired de¬ 
gree of concentration. 

The operator takes off a sample through 
a valve when nearing the end of the boiling, 
and determines its density or gravity by 


means of a hydrometer spindle. Glucose 
comes on the market in different grades, 
according to the gravity. Mixing glucose 
has a gravity of 41 degrees Beaume; con¬ 
fectioners’ glucose 42, 43, and 44 degrees 
Beaume as desired. The boiling is stopped 
whenever the desired gravity is acquired. 
The finished glucose is run off into tanks 
and is shipped in barrels when ordered. 

Glucose is a thick syrup. It should be 
perfectly clear and colorless, and if proper¬ 
ly made will not leave an after taste in the 
mouth. By some few changes in the method 
of converting and boiling, a solid crystal¬ 
line product can be obtained called “grape 
sugar.” Grape sugar is used for making- 
beer and wines. 

There are only about half a dozen glu¬ 
cose factories in operation in this country. 
The smallest of them grinds 10,000 bushels 
of corn a day; the largest 30,000. Most 
of the glucose produced finds its way into 
candy and syrup. 

3 «£* 

BOCK CANDY AND HOW IT IS 
MADE 

Bock candy is the purest confection 
made. It is simply large crystals of sugar 
beaded on strings, and when it is not col¬ 
ored it has nothing in it but sugar, and 
the best sugar in the market at that. 

Time was when every school-boy in the 
country knew the taste of rock candy, and 
carried it around in his pockets, but the 
caramels, gum-drops, Turkish pastes, nu- 
gats, chocolate creams and other forms of 
the mushy candy, w 7 hich, the dentists say, 
is ruining the teeth of the rising genera¬ 
tion, have shoved the old-fashioned rock 
candy to one side, and the crunch of strong 


Things XVe All Should K.noto 


697 


white teeth on the hard crystals is seldom 
heard. Large quantities of it are still 
made, however, and, in fact, the output in¬ 
creases from year to year, for liquor deal¬ 
ers, druggists and patent medicine manu¬ 
facturers consume tons of the strung sweet. 
A well-known dentist is authority for the 
statement that if molasses candy, rock 
candy and hard bread were eaten by hoys 
and girls instead of paste candies and soft 
bread the next generation of dentists would 
have little to do. It requires strong teeth 
to break up rock candy in the mouth, for 
the crystals are glazed, hard and smooth¬ 
surfaced. 

The manufacturer of rock candy begins 
with refined granulated sugar of the best 
quality. Brown or soft white sugar will 
not do; he must start with crystals. He 
first empties between four and five barrels 
of sugar pnto a copper boiler, which is five 
feet in diameter and between three and four 
feet deep. After the sugar has been 
dumped in, from sixteen to twenty gallons 
of water are mixed with it, and then the 
steam is turned into the coil of pipes on 
the bottom and around the sides of the pan. 
After half an hour’s boiling the sugar has 
changed into a clear, thick syrup, and it is 
drawn off through a pipe in the bottom of 
the pan, through fine sieves, into copper 
pots beneath. 

In these copper pots, each of wdiich is 
about two feet in diameter at the top and 
a foot in diameter at the bottom, the syrup 
crystallizes into rock candy. The copper 
pots have little holes in the sides, and 
through these holes cotton cords are run, 
so that the pot from the bottom up is strung 
with the strings, which are placed in the 
pots before the syrup is poured in. They 
are fastened in the holes with plaster, which 


not only holds the cords in place, but closes 
up the holes, so that the hot syrup cannot 
leak out. Each pot holds about five gallons 
of syrup and weighs about forty pounds, 
and after they are filled to the top with the 
boiling syrup, they are carried to the hot 
house and left there for a time. 

The hot house is usually made entirely of 
brick, with strong shelves on all sides. 
Under the shelves the steam pipe which 
heats the house is coiled, and in this hot 
house the pots, with their sweet contents, 
are left for two or three days in a tempera¬ 
ture of about 160 degrees. The heat causes 
the syrup to crystallize, and the crystals 
arrange themselves on the cotton strings and 
the side of the pot, forming a cover of 
crystals for the copper pot. When the three 
days are up, the pots are taken down from 
the shelves and the thin crust of crystals is 
smashed in. Then the clear syrup, which 
is used in saloons and at soda-water foun¬ 
tains, is drained off. Clear w’ater is dashed 
into the pot to wash the syrup from the 
rock candy. Then the pots are turned up¬ 
side-down over a trough, and left there for 
a day in a temperature of 70 degrees, while 
the remainder of the syrup drains off and 
the rock candy becomes glossy and hard. 
The plaster of paris is scraped from the 
sides of the copper crystallizing pots, thus 
releasing the strings, so that when the pots 
are thumped down upon a table and rapped 
with a mallet the rock candy falls upon the 
board and is broken up and weighed out 
into five-pound and forty-pound boxes. 

Yellow rock candy is often colored with 
burnt sugar, and this is the only disagree¬ 
able feature in the making of rock candy. 
The sugar is burned in shallow copper pans, 
which are placed directly over the blaze of 
a hot fire. About 100 pounds of sugar and 


698 


Things XOe All Should K_notv 


four gallons of water are mixed together in 
the pans. In a short time the syrup be¬ 
gins to burn, and a thick, irritating smudge 
rises from the sugar and compels the work¬ 
men to cover their mouths and noses with 
cloth or wear respirators, for they are 
obliged to stand over the pans and stir the 
contents. In a short time the sugar is 
burned to a crisp and then it is washed with 
water, pounded, and run through a sieve. 
The red rock candy is colored with carmine 
and is the only rock candy made which has 
anything in it hut sugar. 

<£ < 3 * £ 

COMMON FOOD ADULTERATIONS 

So much is heard about food adultera¬ 
tion, adulterations of dairy products, adul¬ 
terated spices, and so forth, that many peo¬ 
ple believe the whole story is a tissue of 
falsehoods, got up by those who delight in 
springing sensations upon the credulous 
public. As a matter of fact, however, 15 
per cent of our food materials is adulterated 
in one way or another, and the figures to 
prove this assertion are obtained from the 
United States department of agriculture 
and many state boards of health. It is such 
a simple matter for one who knows any¬ 
thing about food materials to mix with 
them some comparatively cheaper and 
worthless material, that it is not surprising 
that unscrupulous dealers and manufac¬ 
turers resort to this extensive practice. 

Everyone is familiar with the milk deal¬ 
ers’ frequent practice of adding water to 
the lacteal fiuid. Milk is slightly heavier 
than water; that is to say, a pint of milk 
weighs more than a pint of water, or, as a 
chemist would say, the specific gravity of 
milk is greater than that of water. Large 


consumers of milk frequently use a simple 
instrument called a lactometer to determine 
the specific gravity of milk. If the milk 
has been watered the lactometer readily 
shows that it is lighter. But the milkman 
can easily deceive them on that score. Tak¬ 
ing advantage of the fact that cream is 
lighter than milk, he removes some of the 
cream and adds water until the lactometer 
shows the jjroper gravity for the milk. As 
cream has a yellowish cast, its removal 
causes the milk to become bluish in color, 
so the skillful manipulator adds some color¬ 
ing material to conceal this defect. 

Sometimes they add boracic acid or sali¬ 
cylic acid as a preservative to keep the milk 
from souring. Chemical tests show that all 
of these practices are resorted to, and it is 
found that the amount of adulteration is 
very great where dealers are not subjected 
to careful supervision, and where rigorous 
laws against adulterations are not enforced. 

Coffee is one of the most commonly adul¬ 
terated food materials. Sometimes inferior 
or damaged coffees are subjected to a course 
of treatment in order to imitate superior 
grades. It is not an unusual practice to 
take one of the green coffees from South 
America and expose it to a moist, high tem¬ 
perature to produce a brown color and thus 
sell it for Java. Other means have been re¬ 
sorted to for producing coffee of any de¬ 
sired shade, such as the use of pigments. 
The following substances have been used 
in this country for coloring coffee: Chrome 
yellow, Venetian red, yellow ochre, burnt 
umber, charcoal and French black. 

Another method that has been used for 
“improving” raw coffees is to wash with 
water, decolorize by treatment with lime 
water, wash again, dry rapidly, and then 
roast until the desired color has been ob- 


Things All Should K^nobo 


699 


tained. The weight that is lost in the proc¬ 
ess is restored by steaming, and then the 
beans are coated with glycerine, palm oil 
or vaseline. Coffee can he polished by ro¬ 
tation in cylinders with soapstone, or by 
covering with starch paste or syrup before 
roasting. 

Ground coffees are easily adulterated. 
Out of thirty samples tested by the depart¬ 
ment of agriculture, twenty-six were found 
to contain adulterations; the most common 
adulterant was chicory, hut wheat, peas, 
barley and even bread were found in some 
of the samples. Some of them contained 
only 25 per cent of coffee. The chicory 
used for this purpose is the ground root of 
the chicory plant, known to botanists as the 
“cychorium intybus.” 

A simple test for the presence of chicory 
is to throw some of the suspected coffee into 
a dish of cold water. Chicory sinks rap¬ 
idly, coloring the water, and soon becomes 
soft, whereas coffee floats on top and does 
not color the water. Artificial coffee beans 
have been made by some misapplied gen¬ 
ius. Flour is mixed with some chicory, 
and occasionallv a little coffee, and is then 
pressed into the shape of coffee beans and 
roasted until the desired shade is produced. 
Artificial coffee beans are vejy hard; in at¬ 
tempting to break or grind such coffee its 
spurious nature becomes manifest. 

Canned vegetables are not usually adul¬ 
terated in the general sense of the term, but 
they often contain substances which are 
injurious from a hygienic standpoint. 
Canned foods were first introduced into 
Europe in the early part of the century. 
The food was placed in a tin can, water 
was added, and then a lid with a small aper¬ 
ture in the center was soldered on. The 
can was placed in boiling water and its con¬ 


tents were allowed to boil briskly for some 
time, and then the hole was closed with a 
drop of solder. 

At the time the process was introduced 
it was supposed that its efficacy was due to 
the expulsion of the air from the can; but 
modern science shows that it is due to the 
killing of the germs or spores that cause 
decay when present and alive. Goods 
canned in this way become soft and mushy, 
and lose their attractive appearance be¬ 
cause of the prolonged boiling. 

So the canners looked about for some 
means to overcome this difficulty. One of 
the principal improvements, from the can- 
ner’s point of view, was the use of copper 
vessels for boiling peas and beans. Imper¬ 
fectly cleaned copper vessels soon become 
coated with copper salts, and these dissolve 
in water and give a deep green color to the 
vegetables cooked therein. The observant 
ones soon found that the same effect could 
be produced by adding copper or zinc salts. 
Eear.ly all French peas and beans contain 
copper, but American products generally 
are free from it. The amount of copper 
contained in a can of the most highly col¬ 
ored peas is not large, and a small amount 
of copper used occasionally will not seri¬ 
ously injure the health of the consumer. 

In order to dispense with the long boil¬ 
ing required for effectively killing the 
germs and spores, canners use antiseptics. 
For this purpose they add a minute amount 
of salicylic acid or boric acid to the contents 
of the can, and then boil the contents a few 
minutes before sealing. There is a differ¬ 
ence of opinion as to whether the use of 
preservatives in minute quantities is preju¬ 
dicial to health. 

There are three types of baking powder 
on the market—tartrate powders, phos- 


700 


Things XOe All Should K_nohv 


pliate powders and alum powders. All bak¬ 
ing powders contain bicarbonate of soda, or 
baking soda, as it is called by the housewife. 
In theory a baking powder must contain bi¬ 
carbonate of soda mixed with some sub¬ 
stance that will set free carbonic-acid gas 
when dissolved in water, and that powder 
which contains the greatest amount of gas, 
other things being equal, is the best powder. 

The carbonic-acid gas thus generated 
permeates the mass of dough with which it 
is mixed and causes it to rise. If that were 
the only point involved in passing on the 
merits of baking powder, the solution of 
the question would be an easy one. But it 
so happens that the chemicals used in the 
manufacture of the powder do not entirely 
disappear as gas, but the greater portion of 
them remain in the bread in the form of 
salts, and it is claimed that some of these 
salts are injurious to health. 

Of the various powders used, the phos¬ 
phate gives off the greater amount of gas, 
averaging 14.5 per cent; next comes the 
tartrates, averaging 11.6 per cent gas, and 
the alum powders contain about 10 per cent 
gas. There is a class of mixed alum and 
phosphate powders which give off about 9 
per cent of gas; some of them, however, 
yield as high as 11 per cent. Nearly all of 
the phosphate and tartrate powders are of 
high value, but some few of the alum pow¬ 
ders are inferior in leavening power, owing 
to a deficiency of bicarbonate of soda and 
an excess of starch. 

& & S 

BAKING POWDER, PURE AND 
ADULTERATED 

Baking powder is probably more exten¬ 
sively advertised than any other food com¬ 
modity in the market, and yet half a cen¬ 


tury ago it was practically unknown. When 
the old-time housewife wished to make a 
pan of biscuit or cake she took a pinch 
of cream of tartar and a pinch of baking 
soda, the size of the pinch in each case 
being a culinary secret passed down from 
generation to generation, and mixed them 
with the flour. Not infrequently a “dash” 
of sour milk took the place of the cream of 
tartar, especially if the housewife had 
gained a reputation for “milk-risin’ ” bis¬ 
cuits. A “dash” was the same indefinite 
nature as the “pinch,” and only genius at 
cookery ventured to use it. 

If the cakes came out all right it was a 
lucky bake, but if they were sodden and 
tough or sour and soapy in taste, it was 
always the flour that was bad, or the eggs 
were not fresh, or the oven was not hot 
enough. When the housewife offered ex¬ 
cuses at the table she never thought to 
blame the “pinches” of cream of tartar and 
soda, or the “dash” of sour milk. But 
there was where the trouble probably lay. 

Sometimes the proportion of chalk to the 
cream of tartar was unusually large, and 
how was a poor cook, even though she pos¬ 
sessed every mark of genius, to tell how 
much she used ? Besides this, the baking 
soda varied in strength and purity in a simi¬ 
lar way. 

To relieve this distressing state of affairs, 
and to provide better biscuits and cakes, 
the baking powder manufactory sprung up 
into existence. Here the cream of tartar 
and soda were mixed according to exact 
chemical formulas, and even the bride of a 
fortnight may now make cakes without ever 
having been instructed in the mysteries of 
the “pinch” and the “dash.” Of course 
there are a great many adulterated baking 
powders—any one who reads the advertise- 


Things tOe Alt Should Knot* 


701 


ments of the rival companies will be con¬ 
vinced of it—but there are a few manufac¬ 
turers who really make the pure compound 
of cream of tartar and soda, with a little 
starch added as the ‘‘body.” 

Baking powder rises on exactly the same 
principle as that on which gunpowder ex¬ 
plodes. It is composed of an acid (cream 
of tartar) and an alkali (soda), combined 
while bone dry, so that no chemical com¬ 
bination takes place. The moment water is 
added, however, the two substances unite 
with effervescence, and throw off carbonic 
acid gas, which permeates the dough and 
blows it full of bubbles just like little bal¬ 
loons. In baking, the sides of these little 
bubbles harden and the cake is said to be 
light. In the same way the ingredients of 
gunpowder unite and throw off carbonic 
acid gas, and it, too, makes things rise, but 
at a somewhat more rapid rate than in the 
case of baking powder. 

If for any reason dough is not well 
mixed, or the gas escapes from the baking 
powder without blowing up the bubbles, 
then the cake is “heavy”—in company with 
the spirits of the cook. 

The manufacture of baking powder has 
grown to be a great industry. There is one 
manufacturer in Chicago who alone turns 
out 50,000 cans every working day in the 
week, and he had stored in his factory re¬ 
cently twenty car-loads of one-pound cans. 
A car-load is 1,500 dozen, or 18,000 cans, 
and in twenty of them there would be 360,- 
000 cans. Each can is six inches long, and 
the whole number, if placed end to end, 
would reach 180,000 feet, or about thirty- 
four miles. Chicago alone uses between 
2,000,000 and 3,000,000 pounds of baking 
powder yearly. Each pound will make 
about 700 biscuits, thus placing the biscuit 


consuming capacity of Chicago at 1,400,- 
000,000. Besides this, Cliica go is a great 
distributing center for baking powder. It 
supplies immense quantities to the western 
states and exports a considerable amount to 
foreign countries. 

The acid originally used in baking pow¬ 
der is cream of tartar. This is exported 
from France, Italy and Spain, in the form 
of lees of wine and argals, both of which 
are by-products of the manufacture of 
wine. As every one knows, wine when first 
expressed from the grapes is not suitable 
for use. It must “age.” As it stands in 
the French wine-cellars, a fine substance 
settles out of it and forms in the bottom 
of the butt. When the wine is drawn off 
this may be hardened to a pinkish mass 
known as lees of wine. It contains about 
25 per cent of cream of tartar. If the wine 
is allowed to stand longer, the argals begin 
to crystallize out on the sides of the butt, 
in a thin, hard coating. When crumbled 
off they are a deep purple in color, and 
somewhat resemble calcspar. About 80 per 
cent of them is pure cream of tartar, the 
other 20 per cent being made of impurities, 
mainly lime. Formerly the lees were sold 
for fertilizers and the argals were burned 
for lamp-black, but since the baking-powder 
industry began to grow, the demand for 
both has equaled and even exceeded the 
supply. 

Both products are brought to this coun¬ 
try in big wooden casks. After being 
crushed to a fine powder at the refinery, 
they are boiled in huge copper tanks for 
some hours. The solution is then allowed 
to cool slowlv, and the cream of tartar crvs- 
tallizes on the sides of the tank, the lime 
and other impurities remaining in the solu¬ 
tion or being cast to the bottom in the form 


702 


Things XOe All Should K.noto 


of a precipitate. Workmen scrape off the 
crystals, which have assumed a faded brown 
color, and they are redissolved and discol¬ 
ored by passing through a filter of animal 
coal. The crystals resulting from a second 
cooling of the solution are white and about 
99 per cent pure. In this form it is ready 
for use in the baking-powder manufactory. 

The center of everything at the factory is 
the little chemical laboratory. As soon as 
the casks containing the crystals of cream 
of tartar and the barrels of soda and starch 
reach the factory, a sample of each is 
analyzed to see if it is exactly what it 
purports to be. The process begins on the 
top floor of a building, in a wide, low room, 
which bears a strong resemblance to a flour 
mill. The atmosphere is heavy with flying 
jwticles of cream of tartar, and the visitor 
who doesn’t understand how to breathe that 
kind of air passes from one sneezing con¬ 
vulsion into another. But the workmen 
have grown accustomed to having a per¬ 
petual sour taste in their mouths, and they 
rather like it. The crystals of cream of 
tartar are fed into a hopper of a grinding 
machine which much resembles an old-fash¬ 
ioned flour mill, and when it comes out it 
is a fine, white powder. It is then sifted 
through a number of bolting screens, after 
the manner of flour, and from time to time 
it is tested to see that the grinding has been 
complete. !Now the cream of tartar is bar¬ 
reled and placed inside of a little pen in 
one corner of the room, the soda and starch 
occupying other little pens not far away. 
All these ingredients are pure white in 
color, finely pulverized, and great care must 
be taken not to get them mixed up. At one 
end of the room there are three trap doors in 
the floor, over the first of which the words 
“Cream of Tartar” are printed in big brass 


letters, over the second, “Soda,” and over 
the third, “Starch.” The workman takes 
each ingredient from its pen and dumps 
a few barrelfuls down into bins below. 
Everything is kept scrupulously clean. 

Underneath the third floor the bins nar¬ 
row to funnels, the mouths of which are 
covered with draw slides. Under each 
spout there is a weighing scale over which 
runs a truck track which continues all 
around over two traps in the floor. The 
trucks are most ingeniously constructed. 
At one side there is a little wooden box 
set on a pivot. When the truck is under 
the cream of tartar spout the box is filled 
with just the proper amount, according to 
the scale on which the truck rests, and it is 
then tipped on the pivot until it empties in¬ 
to the body of the truck. Then the truck 
is trundled along to the next spout and the 
proper amount of soda is allowed to run 
from the bin spout into the box, which is 
in turn dumped, and the same process is 
repeated with the starch. 

The truck now contains a full “charge,” 
the ingredients being mixed according to a 
secret formula. Starch is added as a “fill¬ 
er” to separate the particles of the cream 
of tartar and the soda, thus helping to pre¬ 
serve the powder by preventing a chem¬ 
ical combination until the water is added. 

The “charge” being allowed to run 
through the spout in the bottom of the 
truck, it passes to the second floor into a 
long cylinder somewhat like a steam boiler. 
Then the cylinder begins to whir, thoroughly 
mixing the ingredients. At the cylinder 
end there is a box covered with canvas, and 
strongly resembling a voting booth. When 
the charge is mixed a truck is run into 
this booth, and the baking-powder fills it. 
The trucks hold 400 pounds, and a sample 


703 


Things ?Ve All Should K.notv 


from each is placed in a snuff box and sent 
to the laboratory for analysis. Great pains 
are taken to see that everything is exactly 
right. 

Now the powder goes to a row of pretty 
girls, in triangular paper caps, to be boxed 
and labeled. Each of the tin boxes is filled 
by weight with exactly the right amount of 
powder, and the work is done with great deft¬ 
ness and rapidity. Heaped around them 
on every side are cords and cords of cans, 
ready to go to the shipping department. 

Alum and alum-ammonia are extensivelv 
used as the acid element, in place of cream 
of tartar, for adulterating baking powder. 
They are much less expensive, but their use 
is beginning to come under the ban of the 
law. Various states of the Union have pure 
food laws that prohibit the use of either. 
Germany and other European countries are 
vigorous in their prohibition of the use of 
these adulterants. 

To detect ammonia in baking powder, 
mix one heaping teaspoonful with one tea¬ 
spoonful of water in a tin-cup; boil thor¬ 
oughly for a few moments, stir to prevent 
burning, and if ammonia is present you can 
smell it in the rising steam; or place a 
can of the suspected powder, top down, on 
a hot stove for a minute or two, then take 
off the cover and smell. 

Alum powder can be tested by putting 
two teaspoonfuls of the powder in a glass 
of cold water. If no effervescence takes 
place, alum powder is present. 

jt 

ADULTERATION IN ALCOHOLIC 
LIQUORS 

Distillers are not entirely responsible for 
all the mysterious compounds which are 
sold under the name of bourbon and rye 


whiskies, cognac, brandy, rum, absinthe, 
etc. The man who tackles ‘‘John Barley¬ 
corn’ 7 would not smack his lips so compla¬ 
cently if he knew half of the acids, alkalies 
and other chemicals he is sending down his 
throat. He might object to swallowing 
acetate of potassium, sulphuric acid, blue 
vitriol, ammonia, or other similar stuff, 
alone or mixed, but he revels in blissful ig¬ 
norance, and drinks compounds which 
carry those identical ingredients. It is fre¬ 
quently said by those who think they know, 
that pure whisky, pure brandy and pure 
rum will hurt no one, hut a congressional 
investigation of the tricks and secrets of 
compounders disclosed the fact that many 
of the best-known and high-priced brands 
of whisky and brandy contained but a small 
percentage of the genuine stuff. 

Alcoholic liquors are made from the ma¬ 
terials containing starch and sugar in suffi¬ 
cient quantities, by fermentation. If, after 
fermentation, the liquor is subjected to dis¬ 
tillation, it is called distilled liquor, and 
to this class belong whisky, brandy, rum, 
absinthe, etc. Brandy is made from fer¬ 
mented grape juice. The best grades of 
cognac brandy are made from white French 
wines; inferior qualities are made from 
Spanish and Portuguese wines. Whisky is 
made from the fermented extract of rye, 
barley, or corn. In Scotland or Ireland 
malted barley is used, sometimes alone, 
sometimes mixed with other grains. Bour¬ 
bon whisky is made from rye and malted 
corn. Gin is produced by mixing common 
spirits with juniper berries. Frequently 
other materials are used for flavoring, such 
as cardamon seed and oil of fennel. Liq¬ 
ueurs are made from brandy and alcohol by 
flavoring them with aromatic substances, 
such as orange peel, absinthe and anise; 


704 


Things '€&)e All Should K.notu 


then the flavored liquid is distilled, and 
after distillation it is colored with caramel 
and sweetened in most cases. 

The manufacture of whisky will serve as 
a type for the manufacture of other spirit¬ 
uous liquors. The first step in the process 
is the saccharifying of the grain—that is, 
changing the starch into sugar. The grain 
is mixed with malt and ground in a suitable 
mill, and then run into the mash tub, where 
it is agitated with water at a temperature 
of 150 degrees Fahrenheit. The mashing 
process is continued until the starch is en¬ 
tirely changed into malt sugar or maltose. 
This requires from one to five hours, ac¬ 
cording to the amount of grain in the mash. 
Malt contains a substance called “diastase,” 
which possesses the remarkable property of 
changing starch into maltose or malt sugar. 
It is for this reason that malt is added to 
the grain in the mash tub. 

Starch is changed by prolonged boiling 
into dextrin, which does not ferment read¬ 
ily, while maltose ferments very easily. 
Great care therefore is taken during the 
mashing process to reduce the dextrin for¬ 
mation to the minimum. This is done by 
keeping the temperature near 145 degrees 
Fahrenheit during the whole process. The 
liquor obtained in the mash tub is called 
the “wort.” When the wort is as strong as 
possible it is drained off and the grain is 
treated with a fresh supply of water, and 
the wort so obtained is added to the first. 
The wort on coming from the mash tub 
must be cooled rapidly, otherwise an acid 
fermentation will set in which produces 
vinegar, and the presence of such a sub¬ 
stance is undesirable. 

The wort is cooled by allowing it to 
trickle over the cold pipes, which are kept 
at a low temperature by some system of 


artificial refrigeration similar to that used 
for making ice. About five hours are re¬ 
quired to reduce the contents of a mash tub 
to a temperature of 60 degrees. The wort 
is now ready for fermentation. Fresh 
brewer’s yeast or softened compressed yeast 
is added to the liquid, which is stored in 
wooden tanks in the cellar of the distillery. 
One gallon of brewer’s yeast or one-half 
pound of compressed yeast is used for every 
100 gallons of wort. 

In the early stages of the fermentation 
the yeast cells grow without producing 
much alcohol. Later the malt sugar fer¬ 
ments and alcohol is formed; the dextrin 
gradually is changed to maltose, and this is 
then changed to alcohol by fermentation. 

During the fermentation the temperature 
gradually rises because of the chemical 
changes taking place. The temperature 
should be kept near 93 degrees Fahrenheit 
in order to get the best results. Fermenta¬ 
tion is complete when no more alcohol 
forms, and this takes from five to nine davs. 
The yeast is skimmed off, and the fer¬ 
mented wort at once is subjected to distilla¬ 
tion. The object of distillation is to in¬ 
crease the percentage of alcohol in the liq¬ 
uor, and at the same time to remove unde¬ 
sirable substances from it. The undistilled 
liquid contains alcohol, water, solid matter, 
fusel oil and other substances. 

Alcohol boils at 172 degrees, water at 
212 and fusel oil boils, some at 207 and 
some at higher temperatures. If a mixture 
of such liquids be boiled and the resulting 
vapors cooled, the process is called distilla¬ 
tion. If the liquid which distills over and 
is condensed be collected in different por¬ 
tions or fractions, the first fraction will con¬ 
tain a larger percentage of alcohol than the 
original liquid, for the alcohol distills off 


Things XOe All Should K.noto 


705 


at the lower temperature. The remaining 
fractions will contain more water and fusel 
oil. The first portion will not contain all 
of the alcohol, nor will it be entirely free 
from water and fusel oil, but if it is redis¬ 
tilled the percentage of alcohol will be 
greatly increased and the amount of water 
and fusel oil will be correspondingly dimin¬ 
ished. 

The old stills were based on this princi¬ 
ple, and many such stills are used to-day in 
Scotland and Ireland. These consist of 
large, flat-bottomed vessels of copper set in 
brick work and heated underneath by direct 
firing. The still is connected at the top 
with a long spiral pipe called a “worm,” 
which passes through a tank of cold water, 
where the alcohol vapors are cooled and the 
distillate is collected at the other end of 
the worm in a suitable tank. This method 
of distilling is wasteful of fuel, and for 
that reason a number of devices have been 
introduced for reducing the cost of the pro¬ 
duct and improving the quality. 

The improved stills are somewhat com¬ 
plicated in construction, and they are con¬ 
tinuous in action; that is, the liquor to be 
rectified is fed in a steady stream without 
interruption to the process, and the recti¬ 
fied soirits are drawn off continuously. A 

JL v 

standard still consists of two columns' made 
of wood, copper lined, called respectively 
the “analyzer” and the “rectifier.” The 
analyzer is divided into a number of com¬ 
partments by perforated copper plates, sup¬ 
plied with valves opening upward. Small 
pipes pass through each plate, projecting 
about half an inch above each plate and 
reaching down into small copper pans 
placed on the plate below. From the 
analyzer the vapors enter the rectifier, 
which also is divided into compartments 


by perforated plates until near the top of 
the column, which is free from plates, and 
where the finished spirit is held back and 
carried away to the condensing worm. 

The liquor to be rectified is pumped 
through a zigzag pipe which circulates 
through the rectifier. When it reaches the 
bottom of the rectifier it is entirely changed 
to vapor. The vapor then goes to the ana¬ 
lyzer, which is heated by steam from below. 
The water condenses and runs off at the 
bottom of the analyzer; the vapors of the 
alcohol pass into the rectifier, where they 
circulate through the compartments, and as 
they ascend they are almost entirely freed 
from the water and fusel oil. The vapor 
then passes through a condensing worm, 
where it is thoroughly cooled and liquefied, 
running into storage tanks. 

Xot all distilled liquors are made this 
way. Some require to be heated by direct 
firing in order to develop certain peculiar 
flavors. Large quantities of spirituous 
liquors are made, however, from spirits des¬ 
titute of flavor by blending with them suit¬ 
able flavoring extracts and substances. The 
skillful compounder will take some liigh- 
wines or spirits, mix with them a small 
amount of genuine whisky, add a few drops 
of essential oils, put in some sugar color, 
and bottling the mixture, will paste on the 
bottle a label bearing the name of some 
well-known brand of whisky. 

A great deal depends upon the flavoring 
matter, and each compounder has his secret 
mixture which produces his particular 
brand of whisky. Prune juice is a favorite 
flavor with compounders and a mixture of 
extract of tea and currants is used for rye 
whisky. In order to give an artificial 
“bead” to inferior liquors they are treated 
with a beading oil made from oil of bitter 


706 


Things *€Oe All Should K_notu 


aknonds by a simple chemical treatment. 
Bourbon whisky sometimes is made by add¬ 
ing an oil which consists largely of fusel 
oil which has been treated with acetate of 
potassium, sulphuric acid, blue vitriol, am¬ 
monium oxalate and black oxide of manga¬ 
nese. “Scotch” whiskies are made by add¬ 
ing to a small quantity of real Scotch whis¬ 
ky, oil of birch and spirits. Cognac is made 
from spirits by flavoring with cocoanut oil 
and coloring wflth burnt sugar, and there 
are other tricks in the whisky trade too deep 
and mysterious to be penetrated by one 
outside of the inner circle. 

& c* c* 

TOILET PREPARATIONS FROM 
THE TROPICS 

Americans and Europeans draw on the 
Orient and the tropics for a very wide 
range of supplies. Not only do tea, coffee 
and spices, rare woods and silks, and queer 
art trinkets and treasures come from far 
away, but some other things less conspicu¬ 
ous but still not to be ignored. We know 
what value the brown natives of the Pacific 
and Indian oceans place upon the palm 
tree in its various forms, how they obtain 
from it not only shelter and fuel but actu¬ 
ally food and drink as well. We ourselves 
likewise owe our gratitude to the palm tree 
for many favors. Familiar enough are 
sago from one variety, cocoanuts from an¬ 
other, and fans from a third. The areca 
palm or betel-nut palm is another which 
contributes to our comfort, though we are 
hardly as well informed about it. This 
tree is one of the most beautiful of all the 
palm species, and in the Malay archipelago 
and the peninsulas of India and Burma, 
where it flourishes, attains a height of 
eighty feetv 


The nuts themselves grow in crowded 
bunches or clusters, each nut about the size 
of a hen’s egg. The cover is a hard and 
glossy rind, sometimes almost like mahog¬ 
any in its polish and hardness. Next inside 



ARECA-NUT, FRUIT OF THE BETEL-PALM. 


comes an albuminous mass, and then in the 
center is a large seed-like kernel which 
when cracked yields a nut-like substance. 
From the contents the natives make their 
favorite chewing compound, which they 
much prefer to tobacco. Bits of the betel- 







Things 'OJe A.U Should K.notv 


707 


nut are mixed in the proper proportion 
with lime, and a morsel of the mixture is 
wrapped in a small leaf. This entire com¬ 
bination is placed in the mouth and chewed. 
The results are very repugnant to a traveler 
who is not used to such things. The saliva 
produced is of a bright red color like blood, 
and it is expectorated constantly during the 
chewing process. The lips of habitual betel- 
nut chewers crack and bleed, and their 
teeth become blackened and loosened from 
the gums, but in spite of that they stick to 
the offensive habit faithfully. 

The American and European use of the 
betel-nut is fortunately a wiser one. The 
nuts are shipped to us in great quantities, 
having been picked by the natives who have 
whole forests of them growing wild at their 
disposal. They are bought by druggists and 
manufacturers of toilet preparations, and 
are converted into drugs and into tooth 
powders and pastes. The medical use of 
them is as a vermifuge. Of course the sub¬ 
stance of the nut is modified by mixture 
with other things when made into tooth 
powder, so that its cleanses and whitens the 
teeth instead of blackening them, as it does 
for the Malays of the Indian ocean. 

The cocoanut palm provides us with its 
delicious nuts, to eat in their natural form 
or after preparation as puddings and pies. 
In addition to this use, however, the half- 
dried nuts are shipped to this country in 
great quantity as “copra,” to be made into 
cocoanut butter, soaps and cosmetics. 

^ & 

AMERICAN PROGRESS IN 
TWENTY YEARS 

One of the most fascinating official bul¬ 
letins ever issued by the government made 


its appearance in the annual report of the 
bureau of statistics of the Treasury De¬ 
partment in August, 1902. It is entitled 
“Progress of the United States in its area, 
population and material industries.” The 
story it tells is perhaps the most marvel¬ 
ous to be found in the history of all the na¬ 
tions. It shows in compact tabular form 
the development of the United States to a 
great and wealthy nation, all the material 
facts being arranged by decades, beginning 
with 1800 and ending with 1900. Of 
course any comparison of the end of the 
century conditions with those found at the 
beginning of the century would show a de¬ 
velopment from almost nothing to the great 
American empire of to-day. 

Of far greater importance and interest is 
the growth of the United States during the 
last twenty years. Probably no other na¬ 
tion ever made such rapid strides as the 
United States has made since 1880. The 
official figures which measure this growth 
are simply amazing. Remember that the 
period under consideration is only twenty 
years, a trifle in the life of a nation. At 
the beginning of this period the United 
States w r as already one of the greatest na¬ 
tions. Its population had swept across the 
continent. It had recovered from the dis¬ 
aster of the civil war. It had enjoyed years 
of large crops and uninterrupted prosper¬ 
ity. Yet the development since that time 
reads almost like a fairy story rather than 
a tale culled from the sober figures of 
census and other official statistics. 

Since 1880 the population of the United 
States has increased by 50 per cent. 

The aggregate wealth of the country, 
“the true valuation of real and personal 
property,” has more than doubled—from 
$42,000,000,000 to $94,000,000,000. 


708 


Things XOe All Should K.notu 


Wealth per capita has increased 50 per 
cent—from $850 to $1,236. 

The public debt, less cash in the treasury, 
has decreased nearly one-half—from 
$1,919,000,000 to $1,107,000,000. 

The debt per capita has dropped from 
$38.27 to $14.52. 

The annual interest charge has dimin¬ 
ished more than one-half—from $80,000,- 
000 a year to $33,500,000, and per capita 
from $1.59 to 44 cents. 

The amount of gold coined has increased 
more than 50 per cent—from $62,000,000 
a year to $99,000,000. 

The amount of gold in circulation has 
nearly trebled—from $225,000,000 to 
$611,000,000. 

The amount of silver in circulation has 
more than doubled—$69,000,000, as com¬ 
pared with $142,000,000. 

The total circulation of money has more 
than doubled—$973,000,000, compared 
'with $2,055,000,000. Circulation per 
capita has increased only 50 per cent— 
$19.41 compared with $26.93. 

The number of national banks has nearly 
doubled—2,056 compared with 3,606. 

Deposits in national banks have well-nigh 
trebled—$1,006,000,000 compared with 
$2,625,000,000. 

Deposits in savings banks have almost ex¬ 
actly trebled—$S19,000,000 to $2,450,- 
000,000. 

The number of depositors in savings 
banks has increased from 2,235,000 to 
6,108,000. 

That the farmers of the country have 
shared in this wonderful increase of wealth 
is clearly shown by further comparisons of 
1880 with 1900. 

The value of farms and farm property 
has grown from $12,000,000,000 to $20,- 


500,000,000, an increase of 70 per cent. 

The value of the yearly products of 
farms has increased from $2,212,000,000 
to $3,764,000,000. 

The value of farm animals has increased 
from $1,882,000,000 to $2,982,000,000. 

The number of manufacturing establish¬ 
ments in the United States has doubled— 
from 253,000 to 513,000. 

The value of the output of these estab¬ 
lishments has increased two and one-lialf 
times, from $5,369,000,000 to more than 
$13,000,000,000. 

The number of employes in these estab¬ 
lishments has more than doubled—2,732,- 
000 to 5,719,000. The wages of these em¬ 
ployes have almost trebled—$948,000,000 
to $2,735,000,000. 

Exports of merchandise have increased 
more than 50 per cent. Exports of agri¬ 
cultural products have increased more than 
25 per cent. Exports of manufactures have 
more than quadrupled. 

Imports of all merchandise have in¬ 
creased 30 per cent, but imports per capita 
have fallen from $12.51 to $10.88. 

The production of gold has more than 
doubled—from $36,000,000 a year to $79,- 
000,000. 

The production of silver has nearly dou¬ 
bled—$39,000,000 compared with $74,- 
500,000. 

The production of coal has almost quad¬ 
rupled—64,000,000 tons compared with 
241,000,000. 

The production of petroleum has nearly 
trebled—1,100,000,000 gallons compared 
with 2,661,000,000. 

The production of pig iron has nearly 
quadrupled. 

The production of steel has multiplied 
eight times—1,247,000 tons to 10,188,000. 


Things tOe All Should Knoto 


709 


Prices on steel rails have fallen from 
$67.50 per ton to $32.29. 

The production of copper has increased 
tenfold—27,000 tons to 270,000. 

The production of wool has increased 25 
per cent, of wheat 5 per cent, of corn 40 per 
cent, of cotton 65 per cent, of sugar 60 per 
cent. 

The consumption of sugar has more than 
doubled—957,000 tons to 2,219,000. 

Cotton taken by American mills has dou¬ 
bled, and cotton exported has increased 75 
per cent. 

Miles of railway in operation have more 
than doubled—93,262 miles compared with 
194,321. 

The number of passenger cars has more 
than doubled—12,788, against 26,786. The 
number of freight cars has increased two 
and one-half times—544,000 to 1,358,000. 

Tonnage of American vessels built has 
more than doubled, tonnage engaged in for¬ 
eign trade has diminished 40 per cent, ton¬ 
nage engaged in domestic trade has in¬ 
creased 60 per cent and tonnage on the 
great lakes has multiplied two and one-half 
times. 

Tonnage passing through the Sault 
Ste. Marie Canal has multiplied seven 
times. 

Freight rates on wheat, Chicago to New 
York, have fallen from 12.27 cents per 
bushel to 4.42, lake and canal; from 15.7 
cents to 5.05, lake and rail, and from 19.9 
cents to 9.98, all rail. 

Freight rates per ton mile on all the rail¬ 
ways of the United States have dropped 
from 1.30 cents to 0.75 cents. 

The receipts of the federal government 
have increased from $333,000,000 to $567,- 
000 , 000 . 

The number of postoffices in the United 


States have increased from 44,000 to 77,- 

000 . 

The receipts of the Postoffice Department 
have trebled. 

The number of telegraphic messages sent 
in the United States has more than doubled 
—29,000,000,000 to 63,000,000,000. 

The number of newspapers and period¬ 
icals published has more than doubled— 
9,273 to 20,806. 

Salaries paid in public schools have more 
than doubled—$60,000,000 to $136,000,- 
000 . 

The number of patents issued has almost 
doubled—14,000 per year to 26,500. 

& <3* & 


THE PRINCIPAL PLANETS 


PLANETS. 

Mean 
istances 
rom the 
Sun 

n Miles. 

Mean 
iameters 
n Miles. 

ength of 
Year in 
Days. 

ength of 
Days in 
ours and 
Minutes. 


q~ - 

o~ 


H. M. 

Vulcan 

. 13,082,000 

. 35,392,000 


24 


Mercury ... 

2,900 

88 

24 5 

Venus . 

. 66,131,500 

7,510 

225 

23 21 

The Earth. 

. 91,430,220 

7,913 

365 

23 56 

Mars . 

. 139,312,200 

4,920 

687 

24 37 

Jupiter .... 

. 475,693,100 

88,390 

4,333 

9 56 

Saturn .... 

. 872,134,600 

71,900 

10,759 

10 29 

Uranus ... 

.1,753,851,000 

33,000 

30,647 

9 30 

Neptune .. 

.2,746,271,200 

36,000 

60,127 

.. .. 

Jupiter 

has four 

moons; 

Saturn has 


eight moons and a ring; Uranus has six 
moons; Neptune has one moon. 

Our moon is 2,160 miles in diameter, 
and is distant 238,650 miles from our 
earth. 

The sun is about 815,000 miles in diam¬ 


eter. 

The planets known to the ancients were 
Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Sat¬ 


urn. 

The nearest fixed star to our solar system 
is Cygni No. 61, and this is 210,000,000 
times more distant from the sun than we 
are, or about 20,000,000,000,000,000 miles. 








710 


Things *€Oe A// Should K.noba 


STRENGTH OF VARIOUS 
SUBSTANCES 

With fifty-four inches between supports, 
a rod of cast iron, one inch square, will 
break under a load of 550 pounds. 

A cube of east iron, one inch each way, 
will be crushed under a pressure of 90 
tons. 

A bar of cast iron, one inch square, will 
break under a tensile strain of 9^ tons. 

These figures show the capacity of best 
material. Very inferior iron would prob¬ 
ably have not over one-half the above re¬ 
sisting power. 

The actual cohesive force of different 
substances is as below, the size of the rod 
tested being in each case one inch square, 
and the number of pounds showing the ac¬ 
tual breaking strain: 



Lbs. 


Lbs. 

Hard steel. 

150,000 

Locust wood. 

.20,000 

Soft steel. 

120,000 

Cast iron. 

.19,000 

Best Swedish iron 

84,000 

Oak wood. 

.17,000 

Ordinary bar iron 

70,000 

Ivory . 

.16,000 

Silver . 

41,000 

Elm wood . 

.13,000 

Copper . 

35,000 

Ash wood. 

.12,000 

Gold. 

22,000 

Horn . 

. 8,750 

Whalebone . 

7,500 

Pitch pine wood. 

. 7,500 

Bone . 

5,750 

Poplar wood. 

. 5,500 

Tin . 

5,500 

Cedar wood. 

. 4,800 

Zinc . 

2,600 

Lead . 

. 860 


«*; .js 

TIIE AVERAGE VELOCITIES OF 
VARIOUS BODIES 


A man walks 3 miles per hour or 4 feet 
per second. 

A horse trots 7 miles per hour or 10 feet 
per second. 

A horse runs 20 miles per hour or 29 
feet per second. 

Steamboat runs 20 miles per hour or 29 
feet per second. 

Sailing vessel runs 10 miles per hour or 
14 feet per second. 


Rapid rivers flow 3 miles per hour or 4 
feet per second. 

A moderate wind blows 7 miles per hour 
or 10 feet per second. 

A storm moves 36 miles per hour or 52 
feet per second. 

A hurricane moves 80 miles per hour or 
117 feet per second. 

A rifle ball moves 1,000 miles per hour 
or 1,466 feet per second. 

Sound moves 743 miles per hour or 1,142 
feet per second. 

Light moves 192,000 miles per second. 

Electricity moves 288,000 miles per sec¬ 
ond. 

** j* 

HOW TO MIX PAINT FOR TINTS 

For brown, mix red and black. 

For rose, mix lake and white. 

For chestnut, mix white and brown. 

For purple, mix white, blue and lake. 

For pearl, mix blue and lead color. 

For pink, mix white and carmine. 

For silver gray, mix indigo and lamp¬ 
black. 

For lead color, mix white and lamp¬ 
black. 

For chocolate, mix black and Venetian 
red. 

For bright green, mix white and green. 

For French white, mix purple and white. 

For dark green, mix light green and 
black. 

For pea green, mix white and green. 

For brilliant green, mix white and emer¬ 
ald green. 

For orange, mix red and yellow. 

For pearl gray, mix white, blue and 
black. 

For flesh color, mix white, lake and Ver¬ 
million. 





















Things We All Should Knots, 


For drab, mix umber, white and vene- 
tian. 

For cream, mix white, yellow and Vene¬ 
tian. 

For olive, mix red, blue and black. 

For buff, mix yellow, white and a little 
Venetian. 

jt jt 

UNITED STATES POSTAL 
REGULATIONS 

First-Class Mail Matter.— Letters .— 
This class includes letters, and anything of 
which the postmaster cannot ascertain the 
contents without destroying the wrapper, 
or anything unsealed which may be wholly 
or partly in writing—except manuscript for 
publication accompanied by proof sheets. 
Postage, two cents each ounce or for each 
fraction above an ounce. On local or drop 
letters, at free deliverv offices, two cents. 
At offices where no free delivery by carriers, 
one cent. Registration fee 8 cents in addi¬ 
tion to regular postage. 

Second-Class.— Regular Publications. 
—This class includes all newspapers, pe¬ 
riodicals, or matter exclusively in print and 
regularly issued at stated periods from a 
known office of publication or news agency. 
Postage, one cent a pound or fraction there¬ 
of, when mailed by the publisher; when 
mailed by others, one cent for four ounces 
and every additional fraction thereof. 

Third Class.— Miscellaneous Printed 
Matter. — Mailable matter of third class 
includes printed books, circulars or other 
matter wholly in print (not of the sec¬ 
ond class), proof sheets and manuscript ac¬ 
companying the same and postage shall be 
paid at the rate of one cent for each two 
ounces or fractional part thereof, and shall 


til 

fully be prepaid by postage stamps affixed 
to said matter. 

All packages of matter of the third class 
must be so wrapped or enveloped that their 
contents may be readily and thoroughly ex¬ 
amined by postmasters without destroying 
the wrappers. 

Fourth Class.— Merchandise Samples, 
etc. —Mailable matter of the fourth class 
includes all matter not embraced in the 
first, second or third classes, which is not in 
its form or nature liable to destroy, deface 
or otherwise damage the contents of the 
mailbag, or harm the person of any one 
engaged in the postal service. 

All matter of the fourth class is subject 
to a postage charge at the rate of one cent 
an ounce or fraction thereof, except seeds, 
roots, cuttings, bulbs and the like, on which 
the rate is one cent for two ounces, and all 
must be fully prepaid. 

Postal Cards. —Postal cards are sold at 
a fixed rate of one cent (and two cents for 
foreign) each, in any quantity. Unclaimed 
postal cards are never returned to the 
writer. Anything pasted on or attached to 
a postal card subjects it to letter postage. 

Money Orders. —Domestic orders are 
sold at the following rates: Xot exceeding 
$2.50, 3 cents; not exceeding $5, 5 cents; 
not exceeding $10, 8 cents; not exceeding 
$20, 10 cents; not exceeding $30, 12 cents; 
not exceeding $40, 15 cents; not exceeding 
$50, 18 cents; not exceeding $60, 20 cents; 
not exceeding $75, 25 cents; not exceeding 
$100, 30 cents. 

Registry Fee on domestic or foreign 
letters and packages, in addition to fully 
prepaid postage, is 8 cents. 

Foreign Postage. —Rates to Canada 
and Mexico are the same as in the United 
States. To all other countries in the Postal 


712 


Things All Should K_nobu 


Union, letters 5 cents for each half ounce, 
printed matter 1 cent for each 2 ounces. 


£ 

CENTER OF POPULATION IN THE 
UNITED STATES 

The manner in which settlement has pro¬ 
gressed westward is graphically shown by 
the census returns, which indicate every 
ten years the actual center of our national 
population. There is surprisingly little va¬ 
riation in the line of advance, either north 
or south, showing that emigration generally 
follows parallels of latitude instead of mak¬ 
ing radical changes of climate. The cen¬ 
ter of population at various dates has been 
as follows: 

Westward 

Movement 

1790. 23 miles east of Baltimore, Md. 

1800. 18 miles west of Baltimore, Md.... 41 miles 
1810. 40 miles northwest of Washington, 


D. C.■.36 miles 

1820. 16 miles north of Woodstock, Va.. 50 miles 
1830. 19 miles southwest of Moorefield, 

W. Va.39 miles 

1840. 16 miles south of Clarksburg,W.Va. 55 miles 
1850. 23 miles southeast of Parkersburg, 

W. Va. 55 miles 

1860. 20 miles south of Chillicothe, O... 81 miles 
1870. 48 miles northeast of Cincinnati, O. 42 miles 
1880. 8 miles southwest of Cincinnati,O. 58 miles 

1890. 20 miles east of Columbus, Ind.... 48 miles 
1900. 6 miles southeast of Columbus,Ind. 14 miles 


PUBLIC LANDS IN THE UNITED 
STATES 


FROM THE STATEMENT OF THE DE¬ 
PARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR. 



Surveyed. 

Unsurveyed. 

Total. 

Alabama . 

359,250 


359,250 

Alaska .. 


359,492,760 

359,492,760 

Arizona . 

.. 10,886,745 

39,400,241 

50,286,986 

Arkansas 

... 3,493,444 


3,493,444 

California 

.. 34,423,923 

8,043,589 

42,467,512 

Colorado 

.. 35,134,613 

4,515,634 

39,650,247 



Surveyed. 

Unsurveyed. 

Total. 

Florida .... 

. 1,438,749 

157,662 

1,596,411 

Idaho . 

. 11,722,541 

31,564,153 

43,286,694 

Kansas .... 

. 1,196,900 


1,196,900 

Louisiana.. 

377,206 

65,018 

442,224 

Michigan .. 

430,483 


430,483 

Minnesota . 

. 2,386,295 

2,309,908 

4,696,203 

Mississippi 

285,804 


285,804 

Missouri .. 

337,946 


337,946 

Montana ... 

. 18,546,146 

49,416,911 

67,963,057 

Nebraska .. 

. 9,798,688 


9,798,688 

Nevada .... 

. 29,622,658 

31,654,848 

61,277,507 

N. Mexico.. 

. 41,951,628 

14,589,542 

56,541,170 

N. Dakota.. 

. 12,597 130 

6,128,109 

18,725,239 

Oklahoma . 

. 5,733,572 


5,733,572 

Oregon .... 

. 23,489,861 

10,888,046 

34,377.907 

S. Dakota.. 

. 11,612,943 

317,866 

11,930 809 

Utah . 

. 10,019.262 

32,948,189 

42,967,451 

Washington 

5,237,302 

5,888,581 

11,125,883 

Wisconsin . 

313,565 


313,565 

Wyoming . 

43,194,311 

5,163,858 

48,358,169 

Grand Total 

314,509,965 

602,544,915 

917,135,880 


Excluding Alaska there is in the United 
States alone, wholly unoccupied land, more 
than half of which is good for cultivation 
or grazing, amounting in extent to about 
one-fourth the entire area. 


& & 


NATIONAL PARK RESERVES IN 
THE UNITED STATES 

Date of Area 
Reservation. Acres. 
California, Yosemite Nation¬ 
al Park.Oct. 1,1890 967,680 

Sequoia National Park..Sept. 25, 1890 161,280 

General Grant National Park. 2,560 

Washington, Mount Rainier 

National Park.Mar. 2, 1899 207,360 

Wyoming, Yellowstone Na¬ 
tional Park.Mar. 1,1872 2,142,720 

Maryland, Antietam Nation¬ 
al Military Park.__Aug. 30,1890 

Mississippi, Vicksburg Na¬ 
tional Military Park. .Feb. 21,1899 
Pennsylvania, Gettysburg 

National Military Park.Feb. 11,1895 
Tennessee, Chickamauga and 
Chattanooga National 

Military Park.Aug. 19, 1890 

Shiloh National Military 

Par k.Dec. 27, 1894 

Arkansas, Hot Springs of 

Garland County... 1832, 1877, 1880 912 

Arizona, Casa Grande Ruin 

.June 22, 1892 480 


























Things t2 Z)e Ail Should K.nobo 


713 


GRAIN PRODUCTION OF UNITED 
STATES IN BUSHELS 



Indian Corn. 

Wheat. 

1890 .... 
1895 .... 
1900 ... 

. 1,489,970,000 

. 2,151,138,580 

. 2,105,102,516 

339,262,000 

467,102,947 

522,229,505 


Oats. 

Barley. 

Rye. 

1890 .... 
1895 .... 
1900 .... 

_ 532,621,000 

.... 824,443,537 
.... 809,125,989 

67,168,344 

87,072,744 

58,925,833 

25,807,472 

27,210,070 

23,995,927 






NUMBER OF FARM ANIMALS IN 
THE UNITED STATES 



Horses. 

Mules. 

Sheep. 

1890 .... 
1893 . ... 
1896 .... 
1900 .... 

. 14,213.837 

. 16,206,802 

. 15,124,057 

. 13,537,524 

2,331,027 

2,331,128 

2,278,946 

2,086,027 

44,336,072 

47,273,553 

38,298,783 

41,883,005 


Swine. 

Milk Cows. 

Beeves. 

1890 .... 
1893 .... 
1896 .... 
1900 .... 

. 51,602,780 

. 46,094,807 

. 42,842,759 

. 38,321,547 

15,952,S83 

16,424,087 

16,137,586 

16,292,360 

36,849,024 

35,954,196 

32,085,409 

27,610,054 



S 



NUMBER OF FARM ANIMALS IN 
THE VARIOUS STATES, 1901 


States and Milch 


Territories. 

Horses. 
Ill 987 . 

Mules. 

cows. 

197,878 

N. Hampshire 

55,028 . 


136,825 

Vermont ... 

84,812 . 


271,602 

Massach’ts . 

63,478 . 


179,791 

Rhode Island 

10,281 . 


25,511 

Connecticut . 

43,682 . 


143,098 

New York... 

596,738 

4,421 

1,458,251 

New Jersey. 

79,180 

7,269 

214,674 

Pennsylvania 

548,747 

37,053 

924,260 

Delaware .. 

30,883 

4,928 

35,376 

Maryland... 

129,662 

12,638 

155,022 

Virginia .... 

233,940 

35,998 

244,937 

N. Carolina.. 

146,697 

111,398 

248,263 

S. Carolina.. 

66,979 

97,357 

126,762 

Georgia .... 

110,266 

158,594 

297,324 

Florida. 

37,673 

8,354 

114,251 

Alabama ... 

132,224 

129,726 

254,727 

Mississippi . 

201,477 

163,082 

256,951 

Louisiana .. 

143,593 

90,904 

125,747 

Texas . 

1,137.015 

265,880 

700,802 

Arkansas ... 

234,596 

145,504 

196,808 

Tennessee .. 

317,601 

151,265 

254,675 

W. Virginia. 

151,847 

7,412 

163 895 

Kentucky .. 

365,602 

106,547 

248.208 

Ohio . 

653,499 

17,228 

736,735 

Michigan ... 

410,410 

2,646 

459,107 


States and 



Milch 

Territories. 

Horses. 

Mules 

cows. 

Indiana .... 

601,271 

41,650 

611,975 

Illinois . 

1,003,299 

82,225 

1,001,212 

Wisconsin .. 

409,822 

4,754 

895,822 

Minnesota .. 

455,122 

8,416 

646,673 

Iowa . 

981,352 

31,547 

1,250,775 

Missouri ... 

762,734 

183,362 

673,195 

Kansas . 

734,881 

79,410 

680,457 

Nebraska ... 

652,284 

43,016 

628,750 

S. Dakota... 

290,746 

6,693 

372,321 

N. Dakota .. 

175,137 

7,036 

171,073 

Montana .... 

164,923 

924 

43,994 

Wyoming ... 

72,258 

1,514 

18,140 

Colorado ... 

146,687 

8,667 

91,666 

N. Mexico .. 

83,351 

3,472 

19,317 

Arizona ... 

50,414 

1,041 

18,404 

Utah . 

68,295 

1,599 

57,787 

Nevada . 

44,305 

1,384 

18,069 

Idaho . 

128,077 

917 

31,500 

Washington 

169,694 

1,441 

115.485 

Oregon . 

185,844 

5,609 

116,581 

California .. 

342,265 

52,915 

318,425 

Oklahoma .. 

42,649 

8,407 

37,014 

Total ... 

13,665,307 

2,134,213 

15,990,115 


States and 

Other 



Territories. 

cattle. 

Sheep. 

Swine. 

Maine . 

109,440 

246,628 

75 306 

N. Hampshire... 

79 380 

78,289 

56,104 

Vermont . 

133,788 

165,940 

76,208 

Massachusetts .. 

74,875 

40,437 

54,846 

Rhode Island ... 

10,356 

10,715 

13,722 

Connecticut .... 

66,588 

31,745 

54,165 

New York. 

561,077 

841,955 

645,237 

New Jersey .... 

41,558 

42,299 

151 120 

Pennsylvania ... 

528,942 

790,604 

1,043,331 

Delaware . 

22,995 

12,981 

50,556 

Maryland . 

105,900 

136,135 

331,853 

Virginia . 

338,542 

369,227 

917,550 

North Carolina.. 

295,530 

261,400 

1.369,703 

South Carolina.. 

141,509 

66,540 

1,011,462 

Georgia . 

423,018 

327,581 

2,093,987 

Florida . 

325,774 

83,598 

429,128 

Alabama . 

3^6,479 

193,033 

1,866,640 

Mississippi . 

304,118 

239,720 

1,957,399 

Louisiana . 

182,690 

119,163 

796,498 

Texas . 

4,533,897 

2,543,917 

2,684,987 

Arkansas . 

250,528 

119,733 

1,280,120 

Tennessee . 

322,293 

286,063 

1,570,154 

West Virginia... 

243,460 

440,014 

331,563 

Kentucky . 

341,181 

597,643 

1,357,765 

Ohio . 

636,433 

2,730,471 

2,307,051 

Michigan . 

341,535 

1,396,053 

735,035 

Indiana . 

641,913 

674,532 

1,340,231 

Illinois . 

1,265,066 

613,191 

2,008,265 

Wisconsin. 

589,315 

722,967 

929,763 

Minnesota . 

570,165 

410,998 

411,353 

Iowa . 

2,163,584 

613,343 

3,408,281 

Missouri . 

1,460,647 

616,102 

2,949,818 

Kansas . 

2,076,489 

231,192 

1,591,341 

Nebraska . 

1,395,829 

292,779 

1,353,671 

South Dakota... 

449,362 

363,697 

145,469 

North Dakota... 

252.640 

359,721 

111,959 

Montana . 

952,598 

3,377,547 

42,265 

Wyoming . 

694,973 

2,328,025 

22,345 


































































7U 


Things *COe All Should K^notv 


States and 

Other 



Territories. 

cattle. 

Sheep. 

Swine. 

Colorado . 

973,259 

1,655,551 

20,713 

New Mexico. 

701,967 

3,128,692 

30,204 

Arizona . 

381,812 

1,014,287 

23,286 

Utah . 

303,116 

2,116,949 

47,808 

Nevada . 

224,317 

576,994 

10,441 

Idaho . 

384,056 

2,311,880 

75,718 

Washington .... 

265,376 

759,824 

156,748 

Oregon . 

573,646 

2,575,468 

216,430 

California. 

664,704 

2,175,545 

374,141 

Oklahoma . 

257,505 

22,982 

89,891 


Total. 27,994,225 39,114,453 38,651,631 


£ £ jt 


Argentina . 

British Isles . 

Rumania. 

Australasia . 

Turkey (European and Asiatic).... 

Canada . 

Bulgaria . 

Japan . 

Persia . 

Mexico . 

Egypt . 

Belgium . 

Chile . 

Servia . 

Portugal . 

Uruguay . 

Rest'of the World. 


101,266,000 

57,065,000 

56,463,000 

50,110,000 

50,000,000 

44,542,000 

30,000,000 

20,000,000 

16,000,000 

15,000,000 

14,000,000 

12,000,000 

12,000,000 

10,000,000 

8,000,000 

6,891,000 

25,869,495 


HOGS PACKED AND MARKETED, 
YEAR ENDING MARCH 1, 

1901 


Number of 

Cities. Hogs. 

Chicago . 7,268,515 

Kansas City. 2,981,288 

Omaha . 2.241,599 

St. Louis. 1,566,550 

Indianapolis . 1,185,600 

Cincinnati . 617,031 

Milwaukee and Cudahy. 911,256 

St. Joseph. 1,723,377 

Cedar Rapids . 496,308 

Ottumwa . 653,785 

Cleveland . 500,785 

Louisville . 360,425 

Sioux City . 733,754 

St. Paul . 514,385 

Nebraska City. 114,962 

Other Places West . 1,731,053 

Boston . 1,370,000 

Buffalo . 343,000 

Other Places East. 1,046,000 

Receipts at New York, Philadelphia, and 

Baltimore . 2,620,000 


Total 1901.28,980,000 

Total 1900.28,172,000 


jt J* 3 

WORLD’S PRODUCTION OF 
WHEAT IN BUSHELS, 
FOR 1901 


United States. 522,229,505 

Russian Empire. 458,084,000 

France and Colonies (Algeria and 

Tunis) . 338,383,000 

Austria-Hungary . 189,650,000 

India . 182,582,000 

Germany. 141,139,000 

Italy . 119,750,000 

Spain . 105 000,000 


Total World’s Production.2,586,025,000 

< 5 * < 3 # 

THE WORLD’S PRODUCTION OF 
WOOL IN 1901 


Countries. Pounds. 

North America: 

United States. 302,502,328 

British Provinces. 12,000,000 

Mexico . 5,000,000 


Total. 319,502,328 


Central America and West Indies.... 5,000,000 


South America: 

Argentina . 370,000,000 

Brazil . 1,500,000 

Chile. 7,500,000 

Uruguay. 96,000,000 

Venezuela . 15,000,000 

All other South America. 20,000,000 


Total. 510,000,000 


Europe: 

Great Britain and Ireland. 141,146,376 

France . 103,610,000 

Spain . 102,600,000 

Portugal . 13,410,000 

Germany . 49,590,000 

Italy . 21,451,000 

Austria-Hungary. 64,300,000 

Russia, including Poland. 361,100,000 

Sweden and Norway. 8,200,000 

Turkey and Balkan Peninsula. 67,500 000 

All other Europe. 14,000,000 


Total . 946,907,376 


Asia: 

Russia . 60,000,000 

Central Asia. 46,000,000 

British India. 85,000,000 

































































































Things All Should ICnobtt 


715 


Asia—Continued Pounds. 

Asiatic Turkey. 33,000,000 

China . 35,000,000 

All other Asia. 15,000,000 


Total. 274,000,000 


Africa: 

Algeria and Tunis. 30,425,000 

Cape Colony, Natal, Orange Free 

State . 100,000,000 

Egypt. 3,000,000 

All other Africa. 1,000,000 


Total. 134,425,000 


Australasia ... 510,000,000 

Oceanica . 50,000 


Grand Total.2,699,884,704 


<.* S- 

CANE AND BEET SUGAR OF THE 
WORLD 


Per Bushel. 


Corn, shelled . 


...56 

lbs. 

Rye . 


...56 


Buckwheat . 


...48 

«« 

Barley . 


. . . 48 

tt 

Oats . 


...32 

it 

Peas . 


...60 

it 

White Beans . 


. . . 60 

t< 

Castor Beans . 


... 46 

it 

White Potatoes . 


...60 

“ 

Sweet Potatoes . 


... 55 

tt 

Onions . 


...57 


Turnips . 


... t>5 

tt 

Dried Peaches. 


...33 


Dried Apples. 


...26 

tt 

Clover Seed . 


...60 

ft 

Flax Seed . 


...56 

tt 

Millet Seed. 


...50 

tt 

Hungarian Grass Seed . . .. 


...50 

tt 

Timothy Seed . 


... 45 

tt 

Blue Grass Seed . 


...44 

tt 

Hemp Seed . 


... 44 

tt 

Corn Meal . 


... 48 

ft 

Ground Peas . 


...24 

tt 

Malt . 


... 34 


Bran . 


...20 

tt 


The following was the production of 
sugar in 1899-1900 by principal sugar¬ 
growing countries, in tons of 2,240 pounds: 
Countries. Cane Sugar. 


Louisiana . 132,000 

Porto Rico. 50,000 

Cuba. 395,000 

British West Indies. 134,000 

Haiti and Santo Domingo. 55,000 

Peru . 100,000 

Brazil . 175,000 

Java . 722,000 

Hawaii . 275,000 

Queensland . 122,500 

Mauritius . 155,000 

British Guiana. 80,000 

Argentina . 90,000 

Philippines . 40,000 


Countries. 
United States... 

Germany. 

Austria . 

France . 

Russia . 

Belgium . 

Holland . 


Beet Sugar. 

72,944 
. .. 1,790,000 
, .. 1 , 120,000 
,970,000 
, . . 900,000 

... 300,000 

,.. 100,000 


& 

POUNDS PER BUSHEL 


Salt.—Weight per bushel as adopted by differ¬ 
ent States ranges from 50 to 80 pounds. Coarse 
salt in Pennsylvania is reckoned at 80 pounds, 
and in Illinois at 50 pounds per bushel. Fine 
salt in Pennsylvania is reckoned at 62 pounds, in 
Kentucky and Illinois at 55 pounds per bushel. 


COMPARATIVE YIELD OF VARI¬ 
OUS KINDS OF VEGETABLES 


(Productions in Pounds Weight per Acre.) 



Lbs. 


Lbs. 

Vegetables. 

per acre. 

Vegetables. per acre. 

Hops . 

. 442 

Grass . 

.. 7,000 

Wheat. 

. 1,260 

Carrots . 

.. 6,800 

Barley . 

. 1,600 

Potatoes . 

.. 7,500 

Oats. 

. 1,840 

Apples. 

. . 8,000 

Peas. 

. 1,920 

Turnips . 

.. 8,420 

Beans . 

. 2,000 

Cinque-foil grass. 9,600 

Plums . 

. 2,000 

Vetches, green. 

.. 9,800 

Cherries ... 

. 2.000 

Cabbages . 

. .10,900 

Onions .... 

. 2,800 

Parsnips . 

. 11.200 

Hay . 

. 4,000 

Mangel Wurtzel 

. .22,000 

Pears . 

. 5,000 



One acre will produce 

224 lbs. mutton, 

186 lbs. 


beef, 2,900 lbs. milk, 300 lbs. butter, and 200 
lbs. cheese. A fair crop of potatoes from 16 
bushels of seed is 340 bushels. 


The following are minimum weights of 
certain articles of produce according to the 
laws of the United States: 


Wheat . 

Corn, in the ear 


Per Bushel. 

_ 60 lbs. 

....70 “ 


3 -J* 

AGES TO WHICH ANIMALS LIVE 

Animal. Years. Animal. Years. 

Whale .1,000 Tortoise . 100 

Elephant . 400 Eagle . 100 

Swan . 300 Raven . 100 




























































































716 


Things We A// Should Knob* 


Animal. 

Years. 

Animal. 

Years. 

Camel . 

. 100 

Swine . 

. 20 

Lion. 

. 70 

Wolf . 

. 20 

Porpoise. 

. 30 

Cat . 

. 15 

Horse . 

. 20 

Fox . 

. 15 

Bear . 

. 20 

Dog . 

. 10 

Cow . 

. 20 

Sheep . 

. 10 

Deer . 

. 20 

Rabbit . 

. 7 

Rhinoceros .. 

. 20 

Squirrel - 

. 7 




VALUE OF FOREIGN COINS, 
(July 1, 1899) 


Monetary Value 

Countries. Unit. Oct. 1,1898 

Netherlands, G. and S. Florin .40.2 

Newfoundland, G.Dollar.1.01.4 

Norway, G.Crown .26.8 

Persia, S.Kran .08.2 

Peru, S.Sol .44.3 

Portugal, G.Milreis .1.08.0 

Russia, G. and S.Ruble....51.5 

Spain, G. and S.Peseta .19.3 

Sweden, G.Crown .26.8 

Switzerland, G. and S. Franc .19.3 

Turkey, G.Piaster.04.4 

Uruguay, G.Peso .1.03.4 

Venezuela, G. and S.. Bolivar .19.3 


cS* £ & 


Prepared by the Director of the Mint. G, Gold 
standard. S, Silver standard. G and S, Gold 
and Silver standard, generally at 15 1-2 or 16 to 1. 



Monetary 

Value 

Countries. 

Unit. Oct. 1,1898 

Argentina, G. and S.. 

Peso . 

.$.96.5 

Austria-Hungary, G... 

Crown . 

. .20.3 

Belgium, G. and S. 

Franc . 

. .19.3 

Bolivia, S. 

Boliviano . 

. .44.3 

Brazil, G. 

Milreis . 

. .54.6 

British Possessions, N. 



A. (except Newfound- 




land) G. 

Dollar . 

.1.00.0 

Central Am. States— 




Costa Rica, G. 

Colon . 

. .44.3 

Guatemala, Sal-1 




vador, Honduras, { S. 

. Peso . 

. .44.3 

Nicaragua .J 




Chile, G. and S. 

Peso . 

. .36.5 



Amoy . 

. .71.6 



Canton . 

. .71.4 



Chefoo . 

. .68.4 



Chin Kiang.. 

. .69.9 


. 

Fuchau . 

. .66.2 

China, S. 

Tael 

Haikwan (cus 
toms) . 

. .72.8 



Hankow .... 

. .67.0 



Niuchwang . 

. .67.1 



Ningpo . 

. .68.8 



Shanghai ... 

. .65.4 



Tientsin .... 

. .69.4 

Colombia, S. 

Peso . 

. .44.3 

Cuba, G. and S. 

Peso . 

. .92.6 

Denmark, G. 

Crown . 

. .26.8 

Ecuador, S. 

Sucre . 

. .44.3 

Egypt, G. 

Pound,100 piasters.4.94.3 

Finland, G. 

Mark .. 

. .19.3 

France, G. and S. 

Franc . 

. .19.3 

German Empire, G.... 

Mark . 

. .23.8 


Great Britain, G.Pound sterling_4.86.6% 


Greece, G. and S.Drachma.19.3 

Haiti, G. and S.Gourde .96.5 

India, S.Rupee .21.0 

Italy, G. and S.Lira .19.3 

Japan, G. and S.Yen .49.8 

Liberia, G.Dollar .1.00.0 

Mexico, S.Dollar ..48.1 


AVERAGE OF WEALTH FOR 
EACH INHABITANT 

Per- 


Rural. 

Urban. 

Total. 

Real, sonal 

United Kingdom.$265 

$1,245 

$1,510 

$530 

$980 

France . 

400 

860 

1,260 

615 

645 

Germany . 

240 

540 

780 

360 

420 

Russia . 

130 

175 

305 

150 

155 

Italy . 

225 

280 

505 

265 

240 

Denmark . 

575 

575 

1,150 

620 

530 

Holland . 

305 

610 

915 

435 

480 

Belgium . 

280 

490 

770 

375 

395 

Switzerland . 

285 

535 

820 

380 

440 

All Europe. 

180 

470 

695 

320 

375 

United States.... 

295 

875 

1,170 

555 

615 

Canada . 

300 

680 

980 

365 

615 

Average for world 

240 

535 

775 

355 

420 


& & & 

CONSUMPTION OF LIQUOR 
THROUGHOUT THE 
WORLD 


(Figures represent the average consump¬ 
tion per capita.) 




Wine. 

Beer. Spirits. 

United Kingdom.. 


. 0.4 

30.0 

1.0 

France.. 


.26.0 

5.0 

1.9 

Germany. 


. 1.2 

24.0 

1.9 

Russia . 



0.9 

1.1 

Austria . 


. 3.1 

9.0 

2.3 

Italy. 


.20.5 

0.1 

0.3 

Spain . 


.18.0 

1.4 


Scandinavia . 


. 0.2 

9.5 

2.0 

Holland . 



10.5 

2.0 

Belgium . 



41.5 

2.1 

Switzerland .. 



11.5 

1.3 

United States. 



12.8 

1.1 








































































































Things XOe All Should Knoto 


717 


ANNIVERSARIES 


DATES OF HISTORICAL EVENTS CUSTOMARILY OR 
OCCASIONALLY OBSERVED. 

Jan. 1. Emancipation Proclamation by Lincoln, 
1863. 

Jan. 8. Battle of New Orleans, 1815. 

Jan. 17. Franklin born, 1706., 

Jan. 17. Battle of the Cowpens, S. C., 1781. 

Jan. 18. Daniel Webster born, 1782. 

Jan. 19. Robert E. Lee born, 1807. 

Jan. 27. German Emperor born, 1859. 

Feb. 12. Abraham Lincoln born, 1809. 

Feb. 15. Battleship Maine blown up, 1898. 

Feb. 22. George Washington, born, 1732. 

Feb. 22-23. Battle of Buena Vista, 1847. 

March 5. Boston Massacre, 1770. 

March 15. Andrew Jackson born, 1767. 

March 18. Grover Cleveland born, 1837. 

April 1. Bismarck born, 1815. 

April 9. Lee surrendered at Appomattox, 1865. 
April 12. Fort Sumter fired upon, 1861. 

April 12. Henry Clay born, 1777. 

April 13. Thomas Jefferson born, 1743. 

April 14. Lincoln assassinated, 1865. 

April 19. Primrose Day in England, Lord Bea- 
consfield died, 1881. 

April 19. Battles of Lexington and Concord, 1775. 
April 23. Shakespeare born, 1564. 

April 27. General Grant born, 1822. 

April 30. Washington was inaugurated first 
President, 1789. 

May 1. Dewey destroyed the Spanish fleet at Ma¬ 
nila, 1898. 

May 13. First English settlement in America, at 
Jamestown, 1607. 

May 13. The Society of the Cincinnati was or¬ 
ganized by officers of the Revolutionary Army, 
1783. 

May 20. Mecklenburg, N. C., Declaration of In¬ 
dependence, 1775. 

May 24. Queen Victoria born, 1819. 

June 6. General Nathanael Greene born, 1742. 
June 15. King John granted Magna Charta at 
Runnymede, 1215. 

June 17. Battle of Bunker Hill, 1775. 

June 18. Battle of Waterloo, 1815. 

June 28. Battle of Fort Moultrie, Charleston, S. 
C., 1776. 

July 1. Dominion Day in Canada. 

July 1-2. General assault on Santiago de Cuba, 
1898 

July 1-3. Battle of Gettysburg, 1863. 

July 3. Cervera’s fleet was destroyed off Santi¬ 
ago, 1898, by fleet under Admiral Schley. 

July 4. Declaration of Independence, 1776. 

July 14. The Bastile was destroyed, 1789. 

July 16. Santiago surrendered, 1898. 

July 21. Battle of Bull Run, 1861. 

Aug. 13. Manila surrendered to the Americans, 
1898 

Aug. 16. Battle of Bennington, Vt„ 1777. 

Sept. 1. Capitulation of Sedan, 1870. 

Sept. 8. Battle of Eutaw Springs, S. C., 1781. 

Sept. 10. Battle of Lake Erie, Perry’s victory, 
1813. 


Sept. 11. Battle of Lake Champlain, McDon¬ 
ough’s victory, 1814. 

Sept. 13. Battle of Chapultepec, 1847. 

Sept. 14. City of Mexico taken by the U.S. troops, 
1847. 

Sept. 17. Battle of Antietam, 1862. 

Sept. 19-20. Battle of Chickamauga, 1863. 

Sept. 20. Italians occupied Rome, 1870. 

Oct. 7. Battle of King’s Mountain, N. C., 1780. 
Oct. 8-11. Great fire of Chicago, 1871. 

Oct. 12. Columbus discovered America, 1492. 

Oct. 17. Burgoyne surrendered at Saratoga, 1777. 
Oct. 19. Cornwallis surrendered at Yorktown, 
1781. 

Nov. 5. Guy Fawkes Day in England. The Gun¬ 
powder Plot discovered, 1604. 

Nov. 9. Great fire of Boston, 1872. 

Nov. 10. Martin Luther born, 1483. 

Nov. 25. British evacuated New York, 1783. 

Dec. 2. Battle of Austerlitz, 1805. 

Dec. 14. Washington died, 1799. 

Dec. 16. Boston “Tea Party,” 1773. 

Dec. 16. The great fire in New York, 1835. 

Dec. 22. Mayflower pilgrims landed at Plymouth 
Rock, 1620. 

Dec. 25-26. Battle of Trenton, N. J., 1776. 

Dec. 29. William Ewart Gladstone born, 1809. 

je 

TABLE OF MEMORABLE DATES 

B. C. 

1183 Fall of Troy. 

1082 Era of the Great Pyramid. 

878 Carthage founded. 

776 Olympic Era began. 

753 Foundation of Rome. 

588 Jerusalem taken by Nebuchadnezzar. 

536 Restoration of the Jews under Cyrus. 

509 Expulsion of Tarquin from Rome. 

480 Xerxes defeated Greeks at Thermopylae. 

55 Caesar conquered Britain. 

4 Birth of Jesus Christ. 

A. D. 

29 The Crucifixion. 

70 Jerusalem was destroyed by Titus. 

313 Constantine converted to Christianity. 

410 The Romans abandoned Britain. 

827 Egbert, first king of all England, Oct. 14. 
1066 Battle of Hastings. Norman Conquest. 

1096 The Crusades began. 

1172 Ireland was conquered by Henry II. 

1215 King John granted Magna Charta, June 15. 
1265 First Representative Parliament in England. 
1415 Battle of Agincourt, Oct. 25. 

1431 Joan of Arc was burnt. May 30. 

1453 Constantinople taken by the Turks. 

1455 The Wars of the Roses began. 

1462 The Bible was first printed at Mentz. 

1471 Caxton set up his printing press. 

1486 The feuds of York and Lancaster ended. 
1492 Columbus discovered America, Oct. 12. 

1517 The Reformation began in Germany. 

1519 Cortez began the conquest of Mexico. 

1535 The first English Bible printed. 


718 


Things t2 Oe All Should K_notv 


A. D. 

1539 Monasteries were closed in England. 

1558 Accession of Queen Elizabeth, Nov. 17. 

1565 Revolt of the Netherlands began. 

1572 The St. Bartholomew Massacre, Aug. 24. 
1588 The Spanish Armada defeated, July. 

1600 East India Company first chartered. 

1603 Union of England and Scotland, March 24. 
1605 The Gunpowder Plot in England. 

1607 Jamestown, Va., was settled. 

1609 Hudson River first explored. 

1616 Shakespeare died, April 23. 

1618 Thirty Years’ War in Germany began 
1620 Pilgrims by the Mayflower landed. 

1623 Manhattan Island settled. 

1634 Maryland settled by Roman Catholics. 

1636 Rhode Island settled by Roger Williams. 
1640 Cromwell’s Long Parliament assembled. 
1649 Charles I. was beheaded, Jan. 30. 

1653 Oliver Cromwell became Lord Protector. 
1660 Restoration of the Stuarts. 

1664 New York conquered from the Dutch. 

1664 The great plague of London. 

1666 The great fire of London began Sept. 2. 
1679 Habeas Corpus Act passed in England. 

1682 Pennsylvania settled by William Penn. 

1685 Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, Oct. 22. 
1688 James II. abdicated, Dec. 11. 

1690 Battle of the Boyne, July 1. 

1690 First newspaper in America; at Boston. 
1(04 Gibraltar was taken by the English. 

1713 Peace of Utrecht, April 11. 

1714 Accession of House of Hanover, Aug. 1. 

1715 First Jacobite Rebellion in Great Britain. 
1720 South Sea Bubble. 

1745 Battle of Fontenoy, April 30. 

1745 Second Jacobite Rebellion in Great Britain. 

1756 Black Hole Suffocation in Calcutta. 

1757 Clive won Battle of Plassey in India. 

1759 Canada was taken from the French. 

1765 Stamp Act enacted. 

1773 Steam engine perfected by Watt. 

1773 Tea destroyed in Boston Harbor, Dec. 16. 
1775 Battle of Lexington, ApriJ 19. 

1775 Battle of Bunker Hill, June 17. 

1776 Declaration of Independence, July 4. 

1777 Burgoyne’s surrender, Oct. 17. 

1779 Capt. Cook was killed, Feb. 14. 

1781 Cornwallis’ surrender at Yorktown, Oct. 19.. 

1788 First settlement in Australia, Jan. 26. 

1789 The French Revolution began July 14. 

1789 Washington inaugurated President, April 30. 
1793 Cotton gin invented by Whitney. 

1793 Louis XVI. of France executed, Jan. 21. 

1796 Vaccination discovered by Jenner. 

1798 The Irish Rebellion. 

1799 Battle of Seringapatam; death of Tippoo. 
1799 Bonaparte declared First Consul, Nov. 10. 
1801 Union of Great Britain and Ireland, Jan. 1. 

1803 Louisiana purchased from the French. 

1804 Bonaparte became Emperor of France. 

1805 Battle of Trafa’gar, death of Nelson. 

1807 Fulton’s first steamboat voyage. 

1812 Second war with Great Britain. 

1812 The French expedition to Moscow. 

1813 Perry’s victory on Lake Erie, Sept. 10. 

1814 Scott’s “Waverley” published. 

1815 Battle of New Orleans, Jan. 8. 


A. D. 

1815 Battle of Waterloo, June 18. 

1819 First steamship crossed the Atlantic. 

1820 Missouri Compromise adopted. 

1823 Monroe Doctrine declared, Dec. 2. 

1828 First passenger railroad in the United States. 
1830 Revolution in France, Orleanist succession. 
1832 South Carolina Nullification Ordinance. 
1835 Morse invented the telegraph. 

1835 Seminole War in Florida began. 

1837 Accession of Queen Victoria, June 20. 

1845' Texas annexed. 

1846 Sewing machine completed by Elias Howe. 
1846 The Irish Potato Famine. 

1846 British Corn laws repealed, June 26. 

1846 War with Mexico began. 

1848 French Revolution. Republic succeeded. 
1848 Gold discovered in California, Sept. 

1851 Gold discovered in Australia, Feb. 12. 

1851 First International Exhibition, London. 

1852 Louis Napoleon became Emperor, Dec. 2. 

1853 Crimean War began. 

1857 The Great Mutiny in India. 

1857 The Dred Scott decision. 

1859 John Brown’s raid into Virginia. 

1860 South Carolina seceded, Dec. 20. 

1861 Emancipation of the Russian serfs. 

1863 Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation, Jan. 1. 
1863 Battle of Gettysburg, July 1-3. 

1865 Lee surrendered at Appomattox, April 9. 

1865 President Lincoln assassinated, April 14. 

1866 Battle of Sadowa. Prussia beat Austria. 

1867 Emperor Maximilian of Mexico executed. 
1867 The Dominion of Canada established. 

1870 Franco-German War began, July 19. 

1870 Capitulation cf French at Sedan, Sept. 1. 

1870 Rome became the capital of Italy. 

1871 The German Empire re-established. 

1871 The Irish Church was disestablished. 

1871 The great fire in Chicago, Oct. 8-11. 

1872 The great fire in Boston, Nov. 9. 

1876 Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia. 

1881 President Garfield shot. 

1882 British occupation of Egypt. 

1889 Brazil became a Republic. 

1893 World’s Columbian Exposition at Chicago 

1894 Chinese-Japanese War began. 

1895 Cuban Revolution began, Feb. 20. 

1897 The Turkish-Greek War. 

1898 The Spanish-American War. 

1899 Universal Peace Conference. 

1899 The South African War. 

1901 President McKinley assassinated, Sept. 6. 

1902 Peace declared in South Africa. 

S 

MARRIAGE ANNIVERSARIES 

End of first year, cotton wedding; sec¬ 
ond, paper; third, leather; fifth, wooden; 
seventh, woolen; ten, tin; twelve, silk; fif¬ 
teen, crystal; twenty, china; twenty-five, 
silver; thirtieth, pearl; fortieth, rubies; 
fiftieth, golden; seventy-fifth, diamond. 


719 


Things XOe All Should K^nobv 


THE STATES AND THE UNION 


THE THIRTEEN ORIGINAL STATES. 


No. 

States. 

Ratified the 
Constitution. 

1.. 

.. .Delaware. 


2.. 

.. .Pennsylvania. 

.Dec. 12, 1787 

3.. 

.. .New Jersey. 

.Dec. 18, 1787 

4.. 

.. .Georgia . 

.Jan. 2, 1788 

5.. 

. .Connecticut. 

.Jan. 9, 1788 

6.. 

. .Massachusetts. 

.Feb. 6, 1788 

7.. 

. .Maryland. 


8.. 

. .South Carolina. 


9.. 

..New Hampshire. 

.June 21, 1788 

10.. 

. .Virginia. 


11.. 

. .New York. 

.July 26, 1788 

12.. 

. .North Carolina. 

.Nov. 21, 1789 

13.. 

. .Rhode Island. 



STATES ADMITTED TO 

THE UNION. 

No. 

States. 

Admitted. 

1.. 

. .Vermont. 


2.. 

. .Kentucky. 


3.. 

..Tennessee. 


4.. 

. .Ohio. 

.Nov. 29, 1802 

5.. 

. .Louisiana. 

.April 30, 1812 

6.. 

. .Indiana. 

.Dec. 11, 1816 

7.. 

. .MississipDi. 

.Dec. 10, 1817 

8.. 

. .Illinois. 

.Dec. 3, 1818 

9.. 

. .Alabama. 

.Dec. 14, 1819 

10.. 

. .Maine. 


11.. 

. .Missouri. 

.Aug. 10, 1821 

12.. 

. .Arkansas. 

.June 15, 1836 

13.. 

. .Michigan. 

.Jan. 26, 1837 

14.. 

. .Florida. 

.March 3, 1845 

15.. 

. .Texas. 

.Dec. 29, 1845 

16.. 

. .Iowa. 

.Dec. 28, 1846 

17.. 

. .Wisconsin. 

.May 29, 1848 

18.. 

. .California. 


19.. 

. .Minnesota. 

.May 11, 1858 

20.. 

. .Oregon. 

.Feb. 14, 1859 

21.. 

. .Kansas. 

.Jan. 29, 1861 

22.. 

. .West Virginia. 


23.. 

. .Nevada. 

.Oct. 31, 1864 

24.. 

. .Nebraska. 


25. . 

. .Colorado. 


26.. 

. .North Dakota. 

.Nov. 2, 1889 

27.. 

..South Dakota. 

.Nov. 2, 1889 

28.. 

. .Montana. 

. ,.Nov. 8, 1889 

29.. 

. .Washington. 

.Nov. 11, 1889 

30.. 

. .Idaho. 

.July 3, 1890 

31.. 

. .Wyoming. 

.July 11, 1890 

32.. 

. .Utah. 

.Jan. 4, 1896 


THE ELECTORAL VOTE IN 1904 


The following is the electoral vote of the 
states as based upon the apportionment of 
1900 : 


States. 

Electoral 

Votes. 

Elector? 
States. Votes, 

Alabama .... 

11 

Nebraska . 

8 

Arkansas ...., 

9 

Nevada . 

3 

California .... 

.. 10 

N. Hampshire.. 

4 

Colorado . 

5 

New Jersey ... 

12 

Connecticut .. 

7 

New Yoi’k. 

39 

Delaware. 

3 

North Carolina. 

12 

Florida. 

5 

North Dakota.. 

4 

Georgia . 

13 

Ohio . 

23 

Idaho . 

3 

Oregon . 

4 

Illinois . 

27 

Pennsylvania . 

34 

Indiana . 

. 15 

Rhode Island.. 

4 

Iowa . 

13 

South Carolina. 

9 

Kansas. 

. 10 

South Dakota.. 

4 

Kentucky .... 

. 13 

Tennessee . 

12 

Louisiana .... 

9 

Texas . 

18 

Maine . 

6 

Utah . 

3 

Maryland .... 

8 

Vermont . 

4 

Massachusetts 

. 16 

Virginia . 

12 

Michigan. 

14 

Washington ... 

5 

Minnesota .... 

11 

West Virginia. 

7 

Mississippi ... 

10 

Wisconsin. 

13 

Missouri . 

. 18 

Wyoming . 

3 

Montana . 

3 

Total . 

476 


Electoral votes necessary to a choice, 239. 

•_# £ 

THE CIVIL WAR OF 1861-65 

NUMBER OF MEN IN THE UNION ARMY 
FURNISHED BY EACH STATE AND 
TERRITORY FROM APRIL 15, 1861, TO 
CLOSE OF WAR. 

Aggregate 

Number of Reduced to a 
States and Territories. Men Fur- Three Years’ 

nished. Standing. 


Alabama. 

. 2,556 

1,611 

Arkansas. 

. 8,289 

7,836 

California. 

. 15,725 

15,725 

Colorado. 

. 4,903 

3,697 

Connecticut. 

. 55,864 

50,623 

Delaware. 

. 12,284 

10,322 

Florida. 

. 1,290 

1,290 

Illinois. 

. 259,092 

214,133 

Indiana. 

. 196,363 

153,576 

Iowa. 

. 76,242 

68,630 

Kansas. 

. 20,149 

18.706 

Kentucky. 

. 75,760 

70,832 

Louisiana. 

. 5,224 

4,654 

Maine. 

. 70,107 

56,776 

Maryland. 

. 46,638 

41,275 

Massachusetts.. 

. 146,730 

124,104 


THE TERRITORIES. 


Territory. Organized. 

New Mexico.Sept. 9, 1850 

Arizona.Feb. 24, 1863 

Indian.June 30, 1834 

Oklahoma.May 2, 1890 

District of Columbia.July 16, 1790 

Alaska...J ul y 27 > 1868 







































































































720 


Things XOe All Should K.notiu 


Aggregate 

Number of Reduced to a 


States and Territories. Men Fur- Three Years’ 



nished. 

Standing. 

Michigan. 

.... 87,364 

80,111 

Minnesota. 

.... 24,020 

19,693 

Mississippi. 

.. .. 545 

545 

Missouri. 

. ... 109,111 

86,530 

Nebraska. 

3,157 

2,175 

Nevada. 

1,080 

1,080 

New Hampshire. 

.. .. 33,937 

30,849 

New Jersey. 

_ 76,814 

57,908 

New York. 

.... 448,850 

392,270 

North Carolina. 

.... 3,156 

3,156 

Ohio. 

_ 313,180 

240,514 

Oregon. 

. ... 1,810 

1,773 

Pennsylvania. 

_ 337,936 

265,517 

Rhode Island. 

.... 23,236 

17,866 

Tennesse. 

.... 31,092 

26,394 

Texas. 

_ 1,965 

1,632 

Vermont. 

.... 33,288 

29,068 

West Virginia. 

.... 32,068 

27,714 

Wisconsin. 

_ 91,327 

79,260 

Dakota. 

.... 206 

206 

District of Columbia.. 

.... 16,534 

1,506 

Indian Territory. 

_ 3,530 

3,530 

New Mexico. 

6,561 

4,432 

Washington. 

. 964 

964 

U. S. Colored Troops. 

_ 93,441 

91,789 

Total. 

.. .2,778,304 

2,326,168 

The number of 

casualties in the volun- 

teer and regular 

armies of 

the United 

States, during the 

war of 1S61-65, accord- 

ing to a statement 

prepared by the Adju- 

tant-General’s office 

, was as follows; Killed 


in battle, 67,058 ; died of wounds, 43,012 ; 
died of disease, 199,720; other causes, such 
as accidents, murder, Confederate prisons, 
etc., 40,154; total died, 349,944, total de¬ 
serted, 199,105. Number of soldiers in 
the Confederate service who died of wounds 
or disease (partial statement), 133,821. 
Deserted (partial statement), 104,428. 
Number of United States troops captured 
during the war, 212,608 ; Confederate 
troops captured, 476,169. Number of 
United States troops paroled on the field, 
16,431; Confederate troops paroled on the 
field, 248,599. Number of United States 
troops who died while prisoners, 30,156; 
Confederate troops who died while prison¬ 
ers, 30,152. 


WARS OF THE UNITED STATES 


STATEMENT OF THE NUMBER OF UNITED 
STATES TROOPS ENGAGED. 

War of the Revolution, from April 19, 1775, to 
April 11, 1783; regulars, 130,711; milita and 
volunteers, lo4,080; Total, *309,781. 

Northwestern Indian Wars, from Sept. 19, 1790, 
to Aug. 3, 1795; total, 8,983. 

War with France, from July 9, 1798, to Sept. 30, 
1800; total, f4,593. 

War with Tripoli, from June 10, 1801, to June 4, 
1805; total, f3,330. 

Creek Indian War, from July 27, 1813, to Aug. 
9, 1814; regulars, 600; militia and volunteers, 
13,181; total, 13,781. 

War of 1812 with Great Britain, from June 18, 
1812, to Feb. 17, 1815; regulars, 85,000; militia 
and volunteers, 471,622; total, 576,622. 

Seminole Indian War, from Nov. 20, 1817, to Oct. 
21, 1818; regulars, 1.000; militia and volun¬ 
teers, 6,911; total, 7,911. 

Black Hawk Indian War, from April 21, 1831, to 
Sept. 31, 1832; regulars, 1,339; militia and vol¬ 
unteers, 5,126; total, 6,465. 

Cherokee disturbance or removal, from 1836 to 
1837; militia and volunteers, 9,494; total, 9,494. 

Creek Indian War or disturbance, from May 5, 
1836, to Sept. 30, 1837; regulars, 935; militia 
and volunteers, 12,483; total, 13,418. 

Florida Indian War, from Dec. 23, 1835, to Aug. 
14, 1843; regulars, 11,169; militia and volun¬ 
teers, 29,953; total, 41,122. 

Aroostook disturbance, from 1836, to 1839; 
militia and volunteers, 1,500; total, 1,500. 

War with Mexico, from April 24, 1846, to July 4, 
1848; regulars, 30,954; militia and volunteers, 
73,776; total, 112,230. 

Apache, Navajo, and Utah War, from 1849 to 
1855; regulars, 1,500; militia and volunteers, 
1,061; total, 2,501. 

Seminole Indian War, from 1856 to 1858; militia 
and volunteers, 3 687; total, 3,687. 

Civil Wart, from 1861 to 1865; total, 2,772.408. 

Spanish-American War, from April 21, 1898, to 
Aug. 12, 1898; total, §274,717. 

War in the Philippines, from 1899 to 1902; total, 
153,000. 


* Including all branches of the service, 
t Naval forces engaged, t The number of troops 
on the Confederate side was about 600,000. 
§ Troops actually engaged, about 60,000. 


£ £ £ 

NUMBER OF PENSIONERS ON 
ROLLS AND AMOUNT OF 
PENSIONS 


1895 .970,524 $140,959,361.37 

1900 .993,529 138,462,130.65 
































Things We All Should Knoto 


721 


MILITARY RESOURCES OF 
EUROPE IN ABLE- 
BODIED MEN 

Population Capa¬ 
ble of Bearing 


Nations. Arms.* 

Austria . 9,800,000 

Belgium . 1,460,000 

Denmark . 490,000 

France . 9,550,000 

Germany . 12,000,000 

Great Britainf. 12,000,000 

Greece . 495,000 

Italy . 7,500,000 

Netherlands . 1,050,000 

Portugal . 1,170,000 

Russiat . 22,000,000 

Spain . 4,200,000 

Sweden and Norway. 1,600,000 

Switzerland . 720,000 


* Inclusive of persons engaged in the general 
and local civil administration, railroads, neces¬ 
sary tillers of the soil, and others who would 
not be spared to the field except as a last resort, 
t Great Britain includes Canada and Australia, 
but not other colonies or India, t Russian popu¬ 
lation in Europe only is considered. 


S g 

GREAT LIBRARIES OF THE 
WORLD 

No. of 
Volumes. 


National, Paris.2,500,000 

British Museum, London.1,600,000 

Imperial, St. Petersburg.1,000,000 

Munich .1,000,000 

Berlin . 800,000 

Library of Congress, Washington*. 680,000 

Public, Boston*. 560,000 

Darmstadt . 550,000 

Leipsic . 550,000 

Strasburg . 525,000 

Royal, Copenhagen. 500,000 

Imperial, Vienna . 450,000 

Bodleian, Oxford . 450,000 

Public, St. Petersburg. 440,000 

Stuttgart . 430,000 

Gottingen . 425,000 

National, Florence. 425,000 

Madrid . 410,000 

Buda-Pest . 400,000 

University of Chicago*. 380,000 

Harvard University*. 300,000 

Heidelberg . 300,000 

Astor, New York*. 240,000 

Vatican, Rome . 225,000 


*Exclusive of pamphlets. The Harvard Uni¬ 
versity Library has 278,000, and the Library of 
Congress 210,000 pamphlets. 


ILLITERACY STATISTICS 

Illiterates, in the sense here signified, 
are those above 21 years of age who cannot 
read and write. The following tables show 
the number of such in seven great cities of 
the Lnited States, and in representative 
states standing high and low in the scale. 
The proportions of native and foreign born, 
and white and colored are indicated. The 
percentages are based on the relation of the 
number of illiterates to the whole of the 
population above 21 years of age. 



New York City.. 65,556 3,028 62,528 62,889 2,717 6.5 


Chicago . 20,572 1,236 19,336 19,649 682 4 0 

Philadelphia - 17,588 3,635 13,893 14,847 2,741 4.5 

St. Louis. 7,026 3,337 3,689 4,596 2,430 4.1 

Boston . 8,111 410 7,701 7,481 630 4.0 

Baltimore . 10,152 7,034 3,118 4,182 5,970 7.2 

Cleveland . 5,786 440 5,346 5,522 264 5.2 

In certain states least in per cent of illiteracy: 

Wyoming . 1,636 657 979 1,040 596 4.3 

Utah . 2,470 1,163 1,307 1,619 851 3.7 

South Dakota_ 5.442 3,208 2,234 2,693 2,749 4.8 

Oregon . 6,9.8 1,958 5,020 2,160 4,818 4.8 

Ohio . 58,698 36 986 21,7,12 51,769 6,929 4.8 

Nebraska . 7,388 2,668 4,720 6,841 547 2.5 

Minnesota . 20,785 4,005 16,780 19,223 1,562 4.1 

Kansas . 14,214 9,891 4,323 9,848 4,368 3.4 

Colorado . 7,689 3,88a 3,804 6,847 842 4.1 

Iowa . 17,061 8,788 8,273 15,981 1,080 2.7 

Greatest in per cent of illiteracy: 

Louisiana . 122,638 116,087 6,551 32,039 90,599 37.6 

West Virginia.. 32,066 29,162 2.904 26,472 5,594 12.9 

Virginia . 113,353 112.090 1,263 36,493 76,860 25.3 

Texas . 113,783 91,545 22,238 51,790 61,993 15.4 

Tennessee . 105,851 105,078 773 52,418 53,433 21.7 

South Carolina. 99,516 99,322 194 15,865 18,651 35.1 

North Carolina, 122,658 122,496 162 54,474 68,1S4 29.4 

New Mexico_ 15,585 13,275 2,310 12,504 3,081 28.3 

Nevada . 2,271 1,490 781 475 1,796 12.8 

Mississippi . 118,054 117,509 545 12,472 105,582 33.8 

Maryland . 40,352 35.639 4,713 15,678 24,674 12.5 

Kentucky . 102,578 100,340 2,188 65,517 37,011 18.8 

Indian T'y. 15,482 14,970 512 8,477 7,005 15.9 

Hawaii . 27,363 722 26,641 3,335 24,028 34.4 

Georgia . 158,247 157,764 4S3 32,456 125,791 31.6 

Florida . 30,849 29,460 1.3S9 6,558 24,291 22.1 

Delaware . 7,538 6,332 1,206 3,945 3,593 14.0 

Arkansas . 62,615 62.049 566 23,523 39,092 20.0 

Arizona . 10,533 6,327 4,206 4,776 5,757 23.9 

Alaska . 10,735 7.655 3,080 584 10,151 28.3 

Alabama . 139,649 138,934 715 31,614 108,035 33.7 


d* J* ■< 

HEIGHTS OF WATERFALLS 


Feet. 

Cerosola Cascade, Alps. 2.400 

Yosemite Falls, California. 1,500 

Falls of Arne, Savoy. 1,100 

Virgin Tears Creek, Yosemite. 1,000 
















































































722 


Things XOe All Should K^noto 


Feet. 


Bridal Veil, Yosemite. 900 

Lauterbaum, Switzerland. 900 

Falls of Terni, near Rome. 300 

Montmorency Falls, Quebec. 250 

Fryer’s Falls, Scotland. 200 

Niagara Falls, North America. 164 

Lidford Cascade, England. 100 


RELIGIONS AND DENOMINA¬ 
TIONS OF THE WORLD 


Creeds. 
Christianity 
Confucianism ... 

Hindooism . 

Mohammedanism 

Buddhism .. 

Taoism . 

Shintoism . 

Judaism . 

Polytheism . 


No. of Adherents. 

. 477,080,158 

. 256,000,000 

. 190,000,000 

. 176,834,372 

. 147,900,000 

. 43,000,000 

. 14,000,000 

. 7,186,000 

. 117,681,669 


CHRISTIANITY. 


Catholic Church . 230,866,533 

Protestant Churches . 143,237,625 

Orthodox Greek Church. 98,016,000 

Church of Abyssinia. 3,000,000 

Armenian Church . 1,690,000 

Coptic Church . 120,000 

Nestorians . 80,000 

Jacobites . 70,000 


Total. 477,080,158 

STATISTICS OF CHURCHES IN- THE UNITED STATES. 



02 

CD 

02 

u 

•r—l 

a . 

Denominations. 

A 

o 

+-> 

02 

Qa 


p 


s si 


jp 


o u 

Adventists : 

O 

i 

o 

Evangelical . 

34 

30 

1,147 

Advent Christian... 

883 

580 

25,816 

Seventh-Day . 

372 

1,470 

55,316 

Church of God. 

Life and Advent 

19 

29 

647 

Union . 

Church of God in 

60 

33 

3,000 

Jesus Christ. 

94 

95 

2,872 

Armenians . 

Baptists: 

15 

21 

8,500 

Regular, North. 

. 7,415 

9,374 

973,820 

Regular, South. 

. 12,058 

18,963 

1,608,413 

Regular, Colored... 

. 14,351 

15,654 

1,864,600 

Six Principle. 

14 

18 

937 

Seventh-Day . 

119 

115 

8,991 

Freewill . 

. 1,619 

1,486 

85,109 

Original Freewill . . 

118 

167 

11,864 

General . 

450 

550 

28,000 

Separate . 

113 

103 

6,479 

United ..... 

25 

204 

13,209 



02 

<x> 

02 

•H 

G . 

Denominations. 

Xi 

o 

o> 

02 

P CG 

E c 


p 

a 

g ctf 
o ° 


o 

i 

o 

Baptists—C ontinued. 




Church of Christ.... 

80 

152 

8,254 

Primitive . 

Old Two Seed in the 

2,040 

3,222 

121,347 

Spirit Predestinar- 




ian . 

Brethren (River): 

300 

473 

12,851 

Brethren in Christ.. 

152 

78 

4,000 

Old Order, or Yorker 
United Zion’s Chil- 

7 

8 

214 

dren . 

20 

25 

525 

Brethren (Plymouth): 




Brethren (I.). 

• • • • 

109 

2,289 

Brethren (II.). 

• • • • 

88 

2419 

Brethren (III.). 

.... 

86 

1,235 

Brethren (IV.). 

Catholics: 

.... 

31 

718 

Roman Catholics.... 

11,636 

12,062 

8,610,226 

Polish Branch. 

19 

18 

15,000 

Old Catholic. 

6 

5 

10,000 

Reformed Catholics.. 

6 

6 

1,500 

Catholic Apostolic .... 

95 

10 

1,394 

Chinese Temples. 

.... 

47 

.... 

Christadelphians .... 

.... 

63 

1,277 

Christians . 

Christian Catholic 

1,248 

1,520 

112,835 

( Dowie ) . 

Christian Missionary 

55 

50 

40,000 

Association . 

10 

13 

754 

Christian Scientists.. 

12,000 

600 

1,000,000 

Christian Union. 

183 

294 

18,214 

Church of God (Winne 




brennerian) . 

Church Triumphant 

460 

580 

38,000 

(Schweinfurth) ... 
Church of the New 

.... 

12 

384 

Jerusalem ( Sweden- 

BORGIANS) . 

143 

173 

7,679 

Communistic Societies: 



Shakers . 

.... 

15 

1,728 

Amana . 

.... 

7 

1,600 

Harmony. 

.... 

1 

250 

Separatists . 

.... 

1 

200 

Altruists . 

Church Triumphant 

.... 

1 

25 

(Koreshan Ecclesia) 

.... 

5 

205 

Adonai Shomo. 


1 

20 

New Icaria. 


1 

21 

Congregationalist: ... 

5,614 

5,604 

629,874 

Disciples of Christ... 
Dunkards: 

6,528 

10,528 

1,149,982 

German Baptists 
(Conservatives) .. 
German Baptists 

2,612 

850 

95,000 

(Old Order). 

German Baptists 

150 

100 

3,500 

(Progressive) .... 
Seventh-Day Baptists 

231 

173 

12,787 

(German) . 

5 

6 

194 

Episcopalians: 




Protestant Episcopal. 

4,961 

6,686 

716,431 

Reformed Episcopal. 

103 

104 

9,743 



































































Things XV e All Should K.netv 723 


Denominations. 

m 

<D 

& 

O 

m 

Fh 

<v 

m 

•H 

0 . 

3 co 

s a 

Denominations. 

m 

<D 

rC 

O 

m 

Jh 

<D 

+-> 

m 

a . 

3 03 

£ a 


3 

S3 

O 

A 

§ 

S 03 

0 0 

0 


—> 

33 

S3 

O 

c 

i 

£ 

0 0 
O 

Evangelical, Bodies: 




Mennonites—C ontinued. 




Evangelical Ass’n... 

1,052 

1,806 

118,865 

Bundes Conference .. 

41 

16 

3,050 

United Evangelical 




Defenceless . 

20 

11 

1,176 

Church . 

478 

985 

60,993 

Brethren in Christ .. 

45 

82 

2,953 

Friends: 




Methodists: 


Friends (Orthodox) . 

1,279 

820 

91,868 

Methodist Episcopal. 

17,521 

26,021 

2,716,437 

Friends (Hicksite)... 

115 

201 

21,992 

Union American M. 


Friends (Wilburite). 
Friends (Primitive). 

38 

52 

4,329 

232 

E. 

63 

61 

2,675 

11 

9 

African Methodist 

Friends of the Temple 

4 

4 

340 

Episcopal . 

5,659 

5,775 

673,504 

German Evangelical 




African Union Meth. 

Protestants . 

44 

52 

36,156 

Protestant. 

80 

70 

2,000 

German Evangelical 




African Methodist 



Synod . 

909 

1,129 

203,574 

Episcopal Zion ... 

3,155 

2,906 

536,271 

Greek Church: 




Methodist Protestant 

1.647 

2,400 

181,216 

Greek Orthodox. 

4 

4 

20,000 

Wesleyan Methodist . 

587 

506 

17,201 

Russian Orthodox.... 

41 

58 

45,000 

Methodist Episcopal, 



Jews . 

201 

570 

1,058,135 

South . 

6,041 

14,244 

1,457,864 

Latter-Day Saints (Mormons): 



Congregational Meth- 


Church of Jesus 




odist . 

210 

240 

20,000 

Christ of Latter- 




Congregational Meth. 

% 


Day Saints. 

1,700 

796 

300,000 

(Colored) . 

5 

5 

319 

Reorganized Church 




New Congregational 



of Jesus Christ of 




Methodist . 

20 

17 

1.059 

Latter-Day Saints 




Zion Union Apostolic. 

SO 

27 

2,316 

(Seced’g M’rm'ns). 

2,200 

600 

45,500 

Colored Methodist ... 

2,187 

1,300 

199,206 

Lutherans: 




Primitive Methodist. 

65 

92 

6,470 

(General Bodies) : 




Free Methodist. 

944 

1,123 

28,588 

General Synod.... 

1,226 

1,568 

194,442 

Independent Meth- 


United Synod in 




odist .. 

8 

14 

2,569 

the South . 

215 

390 

38,639 

Evangelist Mission- 



General Council... 

1,156 

2,019 

370,409 

ary . 

87 

13 

4,600 

Synodical C’nf’r’ce. 
(Independent Synods) 

2,029 

2,650 

581,029 

Moravians . 

118 

111 

1 A Cl 7 

Presbyterians: 


United Norwegian. 

354 

1,083 

126 872 

Presbyterian in U. S. 




Joint Syn'd of Ohio 

457 

604 

77,362 

of A. (North). 

7,335 

7,469 

973,433 

Buffalo . 

25 

39 

4,600 

Cumberland Presby- 


Hauge’s, Norweg’n. 

97 

205 

11,483 

terian . 

1,734 

2,957 

180,192 

Texas . 

11 

14 

1,700 

Cumberland Presby- 


German of Iowa... 

402 

824 

74,058 

terian (Colored)... 

400 

150 

39,000 

Norweg’n Lutheran 

272 

725 

67,208 

Welsh Calvinistic ... 

105 

185 

12,000 

Michigan . 

56 

86 

7,860 

United Presoyterian. 

918 

911 

115,901 

Danish in America 

47 

66 

10,000 

Presbyterian in U. S. 



Icelandic . 

8 

26 

3,350 

of A. (South). 

1,461 

2,959 

225 890 

Immanuel . 

45 

50 

6,118 

Associate Ch. of 




Suomai, Finnish .. 

11 

50 

5,925 

North America ... 

12 

31 

1,053 

Norwegian Free... 

125 

375 

37,500 

Associate Ref. Synod 



Danish United . 

84 

151 

8,506 

of the South . 

104 

131 

11,344 

Independent Con- 




Reform Pres, in the 



gregations . 

85 

200 

25,000 

U. S. (Synod) . 

124 

113 

9,790 

Waldenstromians .... 

140 

150 

20,000 

Reform Pres, in N. 




Mennonites: 




A. (Gen. Synod).. 

33 

36 

5,000 

Mennonite . 

418 

228 

22,443 

Reform Presb. (Cove- 



Bruederhoef . 

9 

5 

352 

nanter) . 

1 

1 

40 

Amish . 

365 

124 

13,051 

Reform Presb. in U. 




Old Amish . 

71 

22 

2,038 

S. & Canada . 

1 

1 

608 

Apostolic . 

2 

2 

209 

Reformed: 




Reformed . 

43 

34 

1,680 

Reformed in America 




General Conference . 

138 

79 

10,395 

( Dutch) . 

698 

619 

107,594 

Church of God in 




Reformed in U. S. 




Christ . 

18 

18 

471 

(German) . 

1,082 

1,660 

243,545 

Old (Wisler) . 

17 

15 

610 

Christian Reformed.. 

96 

145 

18,096 













































724 Things *€Oe All Should K.nobv 



m 

0) 

m 

u 

•!—< 

c . 

Denominations. 

ra 

o 

<D 

CQ 

3 m 

B a 



"2 

B g 


,d 

•f-H 

o ^ 


o 

§ 

O 

Reformed— Continued. 
Salvation Army . 

2,689 

753 

40,000 

Sc'HWENKFELDIANS .... 

3 

4 

306 

Social Brethren. 

17 

20 

918 

Society for Ethical 
Culture .. 


4 

1,064 

Spiritualists . 


334 

45,030 

Tiieosophical Society .. 

. 

40 

695 

United Brethren: 
United Brethren in 
Christ . 

1,897 

4,229 

243,841 

United Brethren (Old 
Constitution) . 

670 

817 

226,643 

Unitarians . 

550 

459 

71,000 

Universai.ists . 

735 

764 

48,426 

Volunteers of Ameri- 
r a . 

500 

200 


Independent Congrega¬ 
tions . 

54 

156 

14,126 


3 & j* 

LARGEST CITIES OF THE EARTH 


POPULATION ACCORDING TO THE LATEST 
OFFICIAL CENSUSES. 



Census 

Popu- 

Cities. 

Year. 

lation. 

London . 

.... 1901 

4,536,063 

New York. 

.... 1900 

3,437,202 

Paris . 

.... 1896 

2,536,834 

Berlin . 

.... 1900 

1,884,151 

Chicago . 

.... 1900 

1,698,575 

Vienna . 

. ... 1901 

1,635,647 

Canton . 


1,600,000 

Tokio, Japan. 

.... 1898 

1,440,121 

Philadelphia . 

.... 1900 

1,293,697 

St. Petersburg. 

.... 1897 

1,267,023 

Constantinople . 


1,125,000 

Calcutta . 

.... 1901 

1,121,664 

Peking . 


1,000,000 

Moscow . 

.... 1897 

988,614 

Osaka . 

.... 1898 

821,235 

Bombay . 

.... 1901 

770,843 

Glasgow . 

.... 1901 

760,423 

Hamburg . 

.... 1900 

705,738 

Liverpool . 

.... 1901 

685,276 

Buenos Ayres . 

.... 1895 

663,854 

Warsaw . 

.... 1897 

638,209 

St. Louis . 

.... 1900 

575,238 

Brussels . 

.... 1899 

570,844 

Cairo, Egypt.. 

.1897 

570,062 

Boston . 

.... 1900 

560,892 

Naples . 

.... 1899 

544,057 

Manchester, England .... 

.... 1901 

543,969 

Amsterdam . 

.... 1899 

523,557 

Rio de Janeiro. 

.... 1890 

522,651 

Birmingham, England.... 

.... 1901 

522,182 

Rome . 

...-. 1899 

512.423 

Madrid . 

.... 1897 

512,150 



Census 

Popu- 

Cities. 

Year. 

lation. 

Barcelona . 

. 1897 

509,589 

Madras . 

. 1901 

509,397 

Baltimore . 

. 1900 

508,957 

Buda-Pest. 

. 1891 

505,763 

Munich . 

. 1900 

499,959 

Milan . 

. 1899 

492,162 

Melbourne . 

. 1891 

490,900 

Lyons . 

. 1896 

466,028 

Leipzig . 

. 1900 

455,089 

Haidarabad . 

. 1901 

446,291 

Marseilles . 

. 1896 

442,239 

Leeds . 

. 1901 

428,953 

Breslau . 

. 1900 

422,738 

Odessa . 

. 1897 

405,041 

Mexico City. 

. 1900 

402,000 

Dresden . 

. 1900 

395,349 

Sydney . 

. 1891 

383,390 

Cleveland . 

. 1900 

381,768 

Sheffield . 

. 1901 

380,717 

Shanghai . 


380,000 

Dublin . 

. 1901 

373,179 

Cologne . 

. 1900 

372,229 

Turin . 

. 1899 

359,295 

Kioto . 

. 1898 

353,139 

Buffalo . 

. 1900 

352,387 

Belfast . 

. 1901 

348,965 

San Francisco. 

. 1900 

342,782 

Bristol, England. 

.1901 

328,842 

Cincinnati . 

. 1900 

325,902 

Pittsburgh . 

. 1900 

321,626 

Santiago, Chile . 

. 1895 

320,628 

Rotterdam . 

.1899 

319,866 

Alexandria . 

. 1897 

319,766 

Edinburgh . 

. 1901 

316,479 

Lodz . 

. 1897 

315,209 

Copenhagen . 

.1890 

312,859 

Stockholm. 

. 1899 

302,462 

Lisbon . 

. 1890 

301,206 

Palermo . 

.1899 

292,799 

Frankfort-on-Main . 

. 1900 

288,489 

New Orleans . 

. 1900 

287,104 

Detroit . 

. 1900 

285,704 

Milwaukee . 

. 1900 

285,315 

Bucharest . 

. 1899 

282,071 

Antwerp . 

. 1899 

282,018 

Bradford . 

. 1901 

279,809 

Washington . 

. 1900 

278,718 

West Ham, England. 

. 1901 

267,308 

Montreal . 

. 1901 

266,826 

Montevideo . 


266,000 

Lucknow . 

. 1901 

263,951 

Nuremberg . 

. 1900 

261,022 

Bordeaux . 

. 1896 

256,906 

iRiga . 

. 1897 

256,197 

Bangkok . 


250,000 

Teheran . 


250,000 

Kiev . 

. 1897 

247,432 

Newark . 

. 1900 

246,070 

Manila . 

. 1901 

244,732 

Nagoya . 


244,145 

Hull. 

. 1901 

240,618 

Nottingham . 

. 1901 

239,753 

Genoa . 

. 1899 

237,486 

Havana . 

. 1899 

235,981 

Hanover . 

. 1900 

235,666 

Rangoon . 

. 1901 

232,326 

















































































































Things We All Should Knoto 



Census 

Popu- 

Cities. 

Year. 

lation. 

Magdeburg . 


229,663 

Kristiania . 

.... 1900 

225,686 

Hong Kong . 

.... 1891 

221,441 

Salford . 


220.956 

Lille . 


216,276 

Florence .. 

.... 1899 

216,051 

Kobe, Japan. 

.... 1898 

215,780 

Newcastle . 

,... 1901 

214,803 

Dusseldorf . 

,... 1900 

213,767 

Leicester . 

,... 1901 

211,574 

Stettin . 

.... 1900 

210,680 

Delhi . 

,... 1901 

208,385 

Toronto . 

.... 1901 

207,971 

Chemnitz . 

.... 1900 

206,584 

Jersey City. 

... 1900 

206,433 

The Hague. 

... 1899 

205,328 

Valencia . 

,... 1897 

204.768 

Louisville . 

... 1900 

204,737 

Benares . 

... 1901 

203,095 

Minneapolis . 

... 1900 

202,718 

Smyrna . 


201,000 

Seoul, Korea. 


201,000 

Cawnpore . 

... 1901 

197,000 

Yokohama . 

.... 1898 

193,762 

Charlottenburg, Prussia ... 

... 1900 

189,290 

Portsmouth, England . 

... 1901 

189,160 

Agra . 

... 1901 

188,300 

Konigsberg . 

... 1900 

187,897 

Prague . 

... 1891 

184,109 

Mandelay . 

... 1901 

182,498 

Tabriz . 

... 1881 

180,000 

Stuttgart . 

... 1900 

176,318 

Allahabad . 

... 1901 

175,748 

Providence . 

... 1900 

175,597 

Kharkov . 

.. .. 1897 

174,846 

Bahia . 

... 1890 

174,412 

Liege . 

... 1899 

171,031 

Indianapolis . 

... 1900 

169.164 

Bolton . 

... 1901 

168,205 

Cardiff . 

... 1901 

164,420 

Kansas City, Mo. 

... 1900 

163,752 

Bremen. 

.... 1900 

163,418 

St. Paul . 

... 1900 

163,065 

Ghent . 

... 1899 

163,030 

Rochester . 

... 1900 

162,603 

Amritsar . 

... 1901 

162,548 

Altona, Germany ... 

,... 1900 

161,507 

Dundee . 

... 1901 

160,871 

Vilna . 

... 1897 

159,568 

Jaipur. 

... 1901 

159,550 

Bangalore . 

... 1901 

159,030 

Bologna . 

... 1899 

158,975 

Trieste . 

... 1891 

158,344 

Howrah . 

... 1901 

157,847 

Venice . 

... 1899 

157,785 

Elberfeld . 

... 1900 

156,937 

Halle-on-Salle . 

... 1900 

156,611 

Messina . 

... 1899 

156,552 

Tunis . 


153,000 

Strasburg . 

... 1900 

150,268 

Zurich. 

... 1900 

150,239 

Toulouse . 

... 1896 

149,963 

Adelaide . 

... 1899 

148,644 

Ahmadabad . 

... 1891 

148.412 

Sunderland . 

... 1901 

146,565 

Seville . 

... 1897 

146,205 



Census 

Popu- 

Cities. 

Year. 

lation. 

Bagdad . 


145,000 

Aberdeen . 

. 1901 

143,722 

Valparaiso . 


143,022 

Dortmund . 


142,418 

Barmen . 


141,947 

Dantzig . 


140,539 

Damascus . 


140,500 

Manheim . 


140,384 

Fez, Morocco . 


140,000 

Oporto . 


138,860 

Oldham, England . 

. 1901 

137,238 

Saratov . 


137,109 

St. Etienne . 


136,030 

Aachen . 


135,235 

Patna . 


135,172 

Catania . 


134,680 

Croydon, England . 

. 1901 

133,875 

Denver . 


133,859 

Toledo . 


131,822 

Kazan .. 


131,508 

Allegheny . 

. 1900 

129,896 

Lemberg . 


128,419 

Brunswick . 


128,177 

Colombo, Ceylon . 

. 1891 

127,836 

Blackburn . 


127,527 

Aleppo. 


127,150 

Goteborg . 

. 1899 

126,849 

Malaga . 


125,579 

Columbus . 

. 1900 

125,560 

Roubaix . 

.1896 

124,661 

Nagpur . 

. 1901 

124,599 

Nantes . 

. 1896 

123,902 

Brighton . 


123,478 

Srinagar . 

. 1901 

122,536 

Hiroshima. 


122,306 

Yekaterinoslav . 

. 1897 

121,216 

Lahore . 

. 1901 

120,058 

Bogota . 

. 1886 

120,000 

Rostov-on-Don . 

. 1897 

119,882 

Havre . 

. 1896 

119,470 

Essen, Germany . 

. 1900 

118,863 

Beirut. 


118,800 

Worcester . 

. 1900 

118,421 

Surat . 

. 1901 

118,364 

Bareilly . 

.1901 

117,433 

Posen . 

. 1900 

117,014 

Meerut . 

. 1901 

116,642 

Karachi . 

. 1901 

115,407 

Willesden . 

. 1901 

114,815 

Rhondda . 

. 1901 

113,735 

Gratz . 

. 1891 

113,540 

Rouen . 

. 1896 

113,219 

Astrakhan . 

. 1897 

113,001 

Preston . 

.1901 

112,982 

Basle .. 

. 1900 

112,842 

Norwich . 

. 1901 

111,728 

Pernambuco . 

. 1890 

111,556 

Athens .. 

. 1896 

111,486 

Poona . 

. 1901 

111,385 

Birkenhead . 

. 1901 

110,926 

Tula . 

. 1897 

110,048 

Gateshead . 

. 1901 

109,887 

Kishinev . 

. 1897 

108,796 

Murcia, Spain .. 

. 1897 

108,408 

Syracuse . 

. 1900 

108,374 

New Haven . 

. 1900 

108,027 






































































































































726 


Things XOe All Should I{_ncteS 



Census 

Popu- 

Cities. 

Year. 

lation. 

Rheims . 

. 1896 

107,963 

Kiel, Germany . 

. 1900 

107,938 

Plymouth . 

. 1901 

107,509 

Nagasaki . 

. 1898 

107,422 

Krefeld . 

. 1900 

106,928 

Kassel, Germany . 

. 1900 

106,001 

Derby . 

. 1901 

105,785 

Leghorn . 

. 1899 

105,767 

Madura . 

. 1901 

105,501 

Paterson, N. J. 

. 1900 

105,171 

Salonica . 


105,000 


jt jt 


Name and Country. Ft. High. Miles 

Mount Etna, volcano, Sicily. 10,835 2 

Monte Corno, highest of Apennines, 

Naples . 9,523 1% 

Sneehattan, highest Dovrefield 

Mountains, Norway . 8,115 1 

Pindus, highest in Greece. 7,677 1 Mi 

Mount Sinai, Arabia . 6,541 1^4 

Mitchell Mountain, highest in North 

Carolina . 7,350 l'/j 

Mount Washington, highest White 

Mountains, N. Hampshire. 6,285 1*4 

Mount Marcy, highest in New York. 5,402 1 

Mount Hecla, volcano, Iceland. 5,104 1 

Ben Nevis, highest in Great Britain, 

Scotland . 4,406 % 


THE WORLD’S HIGHEST MOUN¬ 
TAINS 


Name and Country. Ft. High. Miles 

Mount Everest (Himalayas), Tibet. 29,002 5% 

Aconcagua, the highest in America, 


Chile . 22,422 4 

Sorato, Bolivia . 21,284 4 

Illimani, Bolivia . 21,145 4 

Chimborazo, Ecuador . 21,422 4% 

Hindoo-Koosh, Afghanistan . 20,600 3% 

Mount McKinley, highest in North 

America, Alaska . 20,464 3% 

Demavend, highest of Elburz Moun¬ 
tains, Persia . 20,000 3% 

Cotopaxi, highest volcano in the 

world, Ecuador . 19,496 3% 

Antisana, Ecuador . 19,150 3% 

St. Elias, Alaska . 17,850 3% 

Popocatapetl, volcano, Mexico . 17,540 3% 

Mauna Loa, highest in Oceanica, 

Hawaii . 16,000 3 

Mount Brown, highest peak of Rocky 

Mountains, British America. 15,900 3 

Mont Blanc, highest in Europe, 

Alps, France . 15,732 3 

Mont Rosa, next highest peak of 

Alps, Italy . 15,150 2% 

Limit of perpetual snow at the equa¬ 
tor . 15,207 2% 

Pic^mca, Ecuador. 15,924 3 

Mount Whitney, California. 14,887 2% 

Mount Fairweather, Alaska . 14,500 2% 

Mount Shasta, California. 14,442 2% 

Mount Ranier, Washington .,14,444 2% 

Long’s Peak, Rocky Mountains, Colo¬ 
rado . 14,271 2% 

Mount Ararat, Armenia. 14,320 2% 

Pike's Peak, Colorado.*14,216 2 x /z 

Mount Ophir, Sumatra. 13,800 2% 

Fremont’s Peak, Rocky Mountains, 

Wyoming . 13,570 2% 

Mount St. Helens, Washington. 13,400 2% 

Peak of Teneriffe, Canaries. 12,182 2% 

Miltzin, highest of Atlas Mountains, 

Morocco . 11,500 2 

Mount Hood, Oregon. 11,500 2 

Mount Lebanon, Syria. 10,533 2 

Mont Perda, highest of Pyrenees, 

France . 10,950 2 


Mansfield, highest of Green Moun- 


tains, Vermont..,... 

. 4,280 

% 

Peaks of Otter, Virginia.... 

. 4,260 

% 

Mount Vesuvius, Naples.... 

. 4,253 

% 

Round Top, highest of 

Catskill 


Mountains, New York.... 

. 3,804 

% 


\ I 

& & & 


HEIGHTS OF THE TALLEST MON¬ 
UMENTS, TOWERS AND 
STEEPLES IN THE 
WORLD 

Feet. 


Paris, Eiffel Tower. 989 

Washington, Washington Monument. 555 

Egypt, Pyramid of Cheops. 486 

Belgium, Antwerp Cathedral. 476 

France, Strasburg Cathedral. 474 

Egypt, Pyramid of Cephrenes. 456 

Rome, St. Peter’s Church. 448 

Germany, St. Martin’s Church at Landshut. 411 

England, St. Paul’s Church, London. 365 

England, Salisbury Cathedral. 400 

Italy, Cathedral at Florence. 386 


LENGTHS OF THE WORLD’S 
PRINCIPAL RIVERS 


NORTH AMERICA. 

Rivers. Miles. 

Missouri to the Gulf (forming the longest 

river in the world). 4,200 

Missouri (to its junction with the Missis¬ 
sippi) . 2,900 

Mississippi proper . 3,200 

Mackenzie . 2,300 

St. Lawrence . 2,000 

Arkansas . 2,000 

Saskatchewan and Nelson. 1,900 

Yukon . 1,600 

Rio Grande . 1,500 

Nebraska . 1,200 

Red River . 1,200 

Columbia . 1,400 

Colorado . 2^000 

















































































727 


Things *&De All Should K.nobu 


North America—C ontinued. 

Rivers Miles. 

Yellowstone . 1,000 

Ohio . 950 

Kansas . 900 

Tennessee . 800 

Fraser . 750 

Red River of the North. 700 

Brazos . 650 

Wisconsin . 600 

Cumberland . >.... 600 

Alabama . 600 

Wabash . 550 

Appalachicola . 550 

Susquehanna . 500 

Potomac . 500 

James. 500 

Roanoke . 500 

Savannah . 500 

St. John. 450 

Connecticut . 450 

Great Pedee . 450 

Altamaha . 400 

Sacramento . 400 

Penobscot . 350 

Hudson . 350 

Cape Fear . 350 

Pearl . 350 

Nueces . 350 

Sabine . 350 

Severn . 300 

Kennebec . 300 

Delaware . 300 

SOUTH AMERICA. 

Amazon . 3,750 

Rio de la Plata. 2,300 

Madeira . 2,000 

Orinoco . 1,550 

San Francisco . 1,550 

Tocantins . 1,100 

Colorado . 1,000 

Rio Negro . 1,000 

Magdalena . 900 

Parnaiba . 900 

EUROPE. 

Volga . 2,000 

Don . 1,300 

Danube . 1,800 

Dnieper . 1,080 

Rhine . 880 

Dvina. 700 

Petchora . 737 

Elbe . 737 

Vistula . 691 

Loire . 600 

Tagus . 550 

Dneister . 500 

Guadiana . 500 

Seine . 498 

Douro . 450 

Oder . 450 

Rhone . 450 

Po . 450 

Mezene . 400 

Desna . 400 

Guadalquiver . 400 


Europe—C ontinued. 

Rivers Miles. 

Duna . 350 

Niemen . 350 

Ebro . 350 

Dahl . 300 

Bug . 300 

Weser . 300 

Garonne . 300 

Thames . 215 

ASIA. 

Yenesei . 3,400 

Yang-tse-Kiang . 3,320 

Ob . 3,000 

Hoang-Ho . 2,800 

Lena . 2,700 

Amur . 2,650 

Brahmaputra . 2,300 

Cambodia . 2,000 

Indus . 1,850 

Euphrates . 1,750 

Ganges . 1,600 

AFRICA. 

Nile . 4,100 

Niger . 3,000 

Congo . 2,900 

Zambesi . 1,800 

Orange . 1,000 

Limpopo . 900 

Senegal . 800 

AUSTRALIA. 

Murray . 1,300 

Darling .'. 1,200 


<£ S & 

AREA AND DEPTH OF OCEANS 

Area of oceans and inland seas connected 
with them 142,132,980 square miles, or 72 
per cent of total surface of the earth. 

Area of Arctic ocean estimated at 4,632,- 
000 square miles. Atlantic ocean, 34,301,- 
400 square miles; greatest depth “Inter¬ 
national Deep,” off St. Thomas Island, 
West Indies, 27,366 feet. Indian ocean, 
28,615,600 square miles. Pacific ocean, 
67,699,630 square miles, and 9,000 by 12,- 
000 miles in greatest extent, comprises 
nearly one-half the total water area; great¬ 
est depth sounded, “Tuscarora Deep” north 
of Japan, 27,930 feet. Area of Antarctic 
ocean estimated at 6,040,000 square miles, 
depth 4,920 feet. Supposed depth of 83 
per cent of total ocean area more than 6,000 
feet. 




























































































728 


Things All Should K.nobv 

RACES OF MANKIND 


The following is compiled from the arrangement by the Ethnologist Figuier and others: 


European 

Branch. 


Aramean 

Branch. 


WHITE RACE. 


Teutonic Family.Scandinavians, Germans, English. 

Latin Family.French, Spaniards, Italians, Moldo-Wallachians. 

Slavonian Family.Russians, Finns, Bulgarians, Servians, Magyars, Croats, 

Tchecks, Poles, Lithuanians. 

Greek Family.Greeks, Albanians. 

Libyan Family.Egyptians, Berbers. 

Semitic Family.Arabs, Jews, Syrians. 

Persian Family.Persians, Afghans, Kurds, Armenians, Ossetines. 

Georgian Family.Georgians. 

Circassian Family.Circassians, Mingrelians. 


Hyperborean 

Branch. 

Mongolian 

Branch. 


Sinaic 

Branch. 


YELLOW RACE. 


Lapp Family.Samoyede, Kamtschadale, Eskimo, Tenissian, Jukaghir- 

ite, and Koriak Families. 

Mongol Family.Mongols, Kalmucks, Buriats. 

Tungus Family.Tunguses, Manchus. 

Turk Family.Turkomans, Kirghis, Nogays, Osmanlis. 

Yakut Family.Yakuts. 

Chinese Family.Chinese. 

Japanese Family.Japanese. 


Indo-Chinese Family. ..Burmese, Siamese. 


Hindoo 

Branch. 

Ethiopian 

Branch. 


Malay 

Branch. 


BROWN RACE. 


J Hindu Family.Sikhs, Jats, Rajpoots, Mahrattas, Bengalese, Cingalese. 

I Malabar Family.Malabars, Tamals, Telingas. 

/ Abyssinian Family.... Abyssinians, Berabras, Gallas. 

I Fellan Family.Fellans. 

' Malay Family.Malays, Javanese, Battas, Bougis, Maccassars, Dyaks, 

| Tagals. 

Polynesian Family.Maoris, Tongas, Tahitians, Pomotouans, Marquesans, 

Hawaiians. 


Micronesian Family.... Ladrone, Caroline, and Mulgrave Islanders. 


Southern 

Branch. 


Northern 

Branch. 


RED RACE. 


Andian Family.Quichuas (or Incas), Antis, Andians, Araucanians. 

Pampean Family.Patagonians, Puelches, Charruas, Tobas, Moxas, Abi- 

pous, etc. 

Guarani Family.Guaranis, Bocotudos. 

Southern Family.Aztecs, Mayas, Lencas, Othomis, Tarascas, etc. 


Northeastern Family. ..Cherokees, Hurons, Iroquois, Sioux, Apaches, Co- 

manches, Creeks, etc. 

Northwestern Family.. Chinooks, Digger Indians, Nootkans, etc. 


Western 

Branch. 

Eastern 

Branch 


BLACK RACK 

{ Kaffir Family. 

Hottentot Family. 

Negro Family. 

j Papuan Family.Fijians, New Caledonians, etc. 

j Andaman Family.Andamans, Australians. 
































GAZETTEER OF THE WORLD 


COMPRISING ALL THE GEOGRAPHICAL AND POLITICAL DIVISIONS OF 
THE EARTH; THEIR NAMES, AREAS, AND POPULATIONS 


Based Upon 


the Latest Census 
Official Estimates 


Reports and 


In the following pages no attempt has been| made to present all the matter usually included in 
gazetteers; rivers, lakes, mountains, et cetera, do not change, and as such subjects are given in so many 
books, they have been omitted from these pages to make room for subjects about which recent informa¬ 
tion is difficult to obtain. 

In brief, this Gazetteer gives all the geographical and political divisions of the world; the principal 
subdivisions, as provinces, states, territories, counties; all cities of 25,000 or more inhabitants (with a 
few exceptions where reliable information has not been obtainable); the states, territories, and possessions 
of the United States, and under each all incorporated cities and towns of 1,000 or more inhabitants, as 
returned by the census of 1900. 

The following signs and abbreviations have been used: 


* 

the capital of a state 

Eng. 

England, English 

p. or pop. 

population 


or nation 

Fr. 

French 

pen. 

peninsula , 

□ 

square miles 

Ger. 

German 

posses. 

possession 

Am. 

America 

inc. 

including 

prov. 

province 

cen. 

central 

ind. 

independent 

Rus. 

Russian 

CO. 

county 

isl. 

island 

So. 

South, Southern 

dep. 

dependency 

mts. 

mountains 

ter. 

territory 

E. 

East, Eastern 

No. 

North, Northern 

W. 

West, Western 




Aachen, city, Prussia, p. 135,235. 

Aarhus, city, Denmark, p. 33,308. 

Aberdeen', city, Scotland, p. 153,108. 
Abyssin'ia, ind. state, E. Africa, □ 150,000, p. 
3,500,000. 

Adan'a, city, Asia Minor, p. 45,000. 

Adelaide, * South Australia, p. 148,644. 

Aden, volcanic pen. on Arabian coast (Brit¬ 
ish), □ 75, p. 41,910. 

Adrianople, city, Turkey, p. 81,000. 
Afghanistan', cen. Asia, □ 215,400, p. 2,360,- 
000, * Kabul. 

Africa, continent, D 11,518,104, p. 170,000,000. 
Agra, city, India, p. 188,300. 

A'guas Calien'tes, state, Mexico, □ 2,950, p. 
102,378 —Its * p. 35,052. 

Aix-la-Chapelle', French name for Aachen, 


above. 

Ajmere', city, India, p. 75,759. 
Ajmer'-Marwa'ra, prov. India, 


□ 2,711, p. 


476,330. 

Akron, Ohio, p. 42,728. 
Alabama, So. cen. state, 
697, * Montgomery. 
Incorporated cities and 
or more in 1900: 


□ 52,250, p. 1,828,- 
towns of 1,000 pop. 


Alabama 
Alexander 
Anniston 
Athens ... 
Attalia .. 
Auburn ., 


City 2,276 

... 1,001 

. 9,695 

. 1,010 

. 1,692 

. 1,447 


Avondale .... 3,060 

Bessemer _6,358 

Birmingham .38,415 

Brewton .1,382 

Bridgeport ... 1,247 
Columbia .... 1,132 


Alabama.—Continued, 


Columbiana . 1,075 

Cullman .1,255 

Dadeville .... 1,136 

Decatur . 3,114 

Demopolis ... 2,606 

Dothan . 3,275 

Ensley . 2,100 

Eufaula .4,532 

Evergreen ... 1,277 

Florence .6,478 

Fort Deposit. 1,078 
Fort Payne... 1,037 

Gadsden .4,2S2 

Geneva .1,032 

Girard .3,840 

Greensboro .. 2,416 
Greenville ... 3,162 
Huntsville ... 8,068 

Jackson . 1,039 

Jacksonville ..1,176 

Jasper .1,661 

Lafayette .1,629 

Lanett .2,909 

Marion .1,698 

Mobile .38,469 


Montgomery .. 

.30,346 

New Decatur.. 

. 4,437 

Opelika . 

. 4,245 

Oxanna . 

. 1.1S4 

Oxford . 

. 1,372 

Ozark . 

. 1,570 

Phoenix . 

. 4.163 

Piedmont . 

. 1,745 

Pratt City. 

. 3,485 

Prattville . 

. 1,929 

Roanoke . 

. 1,155 

Russellville ... 

. 1,602 

Scottsboro .... 

. 1,014 

Selma . 

. 8,713 

Sheffield . 

. 3,333 

Talladega . 

. 5,056 

Troy . 

. 4,097 

Tuscaloosa .... 

. 5,094 

Tuscumbia ... 

. 2,348 

Tuskegee . 

. 2.170 

Union Springs. 

. 2,634 

Uniontown .... 

. 1,047 

Warrior . 

. 1,018 

Wilsonville ... 

. 1,095 

Woodlawn .... 

. 2,848 


Alaska, ter. of U. S., □ 590,884, p. 63.592, 
* Sitka. 

Cities and towns of more than 1,000 pop. 
in 1900: 

Juneau . 1,864 Sitka . 1,396 

Nome .12,488 Skagway .3,117 

Albany, * N. Y., p. 94,151. 

Alberta, ter. Canada, □ 100,000. 


729 



















































IS 0 


Gazetteer o_f the 'CLJorld. 


Alcoy, city, Spain, p. 31,099. 

Aleppo, city, Syria, p. 127,150. 

Alessandria, city, Italy, p. 79,015. 

Alexandria, city, Egypt, p. 319,766. 

Algeria, Fr. posses, in No. Africa, Q 184,474, 
p. 4,430,000, * Algiers, p. 96,784. 

Alicante, city, Spain, p. 49,463. 

Aligarh, city, India, p. 70,127. 

Allahabad, city, India, p. 175,748. 

Allegheny, Pa., p. 129,896. 

Allentown, Pa., p. 35,416. 

Almeria, city, Spain, p. 46,806. 

Alost, city, Belgium, p. 29,746. 
Alsace-Lorraine, Ger. imperial ter., □ 5,600, 
p. 1,717,451. * Strassburg, p. 135,608, 
Altenburg, * Saxe-Altenburg, Germany, p. 
33,621. 

Altona, city, Prussia, p. 161,507. 

Altoona, Pa., p. 38,973. 

Alwar, city, India, p. 56,740. 

America, North, continent. □ 7.952.386, p. 
97,500,000— South, comment, □ 6,844,602, 

p. 40,500,000. 

A'miens, city, France, p. 88,731. 

Amoy, city on Haimun Isl., China, p. 96,000. 
Amrit'sar, city, India, p. 162,548. 

Amsterdam, city, Holland, p. 523,557. 

Anam' (or Annam), Fr. posses, in Asia, So. 
of China, □ 88,780, p. 5,000,000, * Hue, p. 
30,000. 

Anatolia, see Asia Minor. 

Anco'na, city, Italy, p. 60,428. 

Andaman' Islands (over 200), Bay of Bengal 
(British), □ 2,000, p. 29,000, * Port Blair, 
p. 15,000. 

Andijan', city, Rus. Turkestan, p. 46,680. 
Andorra, republic in Pyrenees mts. between 
France and Spain, □ 175, p. 6,000. 


Angers, city, France, p, 77,164. 

An'glesey, co. Wales, □ 275, p. 50,590. 

Angola (Portuguese W. Africa), Q 484,800, p. 

4,119,000, * St. Paul de Loanda. 
Angouleme, city, France, p. 38,068. 

An'halt, Ger. duchy, □ 906, p. 316,027, * Des¬ 
sau, p. 42,375. 

Antananarivo', * Madagascar, p. 260,000. 
Antwerp, city, Belgium, p. 282,018. 

Arabia, pen. So. W. Asia, □ 1,200,000 (est.), 
p. (est.) 5,000,000. 

Ar'ad, city, Hungary, p. 53,800. 

Arequi'pa, city, Peru, p. 35,000. 

Arezzo, city, Italy, p. 45,854. 

Ar'gentine Republic, So. Am., □ 1,113,849, p. 

4,094,911, * Buenos Ayres. 

Arizona, ter. W. part U. S., □ 113,020, p. 
122,931, * Phoenix. 

Incorporated cities and towns of 1,000 pop. 
or more in 1900: 


Flagstaff .... 

Globe . 

Jerome . 

Nogales . 

Phoenix . 


1,271 Prescott . 3,559 

1,495 Tucson ,.7,531 

2,861 Winslow . 1,305 

1,761 Yuma . 1,519 

5,544 


Arkansas, So. cen. state, □ 53,850, p. 1,311,- 
564, * Little Rock. 

Incorporated cities and towns of 1,000 pop. 
or more in 1900: 


Arkadelphia . 2,739 
Arkansas City. 1,091 


Augusta .1,040 

Batesville .2,327 

Benton .1,025 

Bentonville .. 1,843 
Black Rock... 1,400 

Brinkley .1,648 

Camden .2,840 

Clarendon .... 1,840 
Clarksville . . 1,086 

Coal Hill.1,341 

Conway .2,003 

Corning .1,041 

Dardanelle ... 1,602 

De Queen.1,204 

Eldorado . 1,069 

Eureka Spgs.. 3,572 
Fayettevile .. 4,061 

Fordyce .1,710 

Forrest City.. 1,361 


Fort Smith ... .11,587 

Gurdon . 1,045 

Hamburg .1.260 

Harrison .1,551 

Helena .5,550 

Hope .1,644 

Hot Springs_9,973 

Huntingdon .... 1,298 

Jonesboro . 4,508 

Junction City... 1,251 

Little Rock.38,307 

Magnolia . 1,614 

Malvern . 1,582 

Marianna .1,707 

Mena . 3,423 

Monticello .1,597 

Morrillton .1,707 

Newport . 2,866 

Paragould .3,324 

Pine Bluff.11.496 

Prescott . 2.005 


Arkansas.—Continued, 

Rogers .2,158 

Russellville ...1,832 

Searcy .1,995 

Siloam Sp’ngs 1,748 
Springdale ....1,251 


Stamps . 1,021 

Stuttgart .1,258 

Texarkana . 4,911 

Van Buren. 2,573 

Wynne . 1,629 


Armenia, country, W. Asia, belonging to Tur¬ 
key, Persia and Russia; Turkish Armenia 
and Khurdistan form a province; □ 72,- 
491, p. 2,472,400. 

Arnhem, city, Holland, p. 57,248. 

Ascension, isl. So. Atlantic (British), □ 35, 


p. 430. 

Ascoli Piceno, city, Italy, p. 31,499. 

Asia, largest continent, □ 17,039,066, p. 850,- 


000,000. 

Asia Minor (or Anatolia), part of Turkish 
Empire, □ 194,389, p. 9,355,000. 

Assam', prov. India, □ 49,004, p. 6,122,201. 
Assiniboi'a, ter. Canada, □ 90,340. 

Assiout, city, Egypt, p. 42,078. 

Astrakhan', city, Russia, p. 113,001. 

Asuncion, * Paraguay, p. 45,000. 

Athabasca, ter. Canada, □ 251,300. 

Athens, * Greece, p. 111,486. 

Atlanta. * Ga., p. 111,486. 

Atlantic City, N. J., p. 27,838. 

Auburn, N. Y., p. 30,345. 

Auckland, city. New Zealand, p. 31,424. 
Augsburg, city, Bavaria, Germany, p. 81,896. 
Augusta, Ga., p. 39,441. 

Australasia, including Australia and Oceania, 

□ 3,458,000, p. 5,684,600. 

Australia, Commonwealth of, comprises states 
of New South Wales, Victoria, Queens¬ 
land, So. Australia, W. Australia and 
Tasmania; □ 2,972,573, p. 3,777,212, tempo¬ 
rary * Melbourne. 

Austria, empire, part of Austria-Hungary, □ 
115,903, p. 26,107,300, * Vienna. 
Austria-Hungary, European dual monarchy 
(Austrian Empire and the Hungarian 
Kingdom), □ 240,942, p. 45,310,831. 
Avelli'no, city, Italy, p. 28,579. 

Avignon, city, France, p. 45,107. 

Ayr, city, Scotland, p. 28,624. 

Azov', city, Russia, p. 25,488. 


13 

Baden, Ger. grand-duchy, □ 5,821, p. 1,866,584, 

* Karlsruhe. 

Bagdad, city, Mesopotamia (Turkey), Asia, p. 

145,000. - 

Bahamas, isls. British West Indies, □ 5,450, 
p. 47,565. 

Bahi'a, city, Brazil, p. 174,412. 

Bahrein' Islands, Persian Gulf (British), p. 

70,000, * Moharek, p. 22,000. 

Baireuth (see Bayreuth). 

Baku', city, Caucasus, Russia, p. 112,253. 

Bale, Fr. name for Basel, Switzerland. 
Ballarat', city, Victoria, Australia, p. 46,410. 
Baltimore, Md., p. 50S.957. 

Baluchistan', state dependent on India, So. 

Cen. Asia, □ 130,000, p. 500,000, * Kalat. 
Bamberg, city, Bavaria, Germany, p. 38,940. 
Bangalore', city, India, p. 159,030, 

Bangkok, * Siam, p. 250,000. 

Barbados, isl., Lesser Antilles; (British), □ 
166, p. 192,000, * Bridgetown. 

Barca (or Benghazi), region, No. Africa, E. of 
Tripoli, ancient Cyrenaica, Turkish prov. 

* Benghazi, p. -500,000. 

Barcelona, city, Snain, p. 509,589. 

Bareilly, city, India, p. 117,433. 

Barfurtish', city, Persia, p. 50,000. 

Bari, city, Italy, p. S2.833. 

Barmen, city, Prussia, p. 141,947. 

Baroda, state, India, □ 8,226, p. 1,950,927. 
Its * p. 103^782. 

Barquisime'to, city, Venezuela, p. 31,476. 
Barrow-in-Furness, town, Eng., p. 57,584. 
Basel, city, Switzerland, p. 112,253. e• A. 
Basu'toland, So. Africa, N. E. Cape Colony, 
British, □ 10,293, p. 250,000, * Maseru, p. 
862. • 
Batavia, * Java, p. 115,567. 

Bath, city, Eng., p. 49,817. 
















































731 


Gazetteer of the 'COorld' 


Bavaria, Ger., kingdom, □ 29,282, p. 6,175,- 
153, * Munich. 

Bay City, Mich., p. 27,628. 

Bayonne', N. J., p. 32,722. 

Bayreuth, city, Bavaria, Germany, p. 27.693. 
Bechuan'aland Protectorate, So. Africa. N. 
and W. of Transvaal, British, □ 213,000, 
p. 200,000, * Palachwe, p. 25,000. 

Bedford, co., Eng., □ 466. p. 171,700. 

Bei'rut (ba'root), city, Syria, p. 118,800. 
Belem, city, Brazil, p. 50,064. 

Belfast, city, Ireland, p. 348,965. 

Belgium, kingdom, Europe, □ 11,373, p. 6 ,- 
744,532, * Brussels. 

Belgrade, * Servia, p. 59,494. 

Bella'ry, city, India, p. 57,700. 

Benares, city. India, p. 203,095. 

Ben'digo (Sandhurst), city, Victoria, Austra¬ 
lia, p. 43,112. 

Benevento, city, Italy, p. 26,339. 

Bengal States, British India, □ 59,259, p. 
3,735,715. Bengal, prov., India, □ 151,- 
543, p. 74,713,020, * Calcutta. 

Benghazi (or Barca which see), Turkish prov.. 
No. Africa, □ 54,900, p. 500,000. 

Berar', prov., India, □ 17,718, p. 2,752,418. 
Berdechev, city, Russia, p. 53,728. 

Bergamo, city, Italy, p. 47,206. 

Bergen, city, Norway, p. 72,179. 

Berks, co., Eng., □ 712, p. 180,366. 

Berlin, * German Empire, p. 1,884.151. 
Bermudas, islands, No. Atlantic, British, 

20, p. 16,423, * Hamilton, p. 1,296. 

Bern (or Berne), * Switzerland, p. 63,994. 
Besancon, city. France, p. 57,556. 

Beziers, city, France, p. 48,868. 

Bhagalpur', city, India, p. 75,273. 

Bhutan', ind. state of Asia, □ 16,800, p. 

35,000, * Punakha. 

Bika'nir, city, India, p. 53.071. 

Bilbao, city, Spain, p. 74,093. 

Binghamton, N. Y., p. 39,647. 

Birkenhead, city, Eng., p. 110,926. 
Birmingham, Ala., p. 38,415—city, Eng., p. 
522,182. 


Bismarck Archipelago, islands, N. E. of New 
Guinea, □ 19,000. 

Bitlis, city, Armenia, p. 38.800. 

Blackburn, city, Eng., p. 127,527. 
Blagovyeshchensk, city, Siberia, p. 32,606. 
Blumenau, city, Brazil, p. 40,000. 

Bochum, city, Prussia, p. 53.842. 

Bogota, * Colombia, p. 120,000. 

Bohemia, prov., Austria, □ 20,060, p. 6,318,- 
280. 


Bohol, isl.. Philippines, □ 1,300. 

Bokhara, Rus. vassal state, Asia, □ 92,000, p. 

2,500,000, * Bokhara, p. 75,000. 

Bolivia, republic. So. Am., □ 567,430, p. 

1,310,000. * Sucre, p. 27,350. 

Bologna, city, Paly, p. 158,975. 

Bolton, city, Eng-., p. 168,205. 

Boma, * Congo Free State, on Congo R. 
Bombay States, British India. □ 61.457, p. 
6,891,691. Bombay (presidency). India, □ 
125,144, p. 18,584,496, * Bombay, p. 770,- 
843. 


Bootle, town, Eng., p. 58,558. 

Bordeaux, city, France, p. 257,500. 

Borneo, isl. East Indies, belongs to Dutch and 
British, □ 243,843, p. 1,355,580. 

Bos'nia and Herzegovi'na, Turkish provs. un¬ 
der government of Austria-Hungary, □ 
23,262, p. 1,568.092, * Sarajevo, p. 38,083. 
Boston, * Mass., p. 560,822. 

Boulogne, city, France, p. 46,807. 
Boulogne-sur-Seine, city, France, p. 3<,418. 
Bourges, city, France, p. 43,587. 
Bournemouth, town, Eng., p. 4<,003. 
Bradford, city, Eng., p. 279,809. 

Braga, city, Portugal, p. 23,089. 

Brai'la, city, Rumania, p. 58,392. 

Brazil, republic. So. Am., □ 3,218,130, p. 

14,333,915, * Rio de Janeiro. 

Brecknock, co., Wales, □ 134, p. 54,211. 
Bremen, German free town, □ 99, p. 244,697. 
Brescia, city, Italy, p. 69,833. 

Breslau, city, Prussia, p. 422,738. 

Brest, city, France, p. 74,538. 


Bridgeport, Conn., p. 70,996. 

Brighton, city, Eng., p. 123,478. 

Brisbane, * Queensland, Australia, p. 48,738. 
Bristol, city, Eng., p. 328,842. 

British Columbia, prov. Canada, □ 383,300, 
p. 190,000, * Victoria. 

British Empire, comprises The United King¬ 
dom of Great Britain and Ireland, and 
India, the Colonies, Protectorates and De¬ 
pendencies, □ 9,043,577, p. 382,898,200, * 
London. 

British Guiana, So. Am., □ 120,000, p. 278,- 
328, * Georgetown, p. 53,176. 

British Honduras, Crown colony, Cen. Am., 

□ 7.562, p. 35,226. * Belize, p. 6,972. 
British North Borneo, No. part Isl. of Borneo 

_ □ 31,106, p. 175,000, * Sandakan. 

British West African Colonies (inc. Gold 
Coast, Lagos, Gambia, and Sierra Leone 
which see). 

British West Indies, comprise six groups: 
Bahamas, Barbados, Jamaica with Turks 
Islands, Leeward Islands, Trinidad with 
Tobago, and Windward Islands. 
Brockton, Mass., p. 40,063. 

Bruges, city, Belgium, p. 53,050. 

Brunei, ter. on N. W. coast Borneo (British), 

□ 15,000, p. 45,000. 

Brunn, city, Austria, p. 108,944. 

Brunswick, Ger. duchy, □ 1,424, p. 464,251, 

* Brunswick, p. 128,177. 

Brussa, city, Asia Minor, p. 76,303. 

Brussels, * Belgium, on Senne R., p. (inc. 

suburbs) 570,844. 

Bucharest', * Rumania, p. 282,071. 

Buckeburg, * Schaumburg-Lippe, Ger., p. 
5,620. 

Buckingham, co., England, □ 743, p. 196.844. 
Bu'dapest. * Hungary, p. 733,358. 

Buenos Ayres, (bway'nos ay'res), * Argentine 
Rep., on La Plata R., p. 795,323. 

Buffalo, N. Y., p. 352,387. 

Bukowi'na, prov.. Austria, □ 4,035, p. 729,921. 
Bulgaria (inc. E. Roumelia), under suze¬ 
rainty of Turkey, □ 37,860, p. 3,310,713, 

* Sofia. 

Burgos, city, Spain, p. 30,856. 

Burma States, British India, □ 62,661, p. 
1,228,460.—Burma, prov. India, □ 171,430, 
p. 9,221,161. — Lower, * Rangoon. — Upper, 

* Mandalay. 

Burnley, city. Eng., p. 97,044. 
Burton-upon-Trent, town. Eng., p. 50,386. 
Bury, town, Eng., p. 58,028. 

Butte, Mont., p. 30,470. 

Byelostok, city, Russia, p. 63,927. 

o 

Cad'iz, city, Spain, p. 70,177. 

Caen (kon), city. France, p. 45,380. 

Cagl'iari, city, Italy, p. 45,761. 

Cairo, (ki-ro), * Egypt, p. 570,062. 

Calais, city, France, p. 56.940. 

Calcutta, * Bengal and British India, p. (with 
suburbs), 1,121,664. 

Calicut, city. India, p. 75,510. 

California, W. state, □ 158,360, p. 1,485,053, 

* Sacramento. 


Incorporated cities and towns of 1,000 pop. 


or mors in 1900: 



Alameda .... 

.16.464 - 

Hayward .... 


Anaheim .... 

..1,456 

Healdsburg . 

..1,869 

Auburn . 

..2,050 

Hollister .... 

..1,315 

Bakersfield . 

..4,836 

Kern . 


Benicia . 

..2,751 

Lincoln . 

..1,961 

Berkeley .... 

.13,214 

Livermore .. 

..1,493 

Chico . 

..2,640 

Long Beach. 

..2,252 

Colton . 

..1,285 

Los Angeles.102,479 

Colusa . 

..1.441 

Los Gatos... 

. .1.915 

Corona . 

..1,434 

Martinez _ 

..1.380 

Emeryville ., 

,.1,016 

Marysville .. 

. .3.497 

Eureka .. 

.7,327 

Merced . 

. .1.969 

Fort Bragg.. 

..1,590 

Modesto . 

..2.024 

Fresno . 

.12,470 

Monrovia ... 

.1.205 

Gilroy . 

..1.820 

Monterey ... 

. .1,748 

Grass Valley. 

..4,719 

Napa . 

..4,036 

Hanford . 

,.2,929 

National City.1,086 






























732 


Gazetteer of the *€Oorld 


California.—Continued. 


Nevada City 

...3,250 

San L’s Obispo 

3,021 

Oakland .... 

.66,960 

San Mateo.... 

.1,832 

Orange . 

..1,216 

San Pedro.... 

.1,787 

Pacific Grove..1,411 

San Rafael... 

.3,879 

Palo Alto.... 

..1,658 

Santa Ana.... 

.4,933 

Pasadena ... 

..9,117 

Santa Barbara 

6,587 

Paso Robles. 

..1,224 

Santa Clara.. 

.3,650 

Petaluma ... 

..3,871 

Santa Cruz... 

.5,659 

Placerville .. 

..1,748 

Santa Monica. 

.3,057 

Pleasanton .. 

..1,100 

Santa Rosa... 

.6,673 

Pomona . 

..5,526 

Sausalito .... 

.1,628 

Red Bluff.... 

..2,750 

Selma . 

.1,083 

Redding .... 

..2,946 

Sonora . 

.1,922 

Redlands ... 

..4,797 

So. Pasadena. .1,001 

Redwood .... 

..1,653 

Stockton . 

17,506 

Riverside ... 

..7,973 

Tulare . 

.2,216 

Rocklin . 

..1,050 

Ukiah . 

.1,850 

Sacramento . 

.29,282 

Vacaville .... 

.1,220 

St. Helena... 

..1,582 

Vallejo . 

.7,965 

Salinas. 

..3,304 

Ventura . 

.2,470 

San Bern’dino 6,150 

Visalia . 

.3,085 

San Diego... 

.17,700 

Watsonville . 

.3,528 

San F’ncisco 

342,782 

Whittier . 

.1,590 

San Jose. 

.21,500 

Woodland .... 

.2,886 

San Leandro 

..2,253 

Yreka . 

.1,254 


Caltanissetta, city, Italy, p. 38,719. 

Cambodia, Fr. possess., Indo-China, □ 40,- 
530, p. 1,500,000, * Pnom-Penh, p. 50,000. 
Cambridge, Mass., p. 91,886.—Co. Eng., □ 487, 
p. 120.634. 

Camden, N. J., p. 75,935. 

Campeche, state, Mexico, □ 18,087, p. 87,264, 
Canada, Dominion of, British No. Am., □ 
3,653,946, p. 5,370,000, * Ottawa. 

Canary Islands, W. of Morocco, □ 2,808, p. 
334,521. 

Cane'a, * Crete, p. 21,025. 

Canterbury, town, Eng. p. 24,868. 

Canton, Ohio, p. 30,667.—city, China, on Pearl 
R., p. (est.) 2,500,000. 

Cape of Good Hope (Cape Colony), So. Africa, 
British (comprises Colony proper E. & W. 
Griqualand, Tembuland, Transkei, Wal- 
fish Bay and Pondoland), □ 221,311, p. 
1,527,224, * Cape Town, p. 51,251 (with sub¬ 
urbs, p. 83,718). 

Cape Verde Islands, Atlantic Ocean, belong to 
Portugal, □ 1,4S0, p. 114,130. 

Cara'cas, * Venezuela, p. 72,429. 

Car'diff, city, Wales, p. 164,420. 

Cardigan, co., Wales, □ 692, p. 61,076. 
Carinthia, prov., Austria, □ 4,005, p. 367,344. 
Carmarthen, co., Wales, □ 918, p. 135,326. 
Carnarvon, co., Wales, □ 563, p. 125,669. 
Carniola, prov., Austria, □ 3,856, p. 508,340. 
Caroline Islands, group in N. Pacific, belong 
to Germany, □ 560. 

Carthagena, city. Spain, p. 86,245. 

Caserta, city, Italy, p. 35,060. 

Castellon, city, Spain, p. 31,272. 

Catania, city, Italy, p. 134,680. 

Catanzaro, city, Italy, p. 36,251. 

Caucasia, So. prov., Russia, □ 180,843, p. 
9,248,695. 

Cawnpur', city, India, p. 197,000. 

Ceara', city, Brazil, p. 40,902. 

Cebu, isl., Philippines, □ 2,400. 

Cedar Rapids, Iowa, p. 25,656. 

Celebes, isl., Dutch E. Indies, □ 71,470, p. 
1,997,860. 

Central Africa Protectorate, British, □ 42,- 
217, p. 900,560, * Blantyre, p. 6,100. 

Central India States, British India, □ 78,571, 

p. 8,501,8S3. 

Central Provinces, British India, □ 86,501, 
p. 9,845,318.—States, British India, □ 29,- 
375, p. 1,983,496. 

Cette, city, France, p. 32,729. 

Ceylon', isl., S. of India, British colony, □ 
25,333, p. 3,477,094, * Colombo. 

Charleston, S. C., p. 55,807. 

Charlottenburg, city, Prussia, p. 189,290. 
Chattanooga, Tenn., p. 30,154. 

Chehkiang, prov., China, □ 34,700, p. 11,589,- 
000 . 

Chelsea, Mass., p. 34,072. 

Chemnitz, city, Saxony, p. 206,584. 


Cherbourg, city, France, p. 40,783. 

Chester, Pa., p. 33,988.—co. Eng., □ 1,009, p. 

601,070.—Its * p. 36,281. 

Chia'pas, state, Mexico, n 27,222, p. 318,730. 
Chicago, Ill., p. 1,698,575. 

Chifu, city, China, on Gulf of Chili, p. 35,000. 
Chihuahua, state, Mexico, □ 87,802, p. 260,- 
008. 

Chile, republic, So. Am., □ 290,829, p. 3,110,- 
085, * Santiago. 

Chili (or Pe-chi-li), prov., China, □ 57,800, 
p. 17,937,000. 

Chilian', city, Chile, p. 35,052. 

China (Proper), division of Chinese Empire, 
_ □ 1,353,350, p. 383,000,000, * Peking. 
Chinese Empire, E. Asia, comprising China 
Proper, and the Dependencies of Manchu¬ 
ria, Mongolia, Tibet, Jungaria and East 
Turkestan, □ 4,234,910, p. 399,680,000, 

* Peking. 

Chinkiang, city, China, on Yangste R., p. 

140,000. 

Christiania, * Norway, p. 225,686. 

Christmas Island, 200 mi. S. W. of Java, 
British. 

Cienfue'gos, city, Cuba, p. 30,038. 

Cincinnati, Ohio, p. 325,902. 

Clermont-Ferrand', city, France, p. 50,870. 
Cleveland, Ohio, p. 381,768. 

Clichy', city, France, p. 33,895. 

Coahui'la, state, Mexico, □ 63,569, p. 237,815. 
Coast Land, prov., Austria, □ 3,0S4, p. 755.- 
183. 

Coatbridge, town, Scotland, p. 160,871. 
Cochin-China, Fr. posses. S. of Anam, Indo- 
China, □ 23,160, p. 2,323,499, * Saigon. 
Coimbatore', city, India, p. 52,931. 

Coli'ma, state, Mexico, □ 2,272, p. 55,264. 
Cologne, city, Prussia, p. 372,229. 

Colombia, republic, So. Am., □ 505,000, p. 

3,878,000, * Bogota. 

Colombo, * Ceylon, p. 127,838. 

Colorado, W. state, □ 103,925, p. 539,700. 

* Denver. 

Incorporated cities and towns of 1,000 pop. 
or more in 1900: 


Alamosa, ... 

..1,141 

Grand Junct’n 

3,503 

Anaconda ... 

. .1,059 

Greeley . 


Aspen . 


Gunnison .... 

.1.200 

Black Hawk. 

..1,200 

Idaho Springs.2,502 

Boulder . 

..6,150 

La Junta. 

.2,513 

Buena Vista. 

..1,006 

Las Animas.. 

.1,192 

Canyon City. 

..3,776 

Leadville .... 

12,455 

Central City. 

..3,114 

Longmont ... 

.2,201 

Colorado City.2,914 

Loveland .... 

.1,091 

Colorado Sp’s 

21,085 

Manitou . 

.1,303 

Cripple Cr’k. 

.10,147 

Montrose .... 

.1,217 

Denver . 

133,859 

Ouray . 

.2,196 

Durango .... 

. .3,317 

Pueblo . 

28,157 

Elyria . 

..1,384 

Rocky Ford.. 

.2,018 

Florence .... 

..3,728 

Salida . 

.3,722 

Fprt Collins. 

..3,053 

Silverton .... 

.1,360 

Georgetown . 

..1,418 

Telluride .... 

.2,446 

Glenw’d Sp’gs. 1,350 

Trinidad . 

.5,345 

Globeville ... 

..2,192 

Victor . 

.4,986 

Golden City. 

..2,152 

Walsenburg . 

.1,033 

Goldfield .... 

..2,191 




Columbus, * Ohio, p. 125,560. 

Combaco'num, city, India, p. 59,688. 

Como, city. Italy, p. 36,426. 

Com'oro Islands, bet. Madagascar and Africa, 
belong to France, □ 620, p. 47,000. 
Concep'cion, city, Chile, p. 55,458. 

Congo Free State, W. Africa, □ 900,000, p. 

30,000,000 (about 2,000 whites), * Boma. 
Connaught, prov. Ireland (inc. Galway, Lei¬ 
trim, Mayo, Roscommon and Sligo coun¬ 
ties), □ 6,867, p. 649,635. 

Connecticut, No. Atlantic state, □ 4,949, p. 
90S,420, * Hartford. 

Incorporated cities and towns of 1,000 pop. 
or more in 1900: 


Ansonia ... 

..12,681 

Danielson .. 

..2,823 

Bethel .... 

...2,561 

Derby . 

7 920 

Branford . 

...2,473 

Greenwich . 

. .2',420 

Bridgeport 

..70,996 

Guilford .... 

. .1,512 

Bristol . 

...6,268 

Hartford .... 

.79.S50 

Danbury .. 

..16,537 

Jewett City.. 

..2,224 

































































Gazetteer o_f the 'World. 


733 


Connecticut.—Continued. 


Litchfield .1,120 

Meriden .24,296 

Middletown ...9.589 
Naugatuck . .10,541 
New Britain. .25,998 
New Canaan. .1,304 
New Haven..108,027 
New London.IT,548 

Norwalk .6,125 

Norwich .17,251 

Putnam .6,667 

Rockville .7,287 


Shelton .2,837 

Southington . .3,411 
So. Norwalk.. .6,591 
Stafford Sp’gs.2,460 
Stamford ....15,997 
Stonington .. ..2,278 
Torrington ...8,360 
Wallingford ..6,737 
Waterbury ...45,859 
West Haven.. .5,247 
Willimantic ...8,937 
Winsted .6,804 


Constantine, city, Algeria, p. 51,997. 

Constantinople, * Turkey, p. 1,125,000. 

Coorg, prov. British India, □ 1,583, p. 180,461. 

Copenhagen, * Denmark, p. 375,251. 

Cor'doba (or Cordova), city, Spain, p. 57,313. 
— city, Argentine Republic, p. 47,609. 

Cork, city, Ireland, p. 75,978. 

Cornwall, eo., Eng., □ 1,357, p. 322,960. 

Coruna, city, Spain, p. 40.501. 

Costa Rica, republic of Cen. Am., □ 23,000, 
p. 310,000, * San Jose. 

Council Bluffs, Iowa, p. 25,802. 

Courtrai, city, Belgium, p. 35,510. 

Coventry, city, England, p. 69,877. 

Covington, Ky., p. 42,938. 

Cracow, city, Austria, p. 91,310. 

Cremona, city, Italy, p. 38,785. 

Crete (or Candia), isl. Mediterranean, under 
Turkish suzerainty, □ 3,326, p. 301,273. 
* Canea, p. 21,025. 

Croatia and Slavonia, prov., Hungary, □ 
16,733, p. 2,186,410. * Agram. 

Cronstadt, city. Russia, p. 59.539. 

Croydon, city, England, p. 138.S85. 

Cuba, largest of West Indian Isis., S. E. of 
Florida, □ 45,872, p. 1,572,797, * Havana. 

Cities of more than 5,000 pop. in 1899: 


Caibarien .... 7,013 
Camajuani ... 5.082 

Cardenas -21,940 

Cienfuegos ...30,038 

Colon . 7,175 

Gibara . 6,841 

Guanabaeoa ..13,965 

Guanajay -6,483 

Guantanamo . 7,137 

Guines . 8,149 

Havana .235.981 

Holguin . 6.045 

Manzanillo_14.464 

Marianao .... 5,416 
Matanzas ....36,374 
Melena . 5,016 


Pinar del Rio_8,880 

Placitas . 5,409 

Puerto Principe 25,102 

Regia .11,363 

Remedios .6,633 

Sagua la Grande 

.12,728 

San Antonio de 

los Banos.8,178 

Sancti Spiritus.12.696 

San Luis. 5,059 

Santa Clara... .13,763 

Santiago .43,090 

Santiago de las 

Vegas . 7,151 

Trinidad .11,120 


Cuddalore', city, India, p. 51,880. 

Cuen'ca, city, Ecuador, p. 25,000. 

Cumberland, co., Eng., □ 1,516, p. 266,960. 
Cune'o, city, Italy, p. 28,793. 

Curacao (Ku-ra-so'), Dutch colony off No. 
coast of Venezuela, inc. five islands and 
part of St. Martin, □ 403, p. 51,524. 
Cyprus, isl. Mediterranean (British), □ 3,- 
584, p. 209,286, * Nicosia, p. 12,515. 
Czechuen, prov., China, □ 160,800, p. 67,713,- 
000 . 

Czernowitz, city, Austria, p. 69,619. 


13 

Dacca, city, India, p. 90,679. 

Dahomev, kingdom on W. coast of Africa, 
Fr. posses., □ 60,000, p. 1,000,000, * Porto 
Novo, p. 50,000. 

Dallas, Texas, p. 42,638. 

Dalmatia, prov., Austria, □ 4,940, p. 591,597. 
Damascus, city, Syria, p. 140,500. 

Damiet'ta, city, n.gypt, p. 31,515. 

Danzig, city. Prussia, p. 140,o39. 

Darbhangah', city, India, p. 65,990. 
Darmstadt, * Hesse, Germany, p. 63,745. 
Davenport, Iowa, p. 35,254. 

Dayton, Ohio, p. 85,333. 

Debreczen (da-bret'sin), city, Hungary, p. 

Delaware, So. Atlantic state, □ 2,050, p. 184,- 
735, * Dover. 


Incorporated cities and towns of 1,000 pop. 

or more in 1900: 

Delaware City 1,132 

Dover . 3,329 

Georgetown . 1,658 
Harrington .. 1,242 

Laurel .1,825 

Lewes . 2,259 

Middletown .. 1,567 
Delhi, city. India, p. 208,385. 

Denmark, kingdom of Europe, Q 15,289, p. 

2,447,441, * Copenhagen. 

Denbigh, co., Wales. □ 663, p. 131,588. 
Denver, * Colo., p. 133,859. 

Derby, co., Eng., □ 1,022, p. 504,755.—Its * 

p. 105,785. 

Des Moines, * Iowa, p. 62,139. 

Des'sau, * Anhalt, Germany, p. 42,375. 
Detroit, Mich., p. 2S5.704. 

Dev'on, co., Eng., □ 2,597, p. 437,210. 
Devonport, towm, Eng., p. 69,674. 

Diar'bekr, city. Kurdistan, p. 34,000. 

Dijon', city, France, p. 67,736. 

District of Columbia, federal ter. U. S., □ 
70, p. 278,718; Washington, * U. S. A., is 
co-extensive with the District. 

Dorset, co., Eng., □ 988, p. 202,092. 
Dortmund, city, Prussia, p. 142,418. 

Douai (doo-a'), city, France, p. 31,397. 
Dresden, city, Saxony, p. 395,349. 

Dublin, * Ireland, p. 289 108. 

Dubuque, Iowa. p. 36,297. 

Dudley, town, Eng., p. 48,809. 

Du'isburg, city, Prussia, p. 70,272. 

Duluth, Minn., p. 52,969. 

Dunaburg (Dvinsk), city, Russia, p. 72,231. 
Dundee, city, Scotland, p. 160,871. 
Dunfermline (dun-fer'lin), town, Scotland, p. 
25,250. 

Dunkerque', city, France, p. 39,718. 

Durango, state. Mexico, □ 38,009, p. 292,549. 
— Its * p. 31,092. 

Durban', city, Natal, So. Africa, p. 39,245. 
Durham, co., Eng.. □ 999, p. 833,614. 
Dusseldorf, city, Prussia, p. 213,767. 

Dutch East Indies, belong to Netherlands, 
comprise parts of Sumatra, Java, Madura, 
Riau-Lingga Arch., Banca, Billiton, Bor¬ 
neo, Celebes, Moluccas, Timor, Bali, Lom¬ 
bok. New Guinea, etc., □ 736,400, p. 
34.000,000, * Batavia (Java), p. 115,567. 
Dutch Guiana, So. Am., □ 46,060, p. 66,490, 
* Paramaribo, p. 31,200. 

tc 

East Africa, British (inc. E. Africa Protec¬ 
torate and Uganda Protectorate), □ 1,000,- 
000 (est.). 

Easton, Pa., p. 25.238. 

East St. Louis, Ill., p. 29,655. 

East Turkestan, dep. Chinese Empire, □ 

431,800, p. 580,000. 

Ecuador, republic of So. Am., □ 120,000, p. 

1,270,000, * Quito. 

Edinburgh, * Scotland, p. 316,479. 

Egypt, prov. under Turkish suzerainty. □ 
400,000 (excluding Sudan), p. 9,734,405, * 
Cairo. 

Egyptian Sudan, part of Sudan, So. of 22° N. 
lat., ruled jointly by Egypt and Great 
Britain, □ 950,000, p. 10,000,1)00, * Khar¬ 
tum. 

Elberfeld, city. Prussia, p. 156,937. 

Elizabeth, N. J., p. 52,130. 

Elizabethgrad, citv. Russia, p. 61,841. 

Elmira, N. Y., p. 35,672. 

Erie, Pa., p. 52,733. 

Ely, Isle of, Cambridge co., Eng., □ 374, p. 
64,499. 

England and Wales, □ 58,309. p. 32,526,075. 
Erfurt, city, Prussia, p. 78,174. 

Eritrea, Africa, Italian colony on Red Sea, 
□ 88,500 p. 450,000, * Asmara. 

Erzerum, city. Armenia, p. 38,900. 

Essen, city, Prussia, p 118,863. 

Essex, co., Eng., □ 1,533, p. 816,503. 

Ethiopia, ancient name of Abyssinia. 


Milford . 2,500 

Newark . 1,213 

Newcastle .3,380 

Seaford . 1,724 

Smyrna . 2,168 


Wilmington .. .76,508 



































734 


Gazetteer of the XOorld 


Europe, continent, □ 3,797,410, p. 380,000,000. 
Evansville, Ind., p. 59,007. 

Exeter, town, Eng., p. 46,940. 

F" 


Geneva, city, Switzerland, p. 104,044. 
Georgetown, * British Guiana, p. 53,176. 
Georgia, So. Atlantic state, □ 59,475, p. 2,- 
216,331, * Atlanta. 

Incorporated cities and towns of 1,000 or 
more in 1900: 


Faiza'bad, city, India, p. 74,076. 

Falkirk, town, Scotland, p. 29,271. 

Falkland Islands, British Crown Colony, So. 
Atlantic, □ 7,500, p. 1,759, * Stanley, p. 
789. 

Fall River, Mass., p. 104,863. 

Farukhabad', city, India, p. 62,878. 

Fayoum', city, Egypt, p. 33,069. 

Federal District, Mexico, □ 463, p. 468,705. 
Ferrara, city, Italy, p. 91,259. 

Ferrol, city, Spain, p. 35,975. 

Fez, * Morocco, p. 140,000. 

Fezzan (ancient Phazania), prov. in So. part 
of Tripoli, in desert region. 

Fiji Islands, So. Pacific (about 200 islands), 
British, □ 8,045, p. 122,673, * Suva. 
Finland, grand-duchy, Russia, □ 144,255, p. 
2,483,249. 

Fitchburg, Mass., p. 31,531. 

Fium'e, town and prov., Hungary, □ 8 , p. 

30,000. 

Flint, co., Wales, □ 256, p. 81,490. 

Florence, city, Italy, p. 216,051. 

Florida, So. Atlantic state, □ 58,680, p. 528,- 
542, * Tallahassee. 

Incorporated cities and towns of 1,000 pop. 
or more in 1900: 


Apalachicola . 3,077 

Bartow .1,983 

Daytona .1,690 

De Land.1,449 

Fernandina .. 3,245 
Fort Brook... 1,135 
Gainesville .. 3,633 
High Springs 1,562 
Jacksonville .28,429 
Key West....17,114 
Kissimmee .. 1,132 
Lake City.... 4,013 
Lakeland .... 1,108 
Live Oak. 

Foggia (fod'ja), 


1,659 

city. 


Forli', city, Italy, p 


Miami . 1,681 

Milton . 1,204 

Monticello .1,076 

Ocala . 3,380 

Orlando . 2,481 

Palatka . 3,301 

Pensacola .17,747 

Port Tampa Cy. 1,367 
St. Augustine.. 4,272 
St. Petersburg.. 1,575 

Sanford . 1,450 

Tallahassee ... 2,981 

Tampa .....15,839 

West Tampa.... 2,355 
Italy, p. 50,374. 

-, 47,082. 

Formosa, isl. in China Sea, belongs to Japan, 
□ 13,458, p. 2,745,138. 

Fort Wayne, Ind., p. 45,115. 

Fort Worth, Texas, p. 26.6S8. 

France, republic of W. Europe, □ 204,092, p. 
38.641,333, * Paris. 

Frankfort-on-Main, city, Prussia, p. 288,489. 
Frankfort-on-Oder, city, Prussia, p. 59,161. 
Franklin, ter. Canada (isls. N. Canada). 
Freetown, * Sierra Leone, p. 30,033. 

Freiburg, city, Baden, Germany, p. 53,118. 

— city, Saxony, p. 29,987. 

French Congo, Fr. posses, on W. coast of 
Africa, □ 450,000, p. 8,000,000. 

French Guiana, colony. So. Am., □ 46,850, p. 

30,300, * Cayenne, p. 12,300. 

French Guinea, on African coast, □ 95,000, 
p. 2,200,000, * Konakry. 

French Somali Coast, E. Africa, □ 45,000, p. 
22,000, * Jibuti. 

Fu'chau, city, China, on Min R., p. 650,000. 
Fu'kien, prov., China, □ 41,300, p. 22,191,000. 
Fuku'i, city, Japan, p. 44,286. 

Fukuo'ka, city, Japan, p. 66.190. 

Fula Empire, included in Nigeria, W. Africa. 
Furth, city, Bavaria, Germany, p. 46,777. 


o 

Ga'latz, city, Rumania, p. 62,678. 

Galicia, prov., Austria, □ 30,307, p. 7,295,538. 
Galle (gawl), city, Ceylon, p. 33,596. 
GaPveston, Tex., p. 37,789. 

Gambia, British W. Africa, crown colony, □ 
69, p. 15,000, *Bathurst, p. 6,000. 
Gateshead, city. Eng., p. 109,887. 

Gaya', city, India, p. 71,186. 

Gefle (yev'la), city, Sweden, p. 28,308. 

Gen'oa (It. Geno'va), city, Italy, p. 237,486. 


Abbeyville ... 1,152 


Albany . 4,606 

Americus .... 7,674 

Ashburn .1,301 

Athens .10,245 

Atlanta .89,872 

Augusta .39,441 

Bainbridge .. 2,641 
Barnesville .. 3,033 
Blue Ridge.... 1,148 
Brunswick ... 9,081 
Buena Vista.. 1,161 

Buford .1,352 

Camilla .1,051 

Carrollton ... 1,998 
Cartersville .. 3,135 
Cedartown ... 2,823 

Cochran __ 1,531 

Columbus _17,614 

Conyers .1,605 

Cordele . 3,473 

Covington ... 2,062 

Cuthbert .2,641 

Dahlonega ... 1,255 

Dalton .4,315 

Darien .1,739 

Dawson . 2,926 

Decatur . 1,418 

Douglasville . 1,140 

Dublin . 2,987 

Eastman .1,235 

East Point_1,315 

Eatonton .1,823 

Edgewood .... 1,285 

Elberton .3,834 

Fitzgerald ... 1,817 

Forsyth .1,172 

Fort Gaines... 1,305 
Fort Valley... 2.022 
Gainesville ... 4,382 
Greensboro .. 1,511 

Griffin . 6,857 

Harmony 

Grove .1,454 

Hartwell .1,672 


Hawkinsville... 

.2,103 

Jackson . 

. 1,487 

La Grange. 

. 4,274 

Lithonia . 

. 1,208 

Louisville . 

. 1,009 

Lumpkin. 

. 1.470 

McRae . 

. 1,020 

Macon .. 

.23,272 

Madison .. 

. 1,992 

Marietta . 

. 4,446 

Milledgeville .. 

. 4,219 

Monroe . 

. 1,846 

Monticello . 

. 1,106 

Moultrie . 

, 2,221 

Newnan . 

, 3,654 

Quitman . 

2,281 

Richland . 

1,014 

Rome . 

7,291 

Roswell . 

1.329 

Sandersville ... 

2,023 

Savannah . 

54,244 

Seville . 

1,277 

Social Circle.... 

1.229 

Sparta . 

1,150 

Statesboro . 

1,197 

Summerville 


Richmond co. 

3,245 

Talbottom . 

1,131 

Tallapoosa . 

2,128 

Tennille . 

1,121 

Thomaston .... 

1,714 

Thomasville ... 

5,322 

Thomson . 

1,154 

Tifton . 

1,384 

Toccoa . 

2,176 

Trion . 

1,926 

Valdosta . 

5.613 

Vienna . 

1,035 

Warrenton . 

1,113 

Washington .... 

3,300 

Waycross . 

5,919 

Waynesboro ... 

2,030 

West Point. 

1,797 

Winder . 

1,145 

Wrightsville ... 

1,127 


Gera, Reuss, Jiingere Linie, Germany, p. 
43,544. 

Gergenti, city, Italy, p. 25,441. 

German East Africa, German dep., n 384,180. 

p. 8,000,000, * Bagamoyo, p. 13,000 
German Empire, Europe, □ 208,830, p. 56,- 
345,014, * Berlin. 

German South-West Africa, German dep 1 1 
322,450, p. 200.000, * Great Windhoek ’ 
Ghent, city, Belgium, p. 163,030. 

Gibraltar, British crown colony on Mediter¬ 
ranean, □ 1.9, p. 24,701. 

Gijon (he-hone'), city, Spain, p. 4.3.392. 
Glamorgan, co., Wales, □ 790, p. 601,092. 
Glasgow, city, Scotland, p. 760,423 
Gloucester, Mass., p. 26,121. — co. Eng. n 
1,236, p. 331,516. - its * p. 47,943. ’ 

Goa, Portuguese ter. in India, n 1,390, p. 
494,836, * Panjin. 

Gold Coast, British W. Africa, crown colony 
□ 40,000, p. (est.) 1,473,882, * Accra, p! 
16,267. 


Gorakhpur', city, India, p. 63,059. 

Gorlitz, city, Prussia, p. 70,175. 

Go'teborg, city, Sweden, p. 126,849. 

Gotha (go'ta), * Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, Ger¬ 
many, p. 31,671. 

Gov'an, city, Scotland, p. 76,351. 

Granada, city, Spain, p. 75,054. 

Grand Rapids, Mich., p. 87,565. 

Gratz, city, Austria, p. 138,370. 

Great Britain and Ireland, see United King¬ 
dom. 


Greece, kingdom of Europe, n 25,014 p. 
2.433,806, * Athens. 

Greenland, isl., N. E. of No. Am., belongs to 
Denmark, □ 46,740, p. 10,516. 









































































Gazetteer of the XOorld. 


735 


Greenock, city, Scotland, p. 67,645. 

Greiz, * Reuss, Aeltere Lime, Germany, p. 

22,296. 

Greno ble, city, France, p. 64,002. 

Grimsby, town, Eng., p. 63,138. 

Groningen, city, Holland, p. 66,739. 
Guadalajara (—ha'ra), city, Mexico, p. 101,- 
413. 

Guadeloupe, isl.. Lesser Antilles, belongs to 
France, □ 583, p. (with dependencies) 
167,000. 

Guam, isl., largest of Ladrones (U. S.), □ 
200, p. 9,000. * Agana, p. 6,000. 

Guanajuato (—bwa'to), state, Mexico, □ 11,- 
370, p. 1,047,817. — its * p. 39,404. 
Guatemala, republic, Cen. Am., □ 48,290, p. 

1,574,340, * Guatemala la Nueva, p. 72,102. 
Guayaquil (gwi-a-keel'), city, Ecuador, p. 
50,000 

Guerre'ro, state, Mexico, □ 24,996, p. 417,886. 


H 

Haarlem, city, Holland, p. 64,836. 
Haidara'bad, state, India, □ 82,698, p. 11,174,- 
897, — its * p. 446,291. 

Haiti, republic, W. part of Isl. of Haiti, □ 
10,204, p. 1,210,625, * Port-au-Prince. 
Hakoda'te, city, Japan, p. 78,040. 

Halifax, * prov. Nova Scotia. Canada, p. 

40,787. — city, Eng., p. 104,933. 
Halle-on-Saale, city, Prussia, p. 156,611. 
Hamburg, Ger. state and free city, □ 158, p. 
768,349. 

Hamilton, city, Canada, p. 52,550. —"town, 
Scotland, p. 32,775. 

Hankow, city, China, on Yangtse R., p. (est.) 
800,000. 

Hanley, town, Eng., p. 61,524. 

Hanover, city, Prussia, p. 235,666. — prov. 

Prussia, p. 2,590,336. 

Harrisburg, * Pa., p. 50,167. 

Hartford, * Conn., p. 79,850. 

Hastings, town, Eng., p. 65,528. 

Havana, * Cuba, p. 235,981. 

Haverhill, Mass., p. 37,175. 

Havre (ha'ver) (or Le Havre) (le-av'r), city, 
France, p. 129,000. 

Hawaii, group of isles, Pacific Ocean, ter. of 
U. S., □ 6,449, p. 154,001, * Honolulu, p. 
39,306. 

Area and population of the inhabited islands: 

Area. Pop. 

Hawaii .4,210 46.843 

Kauai and Niihau. 687 20,734 

Lanai and Maui. 910 25,416 

Molokai . 270 2,504 

Oahu . 600 58,504 

Kahoolawe . 63 . 

Hedjaz, Turkish prov. Arabia, □ 96,500, p. 

300,000. 

Heidelberg, city, Baden, Germany, p. 35.190. 
Heilbronn', city, Wurtemberg, Germany, p. 

33.461. 

Helsingfors, city, Finland, p. 77,484. 

Herat', city, Afghanistan, p. 40.000. 

Hereford, co., England. Q 840. p. 114,150. 
Hertford, co., Eng., G636, p. 258,045. 
Herzegovi'na. see Bosnia. 

Hesse, Ger. Grand-duchy, □ 2,96o, p. 1,120,- 
426, * Darmstadt. 

Hidal'go, state, Mex., □ 8,917, p. 551,817. 
Hindustan', Persian name of India, see India. 
Hiroshi'ma, city, Japan, p. 122,306. 

Hobart, * Tasmania, p. 24,905. 

Ho'boken, N. J., p. 59.364. 

Hodmeso-Vazarhely (hod-mey-zo-va-sar-hail ), 

citv, Hungary, p. 60,789. 

Hof, city, Bavaria, Germany, p. 27,o56. 
Holland, kingdom, see Netherlands. 

Hol'voke. Mass., p. 45,712. 

Hona^' Prov.. China, □ 61,300, P- 22 116 000 
Hondur'as, republic, Cen. Am., □ 46,2o0, p. 

407,000. * Tegucigalpa. . _ ... . 

Hongkong', isl., S. E. coast of China. British 
crown colony, □ 29, p„ 254,400, * Victoria. 
Honolulu, * Hawaii, p. 39,306. 

Houston, Tex., p. 44.633. 


Howrah, city, India, p. 157,847. 

Hubli, city, India, p. 58,149. 

Huddersfield, city, Eng., p. 95,008. 

Hu'nan, prov., China, □ 74,400, p. 21,003,000. 
Hungary, kingdom, part of Austria-Hungary, 
□ 125,039, p. 19,203,531, * Budapest. 
Huntingdon, co., Eng., □ 366, p. 54,127. 
Hu'peh, prov., China, □ 65,900, p. 32,245,000. 

I 

Iceland, isl., E. of Greenland, belongs to Den¬ 
mark, □ 39,756, p. 70,927. 

Ichang', city, China, on Yangste R., p. 35,000. 
Idaho, W. state, □ 84,800, p. 161,772. * Boise. 
Incorporated cities and towns of 1,000 pop. 
or more in 1900: 


Boise . 

..5,957 

Moscow . 

..2,4S4 

Grangeville . 

..1,132 

Pocatello ... 

..4,046 

Idaho Falls.. 

..1.262 

Rexburg .... 

..1,081 

Lewiston _ 

..2,425 

Wallace . 

..2,265 

Malade . 

Montpelier .. 

..1,050 

..1,444 

Weiser . 

..1,364 

Illinois, No. central state 
550, * Springfield. 

, □ 56,650, p. 

4,821,- 

Incorporated cities and towns of ljOOO pop. 
or more in 1900: 

Abingdon ... 

..2,022 

Coal City.... 

..2,607 

Albion . 

..1,162 

Cobden . 

..1,034 

Aledo . 

..2,081 

Colchester .. 

..1,635 

Altamont .... 

..1,335 

Colfax . 

..1,153 

Alton . 

.14,210 

Collinsville . 

..4,021 

Amboy . 

..1,826 

Columbia ... 

. .1,197 

Anna . 

..2,618 

Crotty . 

..1,036 

Areola . 

.1 995 

Cuba . 

. .1,198 

Arlingt’n H’ts 1,380 

Danville .... 

.16,354 

Ashland .. 

..1,201 

Decatur . 

.20,754 

Assumption . 

..1,702 

Dekalb . 

..5,904 

Astoria .. 

.1,684 

Delavan . 

..1.304 

Athens . 

.1,535 

Des Plaines. 

..1,666 

Atlanta . 

. .1,270 

Dixon . 

..7,917 

Auburn . 

. .1,281 

Dolton . 

..1,229 

Augusta . 

.1,149 

Downer’s G’ve 2,103 

Aurora . 

,24,147 

Duquoin .... 

..4,353 

Averyville ... 

.1.573 

Dwight . 


Barrington .. 

.1,162 

Earlville .... 

..1,122 

Barry . 

.1,643 

E. Dubuque, C 1,146 
E. Dubuque, V 1.417 

Batavia . 

. .3,871 

Beardstown . 

.4,827 

E. St. Louis. 

.29,655 

Belleville 

17,484 

Edinburg ... 

. .1,071 

Belvidere .... 

.6,937 

Edwardsville 

.4.157 

Bement . 


Effingham .. 

-.3,774 

Benton . 

.1,341 

Eldorado .... 

..1,445 

Bloomington.. 

.23,286 

Elgin . 

.22,433 

Blue Island.. 

..6.114 

Elmhurst ... 

..1.72S 

Braceville ... 

..1,669 

Elmwood ... 


Bradley . 

.1,518 

El Paso. 

. .1,441 

Braidwood ... 

.3,279 

Eureka . 

. .1,661 

Breese . 

.1,571 

Evanston ... 

.19,259 

Brooklyn . 

.1,019 

Fairbury .... 

.2.187 

Bunker Hill.. 

.1,279 

Fairfield .... 

..2,338 

Busbnell . 

.2,490 

Farmer City. 

..1,664 

Byron . 

.1.015 

Farmington . 

..1.729 

Cairo . 

12,566 

Flora . 

..2,311 

Cambridge ... 

.1,345 

Forreston ... 

..1,047 

Camp Point.. 

..1,260 

Fort Sheridan 1,575 

Canton . 

.6,564 

Freeburg .... 

..1,214 

Carbondale .. 

.3,318 

Freeport .... 

.13,258 

Carbon Hill.. 

.1,256 

Fulton . 

..2,685 

Carlinville .. 

..3,502 

Galena . 

..5,005 

Carlyle . 

.1,874 

Galesburg ... 

.18,607 

Carmi . 

.2,939 

Galva . 

..2,682 

Carpent’sville 

. 1,002 

Gardner .... 

..1,036 

Carrollton ... 

.2,355 

Geneseo . 


Carterville ... 

.1,749 

Geneva . 

..2,246 

Carthage . 

.2,104 

Genoa . 

..1.140 

Casey . 

.1,500 

Germantown 

. 1.7S2 

Centralia . 

.6,721 

Gibson . 

..2,054 

Cerro Gordo.. 

..1,008 

Gilman . 

..1.441 

Champaign .. 

.9,098 

Girard . 

..1.661 

Charleston .. 

..5,488 

Glencoe . 

..1.020 

Chatsworth .. 

.1,038 

Golconda ... 

..1.140 

Chenoa . 

.1,512 

Granite . 


Chester . 

.2.832 

Grayville ... 

..1.948 

Chicago ... 1.698,575 

Greenfield .. 

...1.085 

Chicago H’g’ts 5,100 

Greenup .... 

..1.085 

Chillicothe .. 

..1,099 

Greenview . 

..1.019 

Clinton . 

.4,452 

Greenville .. 

..2,504 


























































































736 


Gazetteer o_f the XOorld. 


Illinois.—Continued. 

Griggsville ...1,404 

Grossdale _1,111 

Hamilton ....1,344 

Harlem .4,085 

Harrisburg . .2,202 

Harvard .2,602 

Harvey .5,395 

Havana .3,268 

Henry .1,637 

Herrin .1,559 

Highland .1,970 

Highland Pk. .2,806 

Hillsboro .1,937 

Hinsdale .2,578 

Homer .1,080 

Hoopeston ...3,823 
Jacksonville 15,078 
Jerseyville ...3,517 

Joliet .29,353 

Jonesboro _1,130 

Kangley .1,004 

Kankakee ...13,595 

Kansas .1,049 

Keithsburg ...1,566 

Kewanee .8,382 

Kinmundy ...1,221 
Kirkwood ....1,008 
Knoxville ....1,857 

Lacon .1,601 

Ladd .1,324 

Lagrange .3,969 

La Harpe.1,591 

Lake Forest. .2,215 

Lanark .1,306 

Lasalle .10,446 

Lawrenceville 1,300 

Lebanon .1,812 

Lemont .2,449 

Lena .1,252 

Leroy .1,629 

Lewistown ...2,504 
Lexington ....1,415 

Lincoln .8,962 

Litchfield .5,918 

Lockport .2,659 

McHenry .1,013 

Me Leansboro.1,758 

Macomb .5,375 

Madison .1,979 

Marengo .2,005 

Marion .2,510 

Marissa .1,086 

Maroa .1,213 

Marseilles ....2,559 

Marshall .2,077 

Martinsville ..1,000 
Mascoutah ...2,171 
Mason City...1,890 

Mattoon .9,622 

Maywood .4,532 

Melrose Park.2,592 

Mendota .3,736 

Metropolis ...4,069 

Milford .1,077 

Millstadt .1,172 

Minonk .2,545 

Moline .17,248 

Momence .2,026 

Monmouth —7,460 

Monticello -1,982 

Morgan Park..2,329 

Morris .4,273 

Morrison .2,308 

Mound City...2,705 
Mt. Carmel.. .4,311 

Mt. Carroll_1,965 

Mt. Morris_1,048 

Mt. Olive.2,935 

Mt. Pulaski.. .1,643 
Mt. Sterling. .1,960 
Mt. Vernon.. .5,216 

Moweaqua -1,478 

Murphysboro 6,463 
Naperville ...2,629 

Nashville .2,184 

Nauvoo .1,321 

Neoga .1,126 

Newman .1,166 


Newton .1,630 

Nilwood .1,378 

Nokomis .1,371 

Normal .3,795 

North Chicago 1,150 
North Peoria.2,358 
North Utica..1,150 

Oakland .1,198 

Odell .1,000 

Odin .1,180 

O’Fallon .1,267 

Olney .4,260 

Onarga .1,270 

Oquawka .1,010 

Oregon .1,577 

Ottawa .10,558 

Palatine .1,020 

Pana .5,530 

Paris .6,105 

Park Ridge_1,340 

Paxton .3,036 

Pecatonica ...1,045 

Pekin .8,420 

Peoria .56,100 

Peotone .1,003 

Peru .6,863 

Petersburg ...2,807 
Pinckneyville 2,357 

Pittsfield .2,293 

Plano .1,634 

Polo .1,869 

Pontiac .4,266 

Princeton _4,023 

Prophetstown 1,143 

Quincy .36,252 

Rantoul .1,207 

Redbud .1,169 

Ridgely .1,169 

River Forest. .1,539 

Riverside .1,551 

Riverton .1,511 

Robinson .1,683 

Rochelle .2,073 

Rock Falls_2,176 

Rockford _31,051 

Rock Island. .19,493 
Roodhouse ...2,351 

Roseville .1,014 

Rossville .1,435 

Rushville _2,292 

St. Anne.1,000 

St. Charles.. .2,675 

St. Elmo.1,050 

Salem .1,642 

Sandoval .1,258 

Sandwich .2,520 

Savanna .3,325 

Shawneetown 1,698 

Sheffield .1,265 

Shelbyville ...3,546 

Sheldon .1,103 

Sorento .1,000 

Sparta .2,941 

Springfield . .34.159 
Spring Valley.6,214 

Staunton .2,786 

Sterling .6,309 

Streator .14,079 

Sullivan .2,399 

Sumner .1,268 

Sycamore .3,653 

Taylorville ...4,248 

Toluca .2,629 

Toulon .1,057 

Trenton .1,706 

Troy .1,080 

Tuscola .2,569 

Upper Alton..2,373 

Urbana .5.728 

Vandalia .2,665 

Venice .2,450 

Vermont .1,195 

Vienna .1,217 

Virden .2,280 

Virginia .1,600 

Warren .1,327 


Warsaw .2,335 

Washington ..1,459 


Illinois.—Continued. 

Waterloo .2,114 

Watseka .2,505 

Waukegan ....9,426 

Waverly .1,573 

Wenona .1,486 

West Chicago 1,877 
West Dundee 1,348 
W. Hammond 2,935 

Westville _1,605 

Wheaton .2,345 


Whitehall ....2,030 

Wilmette .2,300 

Wilmington ..1,420 
Winchester ...1,711 

Winnetka _1,833 

Winstanley 

Park .1,055 

Woodstock ...2,502 
Wyoming _1,277 


India, Asiatic empire, belongs to Great Brit¬ 
ain, □ 1,559,603, p. 291,628,307, * Calcutta. 
Indiana, No. central state, □ 36,350, p. 2,516,- 
462, * Indianapolis. 

Incorporated cities and towns of 1*000 pop. 
or more in 1900: 


Albany .2,116 

Albion .1,324 

Alexandria ...7,221 

Anderson _20,178 

Angola .2,141 

Arcadia .1,413 

Argos .1,307 

Ashley .1,040 

Atlanta .1,000 

Attica .3,005 

Auburn .3,396 

Aurora .3,645 

Batesville ....1,384 

Bedford .6,115 

Bern ..1,037 

Bloomfield ....1588 
Bloomington . 6J60 

Bluffton .4,479 

Boonville .... [2^849 

Bourbon . 1 187 

Brazil ..' 7 ; 7 86 

Bremen .1,671 

Brookville . ,.)2)o37 
Brownstown ..1,685 

Butler .2,063 

Cambridge 

City . i 7 g^ 

Cannelton ....'.2’, 188 
Carthage .1,028 

Sj2 e r° ..1.603 

Clarksville ....2,370 

C ay City.1,503 

Clinton .2 918 

r£! Um £ ia Ci iy-2N5 

Columbus .8,130 

Connersville ..6,836 
Converse .... 1 415 

Corydon .I’gio 

Covington .....‘2)213 
Crawfordsville 6,649 
Crown Point...2,336 

Danville .1,802 

.4,142 

Sf/P* 1 . 1 .2.135 

Dunkirk .3 ]gj 

East Chicago. .3.411 

E a t°" .1,567 

Edinburg .1.820 

Elkhart .15,13} 

Elwood .12,950 

Evansville ...59,007 

Fairmount _3,205 

Flora .1,209 

Fortville .1,006 

Fort Wayne. .45,115 

Fowler .1.429 

Frankfort _7.100 

Franklin .4,005 

Frankton .1.464 

Garrett .3,910 

Gas City.3,622 

Geneva .1,076 

Goodland .1,205 

Goshen .7,810 

Greencastle ...3,661 
Greenfield ....4,489 
Greensburg .. .5,034 
Greentown ....1,287 
Greenwood ...1,503 
Hammond ...12,376 

Hartford .5,912 

Hobart .1,390 


Hope .1,088 

Howell .1,421 

Huntingburg .2,527 
Huntington ...9,491 
Indianapolis 169,164 

Irvington .1,799 

Jasper .1,863 

Jeffersonville 10,774 

Jonesboro .1,838 

Kendallville ..3,354 

Kentland .1,006 

Knightstown ..1,942 
Knightsville ..1,171 

Knox .1,466 

Kokomo .10,609 

Ladoga .l,i 7 6 

Lafayette _18,116 

Lagrange .1,703 

Laporte .7,113 

Lawrenceburg 4,326 

Lebanon .4,465 

Liberty . 1,449 

Ligonier .2,231 

Linton .3,071 

Logansport ..16,204 

Loogootee .1,382 

Lowell . 1,275 

Madison .7,835 

Marion .17,337 

Martinsville ..4,038 
Michigan-City 14,850 
Middletown ...1,801 
Mishawaka ...5,560 

Mitchell .1,772 

Monon .i)i60 

Montezuma ...1,172 
Monticello ....2,107 

Montpelier _3,405 

Mt. Vernon_5,132 

Muncie .20,942 

Nappanee .2,208 

New Albany. .20,628 

Newburg .i, 3 7 i 

New Castle_3,406 

New Harmony 1,341 
Noblesville ...4 792 
North 

Manchester .2,398 
North Vernon 2,823 

Oakland . 1,991 

Orleans .1,236 

Osgood . 1,035 

Owensville ...1,019 

Paoli . 1,186 

Pendleton .1,512 

Peru .8,463 

Petersburg _1,751 

Plymouth '.....3,656 
Port Fulton. .- 1,101 

Portland .4,798 

Princeton .6,041 

Redkey .2,206 

Remington ...1,120 

Rensselaer _2,255 

Richmond ...18,226 

Ridgeville _1,098 

Rising Sun....1,548 


Rochester .3,421 

Rockport .2,882 

Rockville .2,045 

Rushville .4,541 

Salem .1,995 







































































































































































































Gazetteer o_f the XVorld 


737 


Indiana.—Continued. 


Scottsburg . 

...1,274 

Valparaiso . 

..6,280 

Seymour ... 

...6,445 

Veedersburg 

..1,638 

Shelbyville 

...7,169 

Vevay . 


Sheridan ... 

.. .1,795 

Vincennes ... 

.10,249 

South Bend. 

..35,999 

Wabash . 

..8,618 

South Whitley.1,113 

Walkerton .. 

..1,037 

Spencer ... 

...2,026 

Warren . 

..1,523 

Sullivan ... 

...3,118 

Warsaw . 

..3,987 

Summitville 

..1,432 

Washington 

..8,551 

Swayzee ... 

.. .1.162 

Waterloo ... 

..1,244 

Tell City.... 

...2,680 

W. Lafayette 

..2,302 

Terre Haute 

..36,673 

Whiting .... 

..3,983 

Thorntown . 

.. .1,511 

Williamsport 

.1,245 

Tipton . 

...3.764 

Winamac ... 

. .1.684 

Union City. 

...2,716 

Winchester . 

..3,705 

Upland . 

...1,208 

Worthington 

..1,448 

Indian Territory, So. central part of 

□ 31,400, p. 392,060. 

U. S., 

Incorporated cities and towns of 1,000 pop. 
or more in 1900: 

Ardmore ... 

...5,681 

Pauls Valley. 

.1,467 

Chickasha . 

...3,209 

Poteau . 

..1,182 

Coalgate ... 

...2,614 

Purcell . 

..2,277 

Davis . 

...1,340 

So. McAlester 3,479 

Duncan .... 

...1,164 

Sulphur Spgs 

. .1,198 

Durant .... 

...2,969 

Tahlequah .. 

. .1,482 

Hartshorne 

...2,352 

Tulsa . 

..1,390 

Lehigh . 

...1,500 

Vinita . 

. .2,339 

Marlow .... 

...1,016 

Wagoner ... 

..2,372 

Miami . 

Muscogee .. 

...1,527 

...4,254 

Wynnewood 

..1,907 

Iowa, No. central state, 
853, * Des Moines. 

[~~1 56,025, p. 

2,231,- 

Incorporated cities and towns of 1,000 pop. 
or more in 1900: 

Ackley . 

...1,445 

Eaglegrove .. 

..3,557 

Adel . 

.. .1,213 

Eddyville ... 

..1,230 

Afton . 

...1,178 

Eldon .. 

. .1,850 

Akron . 

...1,029 

Eldora . 

..2,233 

Albia . 

...2,889 

Elkader . 

..1,321 

Algona . 

...2,911 

Emmetsburg . 

..2,361 

Alton . 

...1,009 

Estherville . 

..3,237 

Ames . 

...2,422 

Fairfield . 

..4.689 

Anamosa ... 

...2,891 

Farmington ., 

,.1,332 

Atlantic .... 

...5,046 

Fayette . 

.1,315 

Audubon ... 

...1,866 

Fonda . 

.1.180 

Avoca . 

...1,627 

Forest City... 

.1,758 

Bedford .... 

...1,977 

Fort Dodge... 

12,162 

Belle Plaine 

...3,283 

Fort Madison.9,278 

Bellevue ... 

...1,607 

Garner . 

.1,288 

Belmond ... 

...1,234 

Glenwood .... 

.3,040 

Bloomfield . 

...2,105 

Grand 


Boone . 

...S,8S0 

Junction ... 

.1,113 

Britt . 

...1,540 

Green . 

.1,192 

Brooklyn .. 

...1,188 

Greenfield .... 

.1,300 

Burlington . 

..23,201 

Grinnell . 

.3,860 

Calmar . 

...1.003 

Grundy Center.1,322 

Carroll .... 

...2,882 

Guthrie Center 1.193 

Cascade .... 

...1,266 

Guttenberg .. 

.1,620 

Cedar Falls. 

...5,319 

Hamburg .... 

.2.079 

Cedar Rapids 25,656 

Hampton . 

..2,727 

Centerville 

...5,256 

Harlan . 

.2,422 

Chariton ... 

...3,989 

Hartley . 

.1,006 

Charles City...4,227 

Hawarden ... 

.1,810 

Cherokee .. 

...3,865 

Hedrick . 

.1,035 

Cincinnati . 

...1,212 

Humboldt .... 

.1,474 

Clarinda ... 

...3,276 

Ida Grove. 

.1.967 

Clarion . 

...1.475 

Independence 

3,656 

Clear Lake. 

...1,706 

Indianola .... 

.3,261 

Clinton . 

..22.698 

Iowa City.... 

.7,987 

Colfax . 

...2,053 

Iowa Falls.... 

.2,840 

Columbus 


Jefferson . 

.2.601 

Junction . 

...1,099 

Keokuk . 

14,641 

Coon Rapids. 

...1,017 

Keosauqua .. 

.1,117 

Corning . 

,..2,145 

Knoxville .... 

.3,131 

Corydon - 

...1,477 

Lake City. 

.2,703 

Council Bluffs 25,802 

Lake Mills.... 

.1,293 

Cresco . 

...2,806 

Lamoni . 

.1,540 

Creston . 

...7,752 

Lansing . 

.1,438 

Davenport .. 

..35,254 

Laporte . 

.1,419 

Decorah . 

..3.246 

Le Mars. 

.4,146 

Denison . 

...2,771 

Lenox .. 

.1.014 

Des Moines.. 

.62,139 

Leon . 

.1.905 

Dewitt . 

..1.3S3 

Logan . 

.1,377 

Dubuque .... 

.36,297 

Lucas . 

.1,132 

Dunlap . 

..1,355 

McGregor ..*. 

.1,498 

Dyersville .. 

...1,323 

Madrid . 



Iowa.—Continued. 


Malvern .... 

..1,166 

Rockwell City. 1,222 

Manchester . 

..2,887 

Sabula . 

..1,029 

Manning .... 

..1,169 

Sac City. 


Manson . 

..1,424 

Sanborn ... 

1 247 

Mapleton ... 

..1.099 

Seymour _ 

..1,703 

Maquoketa .. 

..3,777 

Sheldon . 

..2,282 

Marengo .... 

..2,007 

Shenandoah 

..3,573 

Marion . 

..4.102 

Sibley . 


Marshalltown 

11,544 

Sidney .. 

..1.143 

Mason City.., 

..6,746 

Sigourney . 

.1,952 

Missouri 


Sioux City... 

.33.111 

Valley . 

..4,010 

Sioux Rapids 

..1,005 

Montezuma . 

..1,210 

Spencer .. 

..3,095 

Monticello .. 

..2,104 

Spirit Lake... 

..1,219 

Moulton . 

. .1,420 

State Center. 

. .1,008 

Mt. Ayr. 

..1,729 

Storm Lake.. 

..2,169 

Mt. Pleasant 

..4,109 

Story City.... 


Mt. Vernon.. 

..1,629 

Strawberry 


Muscatine .. 

.14,073 

Point . 

..1,012 

Mystic . 

. .1,758 

Stuart . 

. .2,079 

Nashua . 

. .1.26S 

Sumner . 

..1,437 

Nevada .. 

..2,472 

Tama . 

,.2,649 

New Hampton.2,339 

Tipton . 

..2,513 

New London. 

,.1,003 

Toledo . 


New Sharon. 

..1,252 

Traer .. 

. .1,458 

Newton . 

,.3,682 

Valley 


Nora Springs. 

.I,z09 

Junction ... 

. .1,700 

Northwood .. 

..1,271 

Villisca . 

.2,211 

Odebolt . 

.1.432 

Vinton. 

.3,499 

Oelwein . 

.5,142 

Wapello . 

.1,398 

Onawa . 

.1,933 

Washington .. 

.4,255 

Orange City.. 

.1,457 

Waterloo .... 

12,580 

Osage . 

.2,734 

Waukon . 

.2,153 

Osceola . 

.2,505 

Waverly . 

.3,177 

Oskaloosa .... 

.9,212 

Webster City. 

.4,613 

Ottumwa . 

18,197 

W. Burlington.1,044 

Parkersburg . 

.1,164 

West Liberty. 

.1,690 

Pella . 

.2,623 

West Union.. 

.1,935 

Perry . 

.3.986 

What Cheer.. 

.2,746 

Red Oak. 


Williamsburg 

1,100 

Reinbeck . 

.1,203 

Wilton . 

.1,233 

Rockford .... 

.1.0S0 

Winterset .... 

.3,039 

Rock Rapids. 

.1,766 

Woodbine .... 

.1,255 

Rock Valley.. 

.1,054 



Ipswich, town, 

Eng.. 

p. 66,622. 


Iquique (e-ke'kay), city. Chile, p. 38,852. 


Ireland, one of British Isles, □ 32,583, p. 4,- 
456,546, * Dublin. 

Irkutsk', city, Siberia, p. 51,484. 

Isle of Wight, Southampton co.. So. coast 
of Eng., □ 146, p. 82,388. 

Ispahan', city, Persia, p. 80,000. 

Italian Somali-Land, Africa, protectorate, □ 
100,000, p. 400,000. 

Italy, kingdom of So. Europe, □ 110,646, p. 
32,449,754, * Rome. 

Ivano'vo-Voznesensk', city, Russia, p. 53,949. 

Ivory Coast, Africa, E. of Liberia, Fr. 
posses., □ 125,000, p. 2,500,000, * Grand 
Bassam. 

J 

Jabal'pur, city, India, p. 89,708. 

Jackson, Mich., p. 25,180. 

Jacksonville, Fla., p. 28,429. 

Jaffna, city, Ceylon, p. 43,179. 

Jaipur, city, India, p. 159,550. 

Jalisco, state, Mexico, □ 31,846, p. 1,094,569. 

Jamaica, Brit. W. Indies., 90 miles So. of 
Cuba, □ 4,200, p. 745,104, * Kingston, p. 
46,542. 

Japan, isl., empire, E. of Japan sea, Asia, 
□ 147,655 (with Formosa and Pescadores 
Isl., □ 161,198), p. 43,760,815 (with above 
islands, 43,558,358), * Tokyo. 

Jassy, city, Rumania, p. 78,067. 

Java, isl., Dutch E. Indies, □ 49,224, p. 26,- 
125,000, * Batavia. 

Jeres (ha'reth), city, Spain, p. 60,004. 

Jersey City, N. J., p. 206,433. 

Jerusalem, city, Syria, p. 42,000. 

Jhan'si, city. India, p. 55,288. 

Jodh'pur (joth'—), city, India, p. 60,437. 

Johannesburg, city, Transvaal, p. 102,078. 

Johnstown, Pa., p. 35,936. 

Johore', state, Malay pen. (British), □ 9,000, 
p- 200,000, * Johore Bahru. 





















































































































































738 


Gazetteer of the 'ZOorld 


Joliet, Ill., p. 29,353. 

Joplin, Mo., p. 26,023. 

Jungaria, depend. Chinese Empire, □ 147,- 
950, p. 600,000. 

K 

Ka'bul, * Afghanistan, on Kabul R., p. 

70,000. 

Kagoshima, city, Japan, p. 53,481. 

Kaisarieh, city, Asia Minor, p. 72,000. 
Kaiserslautern, city, Bavaria, Germany, p. 
40,828. 

Kaiser Wilhelm’s Land, No. section of S. E. 
N. Guinea, German protectorate, □ 70,- 

000, p. 110,000. 

Kalat, * Baluchistan. 

Kamerun, Africa. German depend., □ 191,- 
130, p. 3,500,000, * Kamerun. 

Kanazawa, city, Japan, p. 83,595. 

Kansas, No. central state, □ 82,080, p. 1,- 


470,495, * Topeka. 



Incorporated cities and towns of 1,000 pop. 

or more in 

1900: 



Abilene. 

..3,507 

Kingman .... 

.1,785 

Anthony - 

..1,179 

Lacygne . 

.1,037 

Argentine .. 

..5,878 

Larned .. 


Arkansas City 6,140 

Lawrence .... 

10,862 

Atchison - 

.15,722 

Leavenworth 

20,735 

Augusta _ 

. .1,197 

Lincoln . 

.1,262 

Baldwin . 

..1.017 

Lindsborg ... 

.1,279 

Baxter Spgs. 

..1,641 

Lyndon . 

.1,004 

Belleville ... 

. .1,833 

Lyons . 

.1,736 

Beloit . 

..2,359 

McPherson ... 

, .2,996 

Blue Rapids. 

..1.100 

Manhattan ... 

.3,438 

Burlingame . 

. .1,436 

Marion . 

.1,824 

Burlington .. 

..2,418 

Marysville .. 

..2,006 

Caldwell .... 

..1,574 

Minneapolis . 

..1,727 

Chanute . 

. .4,208 

Neodesha ... 

..1,772 

Cherokee ... 

. .1,326 

Newton . 

..6,208 

Cherryvale .. 

..3,472 

Nickerson ... 

..1,038 

Chetopa . 

..2,019 

Norton . 

..1,202 

Clay Center. 

..3,069 

Olathe . 

..3,451 

Clyde . 

. .1.157 

Osage . 

..2,792 

Coffeyville .. 

..4,953 

Osawatomie .. 

.4,191 

Columbus ... 

..2,310 

Osborne .. 

. .1.075 

Concordia .. 

..3,401 

Oswego . 

,.2,208 

Council Grove.2,265 

Ottawa . 

.6,934 

Dodge . 

. .1,942 

Paola . 

.3.144 

Eldorado .... 

..3,466 

Parsons . 

,.7,682 

Ellsworth ... 


Peabody . 

.1,369 

Emporia .... 

..8,223 

Phillipsburg . 

,.1,008 

Empire . 

..2,258 

Pittsburg .... 

.10,112 

Erie . 

..1,111 

Pleasanton ... 

,.1,097 

Eureka . 

..2,091 

Pratt . 

..1,213 

Florence .... 

..1,178 

Rosedale . 

,.3,270 

Fort Scott... 

.10,322 

Russell . 

.1,143 

Frankfort ... 

..1,167 

Sabetha - 

..1,646 

Fredonia .... 

..1,650 

St. Marys- 

..1,390 

Frontenac .. 

..1.805 

St. Paul. 

, .1,047 

Galena . 

.10,155 

Salina . 

..6,074 

Garden . 

. .1,690 

Scammon ... 

..1,549 

Garnett . 

..2,078 

Scranton .... 

..1,099 

Girard . 

..2,473 

Sedan . 

..1,067 

Goodland .... 

. .1,059 

Seneca . 

..1,846 

Great Bend.. 

..2,470 

Smith Center. .1,142 

Harper . 

. .1,151 

Stafford . 

. .1,068 

Hays . 

. .1,136 

Sterling . 

..2,002 

Herington .. 

. .1,607 

Stockton .... 

..1,030 

Hiawatha ... 

..2,829 

Strong . 

..1,128 

Holton . 

..3,082 

Topeka . 

.33,608 

Horton . 

..3,398 

Valley Falls. 

..1,078 

Howard . 

..1,207 

Wamego .... 

. .1,618 

Humboldt ... 

. .1,402 

Washington . 

. .1,575 

Hutchinson . 

..9,379 

Weir . 

..2,977 

Independence 

. 4,S51 

Wellington .. 

..4,245 

Iola . 

..5,791 

Wichita . 

.24.671 

Junction _ 

..4,695 

Winfield .... 

..5,554 

Kansas City. 

.51,418 

Yates Center. 

..1,634 

Kansas City, ; 

Mo., p. 

163,752.—Kans., £ 

i. 51,- 


418. 

Kansu, prov., China, □ 131,000, p. 9,285,000. 
Karachi, city, India, p. 115,407. 

Karlsruhe, city, Baden, Germany, p. 84,030. 
Kashmir, state, India, □ 80,000, p. 2,906,173. 
Kassel, city, Prussia, p. 106,928. 

Katmandu, * Nepal, p. 50,000. 

Kazan, city, Russia, p. 131,508. 


Kecskemet, city, Hungary, p. 56,951. 
Keewatin, ter., Canada, □ 756,000. 

Kena, city, Egypt, p. 27,478. 

Kent, co., England, □ 1,519, p. 936,003. 
Kentucky, So. central state, □ 40,400, p. 2,- 
147,174, * Frankfort. 

Incorporated cities and towns of 1,000 pop. 


or more 

in 1900: 




Ashland .... 

..6,S00 


La wrenceburg. 1,253 

Augusta .... 

..1,718 


Lebanon .... 

..3,043 

Barbourville 

.1,010 


Lexington .. 

.26,369 

Bardstown . 

. .1,711 


London . 

. .1,147 

Bardwell ... 

..1,512 


Louisa . 

..1,099 

Bellevue .... 

..6,332 


Louisville ..204,731 

Bowling Gr’n.8,226 


Ludlow . 

,.3,334 

Campbells v’le. 1,341 


Madisonville 

..3,628 

Carlisle . 

. .1.377 


Marion . 

..1,064 

Carrollton .. 

..2.205 


Mayfield .... 

.,4,0S1 

Catlettsburg 

,.3,0S1 


Maysville ... 

..6,423 

Central City. 

..1,348 


Middleboro . 

..4,162 

C’n’l Cov’gt’n 2,155 


Midway . 


Clinton . 

..1,462 


Morehead ... 

..1,100 

Cloverport .. 

..1,656 


Morgantown 

..2,046 

Columbus .. 

..1,235 


Mt. Sterling. 

..3,561 

Corbin . 



Mt. Wash’gt’n 

i 1,093 

Covington .. 

.42,938 


Murray . 

..1,822 

Cynthiana .. 

..3,257 


Newport .... 

.28,301 

Danville .... 

. .4,285 


Nicholasville 

.2,393 

Dayton . 

..6,104 


Owensboro . 

.13.1S9 

Earlington .. 

..3,012 


Owenton .... 

..1,014 

Eddyville ... 

..1,210 


Paducah .... 

.19,446 

Elizabethtown.l,S61 


Paris . 

..4,603 

Elkton . 

..1,123 


Pineville .... 

..2.072 

Eminence ... 

..1,018 


Princeton ... 

..2,556 

Falmouth ... 

...1,134 


Providence . 

..1,286 

Flemingsburg 1,268 


Richmond .. 

..4,653 

Frankfort .. 

..9,487 


Russellville . 

..2,591 

Franklin .... 

..2,166 


Sebree . 

..1,477 

Fulton . 

..2,860 


Shelbyvills . 

..3,016 

Georgetown 

..3,823 


Somerset .... 

..3,384 

Glasgow .... 

..2,019 


Springfield .. 

..1,016 

Greenville .. 

..1,051 


Stanford .... 

..1,651 

Harrodsburg 

..2,876 


Sturgis . 

..1,258 

Hawesville . 

..1,041 


Uniontown .. 

..1,532 

Henderson .. 

.10,272 


Vanceburg .. 

..1,161 

Hickman ... 

..1,589 


Versailles ... 

..2,337 

Hopkinsville 

..7,280 


West Cov’gt’n.1,606 

Lancaster ... 

..1,640 


Williamsburg 

;..1,495 

Latonia . 

..1,882 


Winchester . 

..5,964 

Kerbela, city, 

Mesopotamia, Asia, p. 

65,000. 

Kerman, city, 

Persia, 

p. 

45,000. 


Kharkov, city. 

Russia, 

P. 

, 174,846. 


Khartum, * Egyptian 

Sudan. 


Kherson, city. 

Russia, 

P- 

69,219. 


Khiva, Rus. 

vassal 

state, Asia, □ 

22,320, 


t V u,f XV ll o. V Aoou I o t CL ttt, AY, 

p. 800,000, * Khiva, p. 5,000. 


Khurdistan, see Armenia. 

Kiangsi, prov. China, □ 67,500, p. 24,534,000. 
Kiangsu, prov. China, □ 36,900, p. 20,905,000. 
Kiau-Chau, district of Shan-Tung, China, 
seized by Germany in 1897, □ 200, p. 

60,000. 

Kiel, city, Prussia, p. 107,93S. 

Kiev, city, Russia, p. 247,432. 

Kilmarnock, town. Scotland, p. 34,161. 
Kimberley, city, Cape Colony, p. 28,718. 
Kingston, * Jamaica, p. 46,542. 
Kingston-upon-Hull, city, England, p. 240,618. 
Kio'to, city, Japan, p. 3515,139. 

Kirkcaldy, town, Scotland, p. 34,064. 

Kishinev, city, Russia, p. 108,796. 

Kiukiang, city, China, on Yangtse R., p. 
55,000. 

Knoxville, Tenn., p. 32,637. 

Kobe, city, Japan, p. 215,780. 

Kokand, city, Rus. Turkestan, p. 82,054. 
Kongo Free State, same as Congo. 

Koniah, city, Asia Minor, p. 44,000. 
Konigsberg, city, Prussia, p. 187,897. 

Korea, kingdom of E. Asia, □ 82,000, p. 

est. 10,000,000, * Seoul, p. 201,000. 

Kovno, city, Russia, p. 73,543. 

Krakau, see Cracow. 

Krefeld, city, Prussia, p. 106,928. 

Kremenchug, city, Russia, p. 58,648. 
Kumamoto, city, Japan, p. 61,463. 

Kuria Muria, five islands off So. coast Arabia 
(British), 



















































































































Gazetteer of the XOorld. 


739 


Kursk, city. Russia, p. 52,896. 

Kwangsi, prov. China, Q 80,100, p. 5,181,000. 
Kwangtung, prov. China (with Hainan Isl.), 
□ 79,456. p. 29.706,000. 

Kwang-Tung, prov. of E. China, leased to 
Russia in 189S for 25 years, * Port Arthur. 
Kweichau, prov. China, □ 58,000, p. 7,669,000. 




Labrador, ter. on coast No. of Newfoundland, 
dep. of Newfoundland, □ 120,000, p. 3,634. 

Labuan', isl. No. of Borneo, British crown 
colony, □ 30, p. 5,853, * Victoria, p. 1,500. 

La Crosse, Wis., p. 28,895. 

Lagos, Brit. W. Africa, crown colony, □ 985, 
p. 85.607. — Also Protectorate, □ 21,000, 
p. 3,000,000. 

Lahore', city, India, p. 120,058. 

Lancaster, Pa., p. 41,459.—co. Eng., □ 1,757, 
p. 1,827,390. 

La'os, Fr. Posses. Indo China, □ 91,000, p. 
1,500,000, * Luang Prabang. 

La Pa-% city, Bolivia, p. 62,320. 

La Plata, city, Argentine Republic, p. 45,410. 

Las Palmas, city, Spain, p. 34,770. 

Lausanne', city, Switzerland, p. 55,973. 

Lawrence, Mass., p. 62,559. 

Lebanon, privileged prov. Syria, □ 2,509, p. 
399,500. 

Lecce, city, Italy, p. 33,118. 

Le Creusot, city, France, p. 32,034. 

Leeds, city, Eng., p. 428,953. 

Leeward islands, British West Indies, S. E. 
of Porto Rico, □ 701, p. 127,723, * St. John, 
Antigua Isl., p. 9,738. 

Leghorn, city, Italy, p. 105,767. 

Le Havre, city. France, p. 129,000. 

Leicester (les'ter), co. Eng., □ 813, p. 225,- 
896.-—Its * p. 211,574. 

Leiden, city, Holland, p. 53,640. 

Leignitz, city, Prussia, p. 51,518. 

Leinster, prov. Ireland (inc. Carlow, Dublin, 
Kildare, Kilkenny, King’s, Longford, 
Louth, Meath, Queen’s, W’estmeath, Wex¬ 
ford and Wicklow counties), □ 7,622, p. 
1,150,485. 

Leipsic (Leipzig), * Saxony, Germany, p. 
455,089. 

Leith, city, Scotland, p. 76,667. 

Le Mans, city, France, p. 69,075. 

Lemberg, city, Austria, p. 159,618. 

Leon, city, Mexico, p. 58,426. — city, Nicara¬ 
gua, p. 35,000. 

Levallois-Perret, city, France, p. 47,315. 


Lexington, Ky., p. 26,369. 

Leyte, isl., Philippines, □ 3,800. 
Libau, city, Russia, p. 64,505. 
Liberia, Negro republic, W. Africa, 


□ 25,000, 


p. 2,060,000. . „ _ 

Liechtenstein, principality on Rhine R., □ 


65, p. 9,434, * Vaduz. 

Liege, city, Belgium, p. 171,031. 

Lille, city, France, p. 215,400. 

Lima, * Peru, p. 100,000. 

Limerick, city, Ireland, p. 38,085. 

Limoges (le-mozh'), city, France, p. 77,703. 
Linares, city, Spain, p. 35,233. 

Lincoln, * Neb., p. 40,169. - co., Eng (inc. 
Holland, Kesteven and Lindsay), □ 2,b38, 
p. 388,038. — its * p. 48,784. 

Linz, city, Austria, p. 47,560. 

Lippe, Gcr. principality, □ 469, p. 139,238, 
* Detmold, p. 11,232. 

Lisbon, * Portugal, p. 301,206. 

Little Rock, * Ark., p. 38,307. 

Liverpool, city. Eng., p. 684,947. 

Lodz, city, Poland, Russia, p. 315.209. 

London, * England and British Empire and 
administrative county, □ 118, p. 4,0ob,Ub^. 
— city, Canada p. 37 983^ 

Londonderry, city, Ireland, p. 39,873. 

Lorca, city, Spain, p. 59,624 
Lorient, city, France, p. 4L 894. 

Los Angeles, Cal., p. 102,479. 

Louisiana, So. Central state, CD 48,120, p. 
1 381 625, * Baton Rouge. 

Incorporated cities and towns of 1,000 pop. 
or more in 1900: 


Louisiana.—Continued. 

Abbeville .1,536 

Alexandria ...5,648 

Amite .1,547 

Baton Rouge 11,269 
Covington ....1,205 

Crowley _. .4,214 

Donaldsonv’le 4.105 

Franklin .2,692 

Hammond _1.511 

Homer .1,157 

Houma .3,212 

Jackson .2,012 

Jeanerette _1,905 

Jennings .1,539 

Kenner .1,253 

Kentwood ....1,313 

Lafayette .3,314 

Lake Charles..6,680 
L’ke Provid’ce 1,256 
Leesville .1 148 


Mandeville ...1,029 

Minden .1,561 

Monroe .5,428 

Morgan .2,332 

Natchitoches .2.388 

New Iberia_6,S15 

New Orleans.287,104 

Opelousas _2,951 

Plaquemine ..3,590 

Rayne .1,007 

Ruston .1,324 

St. Francisv'le.1,059 
St. Martinsv’le 1,926 
Shreveport . .16,013 

Slidell .1,129 

Thibodaux _3,253 

Vidalia .1,022 

Washington ..1,197 
White Castle..1,S50 


Louisville, Ky., p. 204,731. 

Louvain, city, Belgium, p. 42,100. 

Lowell, Mass., p. 94,969. 

Lower Austria, prov., Austria, □ 7,654, p. 
3,086,382. 

Lower California, ter. Mex., □ 58,328, p. 
41,838. 

Lubeck, German Free city, □ 115, p. 96,775, 
p. city proper, 69,874. 

Lublin, city, Poland Russia, p. 50,152. 

Lucca, city, Italy, p. 81,644. 

Lucerne', city, Switzerland, p. 29,145. 
Lucknow, city, India, p. 263.951. 
Ludwigshafen, city, Bavaria, Germany, p. 
39,799. 

Luxemburg, grand duchy, E. of Belgium, □ 
998, p. 217,583, * Luxemburg, p. 19.909. 
Luzon', largest isl. of Philippines, □ 44,000. 
Lynn, Mass., p. 68,513. 

Lyon, city, France, p. 453,100. 


WL 


Macao, Portuguese col., isl., mouth of Can¬ 
ton R., China, □ 4. p. 78,627. — city on isl. 
McKeesport, Pa., p. 34,227. 

Mackenzie, ter., Canada, □ 198,300. 
Madagascar, isl., E. of So. Africa, Fr. Pro¬ 
tectorate, □ 227,750, p. 2,250,000, * Anta¬ 
nanarivo, p. 260,000. 

Madras, prov. British India, □ 141,189, p. 

38,208,609, * Madras, p. 509,397. 

Madras States, British India, □ 9,891, p. 
4,190,322. 

Madrid, * Spain, p. 512,150. 

Madura, city, India, p. 105,501. 

Magdeburg, city, Prussia, p. 229,663. 

Maine, N. Atlantic state, □ 33,040, p. 634,466, 
* Augusta. 

Incorporated cities and towns of 1,000 or 
more in 1900: 


Auburn .12,951 


Augusta .11.6S3 

Bangor .21.850 

Bath .10,477 

Belfast .4,615 

Biddeford ....16,145 

Brewer .4,835 

Bridgton .1,552 

Brunswick ....5,210 

Calais .7,655 

Eastport .5,311 

Ellsworth ....4,297 

Fairfield .2,238 

Farmington ..1,251 
Fort Fairfield.1,469 
Gardiner .5,501 


Hallowell .2,714 

Lewiston _23,761 

Madison .1,850 

Norway .2,034 

Old Town.5,763 

Pittsfield .2,208 

Portland .50,145 

Presque Isle..1,236 

Rockland .SD50 

Rumford Falls.2,595 

Saco .6,122 

Skowhegan ...4,266 
South Paris. .1.457 
So. Portland...6,287 
Waterville ....9,477 
Westbrook _7,283 


Mainz (Mayence), city, Hesse, Germany, p. 
76,946. 

Malaga, city, Spain, p. 125,579. 

Malden, Mass., p. 33,664. 

Maidive Islands, 17 coral islets, 500 mi. W. 

of Ceylon (British), p. 30,000. 

Malmo, city, Sweden, p. 59,714. 

Malta, isl. in Mediterranean (British), □ 95, 
p. 181,64.8, * Valeria. 

Managua, * Nicaragua, p. 25,000. 





































740 


Gazetteer cf the tOorld. 


Manchester, N. H., p. 56,987.—city, Eng., 
p. 543,969. 

Manchuria, depend., Chinese Empire, □ 362,- 
310, p. 7,500,000, * Tsitsihar. 

Mandalay, city, India, p. 182,498. 

Manila, * Philippine Isis., p. 350,000. 

Manitoba, prov., Canada, □ 73,956, p. 246,464, 
* Winnipeg. 

Mannheim, * Baden, Germany, p. 140,384. 

Mansou'rah, city, Egypt, p. 36,131. 

Mantua, city, Italy, p. 30,217. 

Maracai'bo, city, Venezuela, p. 34,284. 

Maranha'o, city, Brazil, p. 29,308. 

Marianne (or Ladrone) Islands, group in No. 
Pacific, belong to Germany except Guam 
(U. S.). 

Marseilles, city, France, p. 494,800. 

Marshall Islands, group in No. Pacific, be¬ 
long to Germany, □ 150, p. 15,000. 

Martinique, Fr., island colony in West In¬ 
dies, □ 381, p. 187,692, * Fort de France. 

Maryland, So. Atlantic state, □ 12,210, p. 
1,188,044, * Annapolis. 

Incorporated cities and towns of 1,000 pop. 
or more in 1900: 


Annapolis ....8,525 
Baltimore .. 508,957 

Berlin .1,246 

Brunswick ....2,471 

Cambridge _5,747 

Centerville ...1,231 
Chesapeake ...1,172 
Chestertown ..3,008 

Crisfield .3,165 

Cumberland .17,128 

Easton .3,074 

Elkton .2,542 

Ellicott City...1,331 

Frederick .9,296 

Frostburg ....5,274 
Hagerstown .13,591 


Havre de Grace 3,423 
Hyattsville ...1,222 

Laurel .2,079 

Lonaconing ...2,181 

Oakland .1,170 

Oxford .1,243 

PocomokeCity 2,124 
Fort Deposit. .1,575 

Rockville .1,110 

St. Michaels...1,043 

Salisbury .4,277 

Sharpsburg ...1,030 

Snow Hill.1,596 

Westerport ...1,998 
Westminister. .3,199 
Williamsport .1,472 


Masba'te, isl., Philippines, □ 1,400. 
Mashonaland, pt. of So. Rhodesia, So. Africa, 
British, f] 92,000, p. 305,000, * Salisbury. 
Massa, city, Italy, p. 26,897. 

Massachusetts, No. Atlantic state, □ 8,315, 
p. 2,805,346, * Boston. 

Incorporated cities and towns of 1,000 pop. 
or more in 1900: 


Beverly .13,884 

Boston .560,892 

Brockton ....40,063 
Cambridge ...91,886 

Chelsea .34,072 

Chicopee .19,167 

Everett .24,336 

Fall River... 104,863 
Fitchburg ...31,531 
Gloucester ...26,121 
Haverhill ....37,175 

Holyoke .45,712 

Lawrence ....62,559 

Lowell .94,969 

Lynn .68,513 

Malden .33,664 

Marlboro _13,609 


Medford .18,244 

Melrose .12,962 

New Bedford 62,442 
Newburyport 14.478 

Newton .33,587 

North Adams.24,200 
Northamton .18,643 

Pittsfield .21,766 

Quincy .23,899 

Salem .35,956 

Somerville ...61,643 
Springfield . .62,059 

Taunton .31,036 

Waltham ....23,481 

Woburn .14,254 

Worcester . .118,421 


Matabeleland, pt. of So. Rhodesia, So. Africa, 
British, □ 100,000, p. 156,835, * Salisbury. 

Matanzas, city, Cuba, p. 36,375. 

Mauritius, isl., in Indian Ocean, British 
Colony, □ 705, p. 371,655. 

Mayotte', isl. on E. coast of Africa, belongs 
to France, □ 140, p. 11,640. 

Mecca, * Hedjaz, Arabia, p. 60,000. 

Mechlin, city, Belgium, p. 55,530. 

Mecklenburg-Strelitz, Ger. grand-duchy, □ 
1,131, p. 102,628, * Neu Strelitz, p. 10,343. 

Mecklenburfr-Schwerin, Ger. grand-duchy, □ 
5,135, p. 607,835, * Schwerin. 

Medellin, city, Colombia, p. 40,000. 

Medineh (or Medina), city, Arabia, p. 48,000. 

Meerut, city, India, p. 116,642. 

Meiningen, * Saxe-Meiningen, Germany, p. 
12,869. 

Melbourne, * Victoria, Australia, p. 494,129. 

Memphis, Tenn., p. 102,320. 

Mendoza, city, Argentine Rep., p. 28,709. 


Mer'ida, city, Mexico, p. 36,935. 

Merioneth, co., Wales, □ 668, p. 48,774. 
Meshed, city, Persia, p. 60,000. 

Mesopotamia, Turkish prov., Asia, □ 100,205, 
p. 1,350,300. 

Messina, city, Italy, p. 156,552. 

Metz, city, Alsace-Lorraine, Germany, p. 
59,794. 

Mexico, Am. Republic, □ 767,005, p. 13,545,462, 
* Mexico, p. 368,777. — state, Mexico, □ 
9,247, p. 837,981. 

Michigan, No. Central state, □ 58,915, p. 
2,420,982, * Lansing. 

Incorporated cities and towns of 1,000 pop. 


or more in 1900: 

Adrian .9,654 

Albion .4,519 

Algonac .1,216 

Allegan .2,667 

Alma .2,047 

Alpena .11,802 

Ann Arbor....14,509 

Au Sable.1,116 

Baldwin .1,241 

Bangor .1,021 

Baraga .1,185 

Battle Creek..18,563 

Bay City.27,628 

Belding .3,282 

Bellaire .1,157 

Bellevue .1,074 

Benton H’bor.6,562 

Bessemer .3,911 

Big Rapids_4,686 

Birmingham ..1,170 

Blissfield .1,268 

Bronson .1,176 

Buchanan .1,708 

Cadillac .5,997 

Caro .2,006 

Cass City.1,113 

Cassopolis ...1,330 
Central Lake..1,307 
Charlevoix ...2,079 

Charlotte .4,092 

Cheboygan ....6,489 

Chelsea .1,635 

Chesaning ....1,244 

Clare .1,326 

Clinton .1,038 

Coldwater ....6,216 

Coleman .1,014 

Constantine ...1,226 

Corunna .1,510 

Crystal Falls. .3,231 

Decatur .1,356 

Delray .4,573 

Detroit .285,704 

Dowagiac .4,151 

Dundee .1,118 

Durand .2,184 

East Jordan.. .1,205 

East Tawas_1,736 

Eaton Rapids.2,103 
Escanaba ....9,549 

Essexville _1,639 

Evart .1,360 

Fenton .2,408 

Flint .13,103 

Frankfort _1,465 

Fremont .1,331 

Gaylord .1,561 

Gladstone _3,380 

Grand Haven..4,743 
Grand Ledge..2,161 
Grand Rapids 87,565 


Greenville ....3,381 

Hancock .4,050 

Harbor Beach 1,149 
Harbor 

Springs .1,643 

Hart .1,134 

Hartford .1,077 

Hastings .3,172 

Hillsdale .4,151 

Holland .7,790 

Holly .1,419 

Homer .1,097 

Houghton ....3,359 


'Howard City..1,398 


Howell .2,518 

Hudson .2,403 

Imlay City_1,122 

Ionia .5,209 

Iron Mountain 9,242 

Iron River_1,482 

Iron wood .9,705 

Ishpeming ...13,255 

Ithaca .2,020 

Jackson .25,180 

Jonesville ....1,367 
Kalamazoo . .24,404 

Kalkaska .1,304 

Lake Linden. .2,597 


Lake Odessa. .1,037 


Lansing .16,485 

Lapeer .3,297 

Laurium .5,643 

Leslie .1,114 

Lowell .1,736 

Ludington _7,166 

Mancelona _1,226 

Manchester ...1,209 
Manistee ....14,260 
Manistique ...4,126 

Marcellus _1,025 

Marine City...3,829 
Marquette ...10,058 

Marshall .4,370 

Mason .1,828 

Menominee ..12,818 

Midland .2,363 

Milan .1,141 

Milford .1,108 

Monroe .5,043 

Morenci .1,334 

Mt. Clemens. .6,576 
Mt. Pleasant. .3,662 

Munising .2,014 

Muskegon ...20,818 
Muskegon 

Heights.1,012 

Nashville .1,164 

Negaunee .6,935 

Newaygo .1,172 

Newberry _1,015 

Niles .4,287 

Northville _1,755 

Norway .4,170 

Onaway .1,204 

Ontonagon _1,267 

Oscoda .1,109 

Otsego .2,073 

Ovid .1,293 

Owosso .8,696 

Oxford .1,172 

Paw Paw.1,465 

Pentwater _1,061 

Petoskey .5,285 

Plainwell .1,318 

Plymouth ....1,474 

Pontiac .9,769 

Port Huron. .19,158 

Portland .1,874 

Quincy .1,563 

Reading .1,096 

Red Jacket_4,668 

Reed City.2,051 

Richmond _1,133 

River Rouge..1,748 
Rochester .-...1,535 

Romeo .1,580 

Saginaw .42,345 

















































































































Gazetteer of the 'tVorld. 


741 


Michigan.—Continued. 

St. Charles-1,317 Three Rivers. .3,550 

St. Clair.2,543 Traverse City.9,407 

St. Ignace.2,271 Trenton .1,167 

St. Johns.3,388 Union City_1,514 

St. Joseph.5,155 Vassar .1,832 

St. Louis.1,989 Wakefield ....1,191 

Sault Ste. Wayne .1,361 

Marie .10,538 West Bay 

Sebewaing _1.243 City .13,119 

Shelby .1,081 West Branch. .1,412 

South Haven. .4,009 Whitehall _1,481 

Sparta .1,126 tViliiamston ..1,113 

Stanton .1,234 Wyandotte ...5,183 

Sturgis .2,465 Yale .1,125 

Tawas .1,228 Ypsilanti .7,378 

Tecumseh -2,400 Zeeland .1,326 

Michoacan', state, Mexico, □ 22,874, p. 887,008. 
Middlesex, eo., Eng., □ 233, p. 792,225. 
Middlesbrough, town, Eng., p. 91,317. 

Milan, city, Italy, p. 492,162. 

Milwaukee, Wis., p. 285,315. 

Mindana o, second largest of Philippine Isis., 
I~l 57,500. 

Mindo'ro, isl., Philippines, □ 4,000. 
Minneapolis, Minn., p. 202,718. 

Minnesota, No. central state, □ 83,365, p. 1,- 
751,394, * St. Paul. 

Incorporated cities and towns of 1,000 pop. 
or more in 1900: 


Ada . 

..1,253 

Marshall .... 

2 088 

Adrian . 

..1,258 

Melrose . 

.1,768 

Aitkin . 

. .1,119 

Milaca . 

.1 

Albert Lea.. 

..4,500 

Minneapolis 202,718 

Alexandria . 

..2,681 

Montevideo .. 

.2,146 

Anoka . 

..3,769 

Moorhead .... 

.3.730 

Appleton ... 

..1,184 

Morris . 

.1.934 

Austin . 

..5,474 

New Prague.. 

.1,228 

Barnesville . 

..1,326 

New Ulm. 

.5,403 

Belle Plaine. 

. .1,121 

North Branch 

1,211 

Bemidji . 

..2.183 

Northfield ... 

.3,210 

Benson . 

..1.525 

No. St. Paul. 

.1,110 

Biwabik .... 

..1.299 

Ortonville ... 

.1,247 

Blue Earth.. 

..2.900 

Owatonna ... 

.5,561 

Brainerd .... 

.7,524 

Park Rapids. 

.1,313 

Breckenridge 

1,282 

Pelican Rapids 1,033 

Buffalo . 

..1,040 

Perham . 

.1,182 

Caledonia .. 

..1,175 

Pipestone ... 

.2,536 

Canby . 

..1,100 

Plainview ... 

.1,038 

Cannon Falls 

: 1,239 

Preston . 

.1,278 

Chaska . 

..2.165 

Princeton .... 

.1,319 

Chatfield _ 

..1.426 

Red Lake 


Cloquet - 

..3,072 

Falls . 

.1,885 

Crookston .. 

..5,359 

Red Wing.... 


Detroit . 

.2,060 

RedwoodFalls 

1,661 

Duluth . 

.52.969 

Renville . 

.1,075 

East Grand 


Rochester ... 

.6.S43 

Forks . 

..2,077 

Rushford .... 

.1,062 

Ely . 

..3,717 

St. Charles... 

.1,304 

Eveleth . 

..2,752 

St. Cloud. 

.8.663 

Fairmont .... 

,.3.040 

St. James_ 

.2,607 

Faribault .... 

, .7.S68 

St. Louis 


Fergus Falls. 

.6,072 

Park . 

.1,325 

Frazee . 

.1,000 

St. Paul . 163,065 

Glencoe . 

.1.7S0 

St. Peter . 

.4,302 

Glenwood ... 

.1,116 

Sandstone ... 

.1,189 

Grand Rapids 1,428 

Sauk Center. 

.2,220 

Granite Falls.1.214 

Sauk Rapids. 

.1.391 

Hastings .... 

.3,811 

Shakopee .... 

.2,047 

Hibbing . 

.2,481 

Sleepy Eye... 

.2,046 

Hutchinson . 

.2,495 

So. St. Paul. 

.2,322 

Jackson . 


So. Stillwater 

1,422 

Janesville. ... 

.1.254 

Springfield .. 

.1,511 

Jordan . 

.1.270 

Spring Valley 1,770 

Kasson . 

.1,112 

Staples . 

.1,504 

Kenyon . 

.1,202 

Stillwater ...: 

12,318 

Lake City.... 

.2,744 

Thief River 


Lake Crystal.1,215 

Falls . 

.1.819 

Lanesboro ... 

.1,102 

Tower . 

.1.366 

Lesueur . 

.1.937 

Tracy . 

.1,911 

Litchfield .... 

.2.280 

Two Harbors 

.3,278 

Little Falls.. 

.5,774 

Virginia . 

.2,962 

Long Prairie. 

.1,385 

Wabasha _ 

.2,528 

Luverne . 

,2. 9 23 

Wadena . 


Madelia . 

.1 272 

Warren . 

.1,276 

Madison . 

.1.336 

Waseca . 

.3.103 

Mankato . 

10,599 

Waterville ... 

.1,260 

Mapleton .... 

.1,008 

Wells . 

.2,017 


Minnesota.—Continued. 

West Windom .1,944 

Minneapolis 1,648 Winnebago 

West St. Paul.1,830 City .1,816 

Wheaton .1,132 Winona .19,714 

White Bear Worthington .2,386 

Lake .1,288 Zumbrota ....1,119 

Willmar .3,409 

Minsk, city, Russia, p. 91,494. 

Mirza'pur, city, India, p. 79,787. 

Mississippi, So. central state, n 46,810, p. 
1,551,270, * Jackson. 


Incorporated cities and towns of 1,000 
or more in 1900: 

pop. 

Aberdeen .... 

.3,434 

Lumberton .. 

.1,509 

Amory . 

.1,211 

McComb . 

•4,4"7 

Bay St. Louis 

.2,872 

Macon . 


Biloxi . 


Magnolia . 

1 038 

Booneville .. 

.1,050 

Meridian .... 

14.050 

Brookhaven . 

.2,678 

Natchez . 

12,210 

Canton . 

.3,404 

New Albany. 

.1.033 

Clarksdale ... 

.1,773 

Ocean Springs 

1,255 

Columbus ... 

.6.484 

Okolona . 

.2,177 

Corinth . 

,3,:ol 

Oxford . 

.1,825 

Crystal Spgs. 

.1.093 

Pass Christian 

2,028 

Durant . 

.1,766 

Pontotoc .... 

.1,010 

Ellisville .... 

.1,899 

Port Gibson.. 

.2,113 

Fostoria . 

.1,422 

Sardis . 

. 1^002 

Gloster . 

.1,661 

Scranton . 

.2,025 

Greenville ... 

.7,642 

Senatobia ... 

.1,156 

Greenwood .. 

.3,026 

Starkville ... 

.1.9S6 

Grenada . 

.2,568 

Summit . 

.1,499 

Gulfport . 

.1,060 

Tupelo . 

.2,118 

Hattiesburg . 

.4,175 

Vicksburg ... 

14.834 

Hazlehurst ... 

1,579 

Water Valley.3,813 

Holly Springs 

.2,815 

Wesson . 

.3,279 

Jackson . 

.7,816 

West Point... 

.3,193 

K>seiusko ... 

.2,078 

Winona . 


Laurel . 

.3,193 

Woodville ... 

.1,043 

Lexington ... 

.1,516 

Yazoo . 

.4,944 


Missouri, No. central state, □ 69,415, p. 3,106,- 
665, * Jefferson City. 


Incorporated cities and towns of 1,000 pop. 


or more in 

1900: 



Albany . 

.2,025 

Fulton . 

..4 883 

Appleton City.1,133 

Gallatin .... 

..1,780 

Ash Grove... 

.1,039 

Glasgow _ 


Aurora . 

.6,191 

Granby . 

..2,315 

Belton . 

.1,005 

Grant City.., 

..1,406 

Bethany . 

.2.093 

Greenfield . 

..1,406 

Bevier . 

.1.808 

Greenville ... 

. .1.051 

Bloomfield .. 

.1,475 

Hamilton ..., 

,.1,804 

Bolivar . 

.1,869 

Hannibal ... 

.12.780 

Boonville .... 

.4,377 

Harrisonville 

1,844 

BowlingGreen 1,902 

Hermann .... 

..1,575 

Breckenridge 

1,012 

Higbee . 

.1,151 

Brookfield ... 

.5.4S4 

Higginsville,. 

2.791 

Brunswick ... 

.1,403 

Holden . 


Butler . 

.3,158 

Humansville. 

1.055 

California ... 

.2.1S1 

Huntsville .. 

.1,805 

Cameron .... 

.2,979 

Independence 

6,974 

Canton . 

.2,365 

Jackson (Cape 

Cape 


Girardeau 


Girardeau . 

.4.815 

Co.l . 

.1,658 

Carl Junction 

.1,177 

Jefferson City 9,664 

Carrollton ... 

.3.854 

Joplin . 

26,023 

Carterville .. 

.4,445 

Kahoka . 

.1.818 

Carthage .... 

.9,416 

Kansas City 163,752 

Caruthersville 2,315 

Kennett . 


Centralia .... 

.1,722 

Keytesville .. 

.1.127 

Charleston .. 

.1,893 

Kirksville ... 

.5.966 

Chillicothe .. 

.6,905 

Kirkwood .... 

.2.825 

Clarence . 

.1,184 

La Grange... 

.1,507 

Clinton . 

.5,061 

Lamar . 

.2,737 

Columbia .... 


La Plata. 

.1,345 

Deepwater ... 

.1,201 

Lathrop . 

.1,118 

De Soto. 

.5.611 

Lebanon . 

.2,125 

Dexter . 

.1,862 

Lees Summit.1,453 

Doniphan .... 

.1,508 

Lexington ... 

.4,190 

Edina . 

.1,605 

Liberty . 

.2.407 

Eldorado Spgs 

2.137 

Louisiana ... 

.5,131 

Excelsior Spgs 1,881 

Macon . 

.4,068 

Farmington . 

.1,778 

Malden . 

.1.462 

Fayette . 

.2,717 

Marceline ... 

.2,638 

Ferguson .... 

.1,015 

Marionville . 

.1.290 

Festus . 

.1,256 

Marshall .... 

.5,086 

Fredericktown 1,577 

Maryville .... 

.4,577 































































































































































742 


Gazetteer of the XVorld. 


Missouri.—Continued. 


Memphis .2,195 

Mexico .5,099 

Milan .1,757 

Moberly .8,012 

Monett .3,115 

Monroe City.. 1,929 
Montgomery 

City .2,026 

Mound City... 1,681 
Mountain 

Grove .1,004 

Mt. Vernon.. .1,206 

Neosho .2,725 

Nevada .7,461 

New Franklin.1,156 
New Madrid. .1,489 

Norborne .1,189 

Odessa .1,445 

Oregon .1,032 

Oronogo .2,073 

Osceola .1,037 

Pacific .1,213 

Palmyra .2,323 

Paris .1,397 

Pattonsburg . .1,065 
Perryville ....1,275 

Pierce City_2,151 

Plattsburg ....1,878 
Pleasant Hill.2,002 
Poplar Bluff..4,321 

Princeton _1,575 

Rich Hill.4,053 

Richmond ....3,478 

Rockport .1,080 

Rolla .1,600 


St. Charles_7,982 

St. Genevieve.1,707 
St. Joseph.. .102,979 

St. Louis_575,238 

Salem .1,481 

Salisbury .1,847 

Sarcoxie .1,126 

Savannah .1,886 

Sedalia .15,231 

Seneca .1,043 

Shelbina .1,733 

Sikeston .1,077 

Slater .2,502 

Springfield . .23,267 
Stanberry ....2,654 
Sweet Springs 1,080 

Tarkio .1,901 

Thayer .1,276 

Tipton .1,337 

Trenton .5,396 

Troy .1,153 

Unionville _2,050 

Vandalia .1,168 

Versailles .1,240 

Warrensburg 4,724 
Washington ..3,015 
Webb City....9,201 
Webster 

Groves .1,895 

Wellsville ....1,160 

Weston .1,019 

West Plains.. .2,902 
Willow Spgs..1,078 
Windsor .1,502 


Mobile, Ala., p. 3S.469. 

Modena, city, Italy, p. 68,195. 

Molucca Islands, Dutch E. Indies, □ 43,864, 
p. 399,208. 

Monaco, principality on Mediterranean, □ 8, 
p. 13,304; towns: Monaco, Condamine, 
Monte Carlo. 

Mongolia, depend. Chinese Empire, □ 1,288,- 

000, p. 2,000,000. 

Monlucon, city, France, p. 31,595. 

Monmouth, co., Eng., □ 535, p. 230,800. 

Mons, city, Belgium, p. 25,599. 

Montana, Western state, □ 146,080, p. 243,329, 
* Helena. 

Incorporated cities and towns of 1,000 pop. 
or more in 1900: 


Anaconda _9,453 

Billings .3,221 

Bozeman .3,419 

Butte .30,470 

Deerlodge _1,324 

Dillon .1,530 

Fort Benton.. .1,024 
Great Falls. .14,930 
Hamilton .1,257 


Havre .1,033 

Helena .10,770 

Kalispel .2,526 

Lewistown .. .1,096 
Livingston ...2,778 

Miles City.1,938 

Missoula .4,366 

Red Lodge... .2,152 
Walkerville . 2,621 


Montene'gro, ind. principality, Balkan pen., 
Europe, □ 3,630, p. 228,000, * Cettinje, p. 
2,920. 

Monterey', city, Mexico, p. 62,266. 

Montevideo, * Uruguay, p. 266,000. 

Montgomery, Ala., p. 30,346.—eo., Wales, □ 
797, p. 54,892. 

Montpellier, city, France, p. 73,931. 

Montreal, * prov. Quebec, Canada, p. 266,826. 

Moradabad, city, India, p. 75,176. 

Moravia, prov. Austria, □ 8,583, p. 2,435,081. 

More'los, state, Mex., □ 2,773, p. 156,786. 

Morelia, city Mexico, p. 33,890. 

Morocco, empire, N. E. Africa, □ 219,000, p. 
(est.) 5,000,000, ■* Fez. 

Moscow, city, Russia, p. 988,614. 

Mosul, city, Mesopotamia, Asia, p. 61,000. 

Motherwell, town, Scotland, p. 20,423. 

Mulhauser, city, Alsace-Lorraine, Germany, 
p. 82,986. 

Munchen Gladbach, city, Prussia, p. 53,662. 

Munich, * Bavaria, Germany, p. 499,959. 

Munster, prov. Ireland (inc. Clare, Cork, 
Kerry, Limerick, Tipperary and Water¬ 
ford counties), □ 9,481, p. 1,075,075. 

Munster, city, Prussia, p. 57,135. 

Murcia, city, Spain, p. 108,408. 


Muscat, * Oman, p. 40,000. 

Muttra, city, India, p. 59,574. 

Mysore (sor'), state, India, □ 27,936, p. 5,- 
538,482. — Its * p. 68,151. 


1ST 

Nagasa'ki, city, Japan, p. 107,422. 

Nagoy'a, city, Japan, p. 244,145. 

Nagpur', city, India, p. 124,599. 

Namangan', city, Rus. Turkestan, p. 61,906. 

Na'mur, city, Belgium, p. 32,110. 

Nancy, city, France, p. 102,500. 

Nanking, city, China, on Yangtse R., p. 250,- 

000 . 

Nantes, city, France, p. 128,300. 

Naples, city, Italy, p. 544,057. 

Nashville, * Tenn., p. 80,865. 

Natal, So. Africa, So. of Transvaal, British 
colony, inc. prov. of Zululand, □ 35,019, 
p. 902,365, * Pietermaritzburg, p. 24,595. 

Nebraska, No. central state, Q 77,510, p. 
1,066,300, * Lincoln. 

Incorporated cities and towns of 1,000 pop. 
or more in 1900: 


Albion . 

.1,369 

Neligh . 


Alliance . 

.2,535 

Norfolk . 

..3,883 

Ashland . 

.1,477 

North Bend. 

..1,010 

Auburn . 

.2,664 

North Platte 

..3,640 

Aurora . 

.1,921 

Oakland .... 

..1,008 

Beatrice . 

.7,875 

Omaha . 

102,555 

Blair . 

.2,970 

O’Neill ...... 

..1.107 

Broken Bow.. 

.1,375 

Ord . 

..1,372 

Central City. 

.1,571 

Pawnee . 

..1.969 

Chadron . 

.1,665 

Plattsmouth 

..4.964 

Columbus ... 

.3,522 

Ponca . 

..1,043 

Crete . 

.2,199 

Red Cloud.. 

..1,554 

David City... 

.1,845 

St. Paul. 


Edgar .. 

..1,040 

Schuyler .... 

..2,157 

Fairbury .... 

.3,140 

Seward . 

..1,970 

Fairfield . 

.1,203 

Sidney . 

. .1,001 

Falls City.... 

.3,022 

South Omaha 

26,001 

Fremont . 

.7,241 

Stanton . 

..1,052 

Friend . 

.1,200 

Stromsburg . 

. .1,154 

Fullerton .... 

.1,464 

Superior .... 

. .1,577 

Geneva . 

.1,534 

Sutton . 

. .1,365 

Grand Island. 

.7,554 

Tecumseh .. 

. .2.005 

Hastings .... 

.7,188 

Tekamah ... 

..1,597 

Havelock .... 

.1,4S0 

University 


Hebron . 

.1,511 

Place . 

. .1,130 

Holdrege .... 

.3,007 

Wahoo . 

..2,100 

Humboldt ... 

.1,218 

Wayne . 

. .2,119 

Kearney . 

.5,634 

Weeping 


Lexington ... 

.1,343 

Water .... 

..1,156 

Lincoln . 

40,169 

West Point.. 

..1,890 

McCook . 

.2,445 

Wilber . 

..1,054 

Madison . 

.1,47 

Wymore .... 

..2,626 

Minden . 

.1,238 

York . 

..5,132 

Nebraska City 

7,380 



Negapatam, city, India, 

p. 56,455. 


Negros, isl., Philippines, 

□ 3,300. 



Nepal, kingdom in the Himalayas, Asia, □ 
54,000, p. (est.) 5,000,000, * Katmandu, p. 
50,000. 


Netherlands, The (Holland), kingdom, W. 
Europe, □ 12,648, p. 5,103,924, * The 

Hague. 

Neuilly, city, France, p. 32,730. 

Nevada, Western state, □ 110,700, p. 42,335, 
* Carson City. 

Incorporated cities and towns of 1,000 pop. 

or more in 1900: 

Carson City...2,100 

Reno .4,500 

Virginia City..2,695 
Newark, N. J., p. 246,070. 

New Bedford, Mass., p. 62,442. 

New Britain, Conn., p. 25,998. 

New Brunswick, prov. Canada, □ 28,200, p. 
331,093, * Fredericton. 

New Caledonia, isl., So. Pacific, Fr. penal 
colony, □ 6,000, p. 52,756, * Noumea. 
Newcastle, Pa., p. 28,339. 
Newcastle-upon-Tyne, city, Eng., 214,803. 
Newfoundland, isl. G. of St. Lawrence, Brit¬ 
ish, □ 42,200, p. 216,615, * St. John’s, p. 
29,007. 



































































































743 


'Gazetteer o_f. the tOorld 


New'Guinea, isl. E. Indies, belongs to Gr. 
I Britain, Holland and Germany, □ 300,000, 
p. 813,000. 

New Hampshire, No. Atlantic state, □ 9,305, 
p. 411,588, * Concord. 

Incorporated cities and towns of 1,000 pop. 
or more in 1900: 


Berlin .8,886 

Concord .19,632 

Dover .13,207 

Franklin .5,846 

Keene .9,165 

Laconia .8,042 


Manchester ..56,987 

Nashua .23,898 

Portsmouth. 10,637 

Rochester 8,466 

Somersworth ,7,023 


New Haven, Conn., p. 108,027. 

New Jersey, No. Atlantic state, □ 7,185, p. 
1,883,669, * Trenton. 

Incorporated cities and towns of 1,000 pop. 
or more in 1900: 


Asbury Park..4,148 
Atlantic City 27,838 
Atlantic 

Highlands . .1,383 

Bayonne .32,722 

Belvidere .1,784 

Beverly .1,950 

Bloomfield ....9,668 

Boonton .3,901 

Bordentown . .4,110 
Boundbrook ..2,622 
Bridgeton ...13,913 
Burlington ...7,392 

Caldwell .1,367 

Camden .75,935 

Cape May.2,257 

Carlstadt .2,574 

Chatham .1,361 

Clayton .1,951 

Collingswood. 1,633 
Deckertown ..1,306 

Dover .5,938 

Dunellen .1,239 

East Newark..2,500 
East Orange. .21,506 
E. Rutherford 2,640 
Egg Harbor.. .1,808 
Elizabeth ....52,130 

Elmer .1,140 

Englewood ...6,253 

Fairview .1,003 

Flemington ...2,145 

Freehold .2,934 

Frenchtown . .1,020 

Garfield .3,504 

Glen Ridge... .1,960 
Gloucester 

City .6,840 

Guttenberg ...3,825 
Hackensack ..9,443 
Hackettstown 2,474 
Haddonfield ..2,776 
Hammonton ..3,481 

Harrison .10,596 

Hasbrouck 

Heights .1,255 

Hawthorne ...2,096 
High Bridge. .1,377 
Highlands ....1,228 
Hightstown ..1,749 

Hoboken .59,364 

Irvington .5,255 

Jamesburg ...1,063 
Jersey City. .206,433 

Kearney .10,896 

Keyport .3,413 

Lambertville .4,637 


Lodi .1,917 

Long Branch.8,872 

Madison ..3,754 

Manasquan ...1,500 

Matawan .1,511 

Merchantville 1,608 

Metuchen .1,786 

Midland Park.1,348 

Millville .10,583 

Montclair ....13,962 
Morristown .11,267 
Neptune City.1,009 

Newark .246,070 

New 

Brunswick 20,006 

Newton .4,376 

No. Plainfield 5,009 
Ocean City... .1,307 

Orange .24,141 

Passaic .27,777 

Paterson ...105,171 
Penngrove ...1,826 
Perth Amboy 17,699 
Phillipsburg 10,052 
Plainfield ....15,369 
Pleasantville. 2,182 

Port Oram.2,069 

Princeton .3,899 

Rahway .7,935 

Raritan .3,244 

Red Bank.5,428 

Ridgewood ...2,685 

Riverton .1,332 

Rockaway ....1,483 

Roselle .1,652 

Rutherford ...4,411 

Salem .5,811 

Seabright .1,198 

Secaucus .1,626 

Somerville ...4,843 
South Amboy.6,349 
South Orange.4,608 
South River...2,792 

Summit .5,302 

Tenafly .1,746 

Trenton .73,307 

Undercliff ....1,006 

Union .15,1S7 

Vailsburg .2,779 

Vineland .4,370 

Wellington ...1,812 
Washington . .3,580 
W. Hoboken.23,094 
W. New York.5,267 
West Orange.6,889 
Woodbury ... .4,087 
Woodstown ...1,371 


Little Ferry...1,240 

New Mexico, ter. S. W. part U S., □ 122,580, 
p. 195,310, * Santa Fe. 

Incorporated cities and towns of 1,000 pop. 
or more in 1900: 


Alamogordo . .1,050 
Albuquerque. 6,238 

Carlsbad .1,063 

Deming .1,136 

Gallup .2,946 

Gardiner .1,120 

Las Cruces...1,200 
Las Vegas.3,552 


Lincoln .1,000 

Mora .1,250 

Raton .3,540 

Roswell .2,049 

Santa Fe.5,603 

Silver City... .2,735 

Socorro .1,512 

Taos .1,225 




New Orleans, La., p. 287,104. 

Newport, Ky., p. 28,301. — (Monmouth), town, 
Eng., p. 67,290. 

New South Wales, state, Australia, □ 310,- 
367, p. 1,362,232, * Sydney. 

Newton, Mass., p. 33,587. 

New York, No. Atlantic state, □ 49,170, p. 
7,268,894, » Albany. 

Incorporated cities and towns of 1,000 pop. 
or more in 1900: 


Adams . 

..1,292 

Addison .... 

..2,080 

Akron . 

..1,585 

Albany . 

.94,151 

Albion . 

. .4,477 

Alexandria 


Bay . 

..1,511 

Amityville . 

. .2,038 

Amsterdam. 

20,929 

Athens . 

..2,171 

Attica . 

..1,785 

Auburn .... 

.30,345 

Avoca . 

. .1.006 

Avon . 

..1,601 

Babylon .... 

..2,157 

Bainbridge . 

. 1,092 

Baldwinsv’le 

2,992 

Ballston Spa 

..3,923 

Batavia . 

. .9,ISO 

Bath . 

..4,994 

Bath-on- 


Hudson .. 

. .2,504 

Belmont .... 

..1,190 

Binghamton 

39,647 

Bolivar . 

. .1,208 

Bonnville .. 

..1,745 

Brewster ... 

..1,192 

Brockport .. 

. .3,398 

Buffalo .352,387 

Caledonia .. 

..1,073 

Cambridge . 

..1,578 

Camden . 

..2,370 

Canajoharie 

..2,101 

Canandaigua 

6,151 

Canastota .. 

. .3.030 

Canisteo .... 

..2,077 

Canton . 

..2,757 

Cape Vincent.1,310 

Carthage .... 

. .2,895 

Castile . 

..1,088 

Castleton .... 

..1,214 

Catskill _ 

..5,484 

Cattaraugus. 

1,382 

Cazenovia ... 

.1,819 

Champlain .. 

. .1,311 

Charlotte ... 

.1,400 

Chatham .... 

.2,018 

Chester . 

..1,250 

Clayton . 

.1,913 

Clifton Spgs. 

.1,617 

Clinton . 

.1.340 

Clyde . 

.2,507 

Cobleskill ... 

,.2,327 

Cohoes . 

.23,910 

Cold Spring. 

..2,067 

Cooperstown. 

2,368 

Corinth . 

,.2,039 

Corning . 

.11,061 

Cornwall .... 

.1,966 

Cortland ... 

..9,014 

Coxsackie ... 

,.2,735 

Croton-on- 


Hudson ... 

, .1,533 

Cuba . 

.1,502 

Dansville ... 

.3,633 

Delhi . 

,.2,078 

Depew . 


Deposit . 

,.2,051 

Dobbs Ferry. 

..2,888 

Dolgeville ... 

.1,915 

Dundee . 

.1,291 

Dunkirk .... 

.11,616 

East Aurora. 

. .2,366 

East Svracuse.2,509 

Ellenvilld ... 

..2,879 

Elmira .. 

.35,672 

Elmira 


Heights ... 

,.1,763 


Fairport .2,489 

Falconer .1,136 


Fayetteville . .1,304 
Fishkill 

Landing ....3,673 

Fonda .1,145 

Fort Edward.3,521 
Fort Plain... .2,444 

Frankfort _2,664 

Franklinville 1,360 

Fredonia .4,127 

Freeport .2,612 

Friendship ...1,214 

Fulton .5,281 

Geneseo .2,400 

Geneva .10,433 

Glens Falls. .12,613 
Gloversville .18,349 

Goshen .2,826 

Gouverneur . .3,689 

Gowanda .2,143 

Granville .2,700 

Greene .1,236 

Green Island. .4,770 
Greenport ... .2,366 
Greenwich .. .1,869 

Groton .1,344 

Hamburg .1,683 

Hamilton _1,627 

Hammonds- 

port .1,169 

Hancock .1,283 

Hastings-upon- 

Hudson ....2,002 
Haverstraw . .5,935 
Hempstead . .3,582 
Herkimer .... 5,555 

Holley .1,380 

Homer .2,381 

HoneoyeFalls 1,175 
Hoosick Falls.5,671 
Hornellsville 11,918 


Horseheads . .1,901 

Hudson .9,528 

Ilion .5,138 

Irvington _2,231 

Ithaca .13,136 

Jamestown ..22,892 
Johnstown ..10,130 

Jordan .1,118 

Keeseville _2,110 

Kingston _24,535 

Lancaster ....3,750 
Lansingburg 12,595 

Leroy .3,144 

Lestershire . .3,111 

Liberty .1,760 

Little Falls. .10,381 


Little Valley..1,085 

Liverpool _1,133 

Lockport _16,581 


Lowville .2,352 

Lyons .4,300 

Malone .5,935 

Manlius .1,219 

Marathon _1,092 

Massena .2,032 

Matteawan ...5,807 
Mechanicsv’le 4,695 

Medina .4,716 

Mexico .1,249 


Middleburg ..1,135 
Middleport ...1,431 
Middletown. 14,522 
Millbrook ....1,027 

Mohawk .2,028 

Monticello ...1,160 
MontourFalls 1,193 








































































































































744 


Gazetteer of the XOorld 


New York.—Continued, 

Moravia ... 

...1,442 

Mt. Kisco.. 

...1,346 

Mt. Morris.. 

..2,410 

Mt. Vernon. 

.21,228 

Naples . 

..1,048 

Newark .... 

..4,578 

New Berlin. 

..1,156 

Newburg ... 

.24,943 

NewHartford 

1 1.007 

Newpaltz .. 

. .1,022 

New 


Rochelle . 

.14,720 

New York 


City ....3,437,202 

Manhattan 

bor- 

ough ..1,850,093 

Bronx 


borough 

200,507 

Brooklyn bor- 

ough ..1,166,582 

Richmond 


borough 

67,021 

Queens 


borough 

152,999 

Niagara 


Falls . 

.19,457 

North Olean 

..1,549 

Northport .. 

. .1,794 

North Tarry 


town . 

..4,241 

North Tona- 


wanda .... 

..9,069 

Northville .. 

.,1,046 

Norwich ... 

..5,766 

Norwood ... 

..1,714 

Nunda . 

..1,018 

Nyack . 

..4,275 

Ogdensburg. 

12,633 

Olean . 

..9,462 

Oneida . 

..6,364 

Oneonta .... 

..7,147 

Ossining ... 


Oswego .... 

.22,199 

Oswego Falls.2,925 

Owego . 

..5,039 

Oxford . 

..1,931 

Palmyra ... 

. .1,937 

Patchogue .. 

..2,926 

Peekskill ... 

.10,358 

Penn Yan... 

. .4,650 

Perry . 

..2,763 

Phelps . 

.1,306 

Philmont ... 

..1,964 

Phoenix _ 

. .1.532 

Piermont ... 

..1,153 

Pittsford ... 

..1,000 

Plattsburg . 

..8,434 

PleasantvTe. 

1,204 

Port Byron. 

..1,013 

Port Chester 

,.7,440 

Port Henry. 

..1,751 

Port Jervis., 


Potsdam ... 

..3,843 

Pough- 


keepsie ... 

.24,029 

Pulaski . 

,.1,493 

Randolph ... 

..1,209 

Rensselaer ., 

..7,466 

Rhinebeck .. 

,.1,494 

Richfield 


Springs ... 

..1,537 


Rochester . .162,608 


Rockton .1,052 

Rockville 

Center .1,884 

Rome .15,343 

Rosendale _1,840 

Rouse Point..1,675 
Sacketts 

Harbor .1,266 

Sag Harbor.. .1,969 
St. Johnsville 1,873 
Salamanca ...4,251 

Salem .1,391 

Sandy Hill... .4,473 
Saranac Lake 2,594 
Saratoga 


Springs ...12,409 
Saugerties ...3,697 
Schaghtieoke 1,061 
Schenectady 31,682 

Schoharie _1,006 

Schuylerville 1,601 

Sea Clift.1,558 

Seneca Falls. .6,519 

Sidney .2,331 

Silver Creek..1,944 
Skaneateles . .1,495 

Solvay .'.3,493 

Southampton 2,289 
South Glens 

Falls .2,025 

South Nyack..1,601 
Springville ...1,992 
Stillwater ....1,007 

Suffern .1,619 

Syracuse ...108,374 
Tarrytown ...4,770 
Ticonderoga . 1,911 

Tivoli .1,153 

Tonawanda . .7,421 

Troy .60,651 

Trumansburg 1,225 

Unadilla .1,172 

Utica .56,383 

Valatie .1,300 

Walden .3,147 

Walton .2,811 

Wappingers 

Falls .3,504 

Warsaw .3,048 

Warwick .1,735 

Waterford ...3,146 

Waterloo .4,256 

Watertown . 21,696 
Waterville ...1,571 
Watervliet . 14,321 

Watkins .2,943 

Waverly .4,465 

Wayland .1,307 

Weedsport ...1,525 
Wellsville ....3,556 
W. Carthage..1,135 


Westfield ....2,430 
West 

Hawerstraw 2,079 
Whitehall ....4,377 
White Plains.7,899 
Whiteboro ...1,958 

Wolcott .1,279 

Yonkers .47,931 


of isls., S. E. of Aus- 
104,471, p. 796,359, * 


New Zealand, group 
tralia, British, □ 

Wellington, p. 37,441. 

Nganhwei, prov. China, □ 53,000, p. 20,- 
596,000. 

Nicaragua, republic of Cen. Am., □ 49,200, 
p. 380,000, * Managua, p. 25,000. 

Nice, city, France, p. 125,100. 

Nigeria, region on Gulf of Guinea, W. Africa, 
British. Est. area, □ 500,000, p. est. 25 to 
40 millions. Divided into Northern and 
Southern Nigeria. 

Niigata, city, Japan, p. 53,366. 

Nikolaiev, city, Russia, p. 92,060. 

Nimes, city, France, p. 74,601. 

Niuchwang, city, Manchuria, p. 60,000. 

Nizhni-Novgorod, city, Russia, p. 95,124. 


Norfolk, Va., p. 46,624. — Co. Eng., □ 2,037, 
p. 313,438. 

Norrkoping, city, Sweden, p. 40,472. 

North America, see America. 

Northampton, co. Eng., □ 914, p. 207,467. — 
Its * D- 87,021. 

North Carolina, So. Atlantic state, □ 52,250, 
p. 1,893,810, * Raleigh. 

Incorporated cities and towns of 1,000 pop. 
or more in 1900: 


Albemarle .. 

. .1,382 

Marion .... 

...1,116 

Asheville ... 

.14,694 

Monroe ..... 

...2.427 

Beaufort ... 

..2,195 

Mooresville 

..1,533 

Bessemer City 1,100 

Morehead 

Burlington . 

. .3,692 

City .. 

.. .1,379 

Caroleen ... 

. .1,706 

Morganton . 

.1,938 

Chapel Hill. 

..1,099 

Mt. Airy_ 

...2,680 

Charlotte ... 

.18,091 

Newbern ... 

..9,090 

Cherryville . 

..1.008 

Newton . 

...1,583 

Concord .... 

..7,910 

Oxford . 

..2,059 

Dunn . 

..1,072 

Plymouth .. 

. .1,011 

Durham .... 

..6,679 

Raleigh .... 

.13,643 

Edenton .... 

..3,016 

Randleman 

..2,190 

Elizabeth City.6.348 

Reidsville .. 

..3,262 

Fayetteville 

..4,670 

Roanoke 

Forest City. 

..1,090 

Rapids ... 

..1,009 

Gastonia .... 

. .4,610 

Rockingham 

.1.507 

Goldsboro .. 

..5,877 

Rocky Mount.2,937 

Graham .... 

..2,052 

Roxboro .... 

..1,021 

Greensboro 

.10,035 

Salem . 

..3,642 

Greenville .. 

..2,565 

Salisbury .. 

..6,277 

Henderson . 
Henderson- 

..3,746 

Sanford .... 
Scotland 

..1,044 

ville . 

. .1.917 

Neck . 

..1,348 

Henrietta .. 

..1,250 

Shelby . 

..1,874 

Hertford ... 

..1,382 

Southport .. 

. .1,336 

Hickory .... 

..2,535 

Statesville . 

..3,141 

High Point.. 

..4,163 

Tarboro _ 

..2,499 

Kings Moun 

- 

Wadesboro . 

..1,546 

tain . 

..2,062 

Washington 

..4,842 

Kinston .... 

..4,106 

Waynesville 

.1,307 

Laurinburg 

..1,334 

Weldon .... 

..1,433 

Lenoir . 

. .1,296 

Wilmington 

.20,976 

Lexington .. 

..1,234 

Wilson . 

..3,525 

Louisburg .. 
McAdenville 

. .1,178 
.1,144 

Winston .... 

.10,008 

forth Dakota, 

No. Central state, □ 

70,795, 

p. 319,146, 

* Bismarck. 

Incorporated 
or more 

cities and 
in 1900: 

towns of 1,000 pop. 


Bismarck .... 

.3,319 

Langdon ... 

..1.188 

Cando . 

.1,061 

Larimore ... 

..1,235 

Casselton .... 

.1,207 

Lisbon . 

..1,046 

Devils Lake.. 

.1,729 

Mandan .... 

..1,658 

Dickinson ... 

.2,076 

Mayville ... 

..1.106 

Fargo . 

.9.5S9 

Minot . 

..1.277 

Grafton . 

.2,378 

Park River. 

..1,088 

Grand Forks. 

.7,652 

Valley City. 

..2,446 

Hillsboro ... 
Jamestown .. 

.1.172 

.2,853 

Wahpeton .. 

..2,228 

Northumberland, co. 

388,059. 

Eng., □ 2,007, p. 

North-West Provinces, 

□ 5,109, p. 799,675. 

states, Brit. 

India, 


Norway, kingdom, N. Europe, □ 124,445, p. 

2,231,395, * Christiania. 

Norwich, city, Eng., d. 11,728. 

Nossi-Be Island, w. coast of Madagascar, of 
which it is a dependency, □ 130, p. 9,500. 
Nottingham, co. Eng., □ 826, p. 274,684. — 
Its * p. 239,753. 

Novara, city, Italy, p. 47,300. 

Nova Scotia, prov. Canada, □ 20,600, p. 
459,116, * Halifax. 

Novotcherkask, city, Russia, p. 52,005. 

Nuevo Leon, state, Mex., □ 23,592, p. 307,856. 
Nuremberg, city, Bavaria, Germany, p. 
261,022. 

o 

Oakland, Cal., p. 66,960. 

Oaxaca, state, Mex., □ 35,382, p. 872,902. — 
Its * p. 32.437. 

Odense, city, Denmark, p. 30,277. 

Odessa, city, Russia, p. 405,041. 

Oifenbach, city, Hesse, Germany, p. 39,408. 





































































































Gazetteer of the *€Oorld 


Y45 


Ohio, No. Central state, □ 41,060, p. 4,157,- 
545, * Columbus. 

Incorporated cities and towns of 1,000 
pop. or more in 1900: 

Ada .2,576 

Addyston .1,513 

Akron .42,728 

Alliance .8,974 

Antwerp .1,206 

Arcanum .1,225 

Ashland .4,087 

Ashtabula ...12,949 

Athens .3,066 

Barberton ....4,354 
Barnesville ..3,721 

Batavia .1,029 

Bedford .1,4S6 

Bellaire .9,912 

Bellefontaine 6,649 

Bellevue .4,101 

Bellville .1,039 

Berea .2,510 

Blanchester ..1,788 

Bluffton .1,783 

Bond Hill.1,081 

Bowling 

Green .5,067 

Bradford .1,254 

Bradner .1,148 

Bridgeport ...3,963 

Bryan .3,131 

Bucyrus .6,5G0 

Byesville .1,267 

Cadiz .1,755 

Cambridge ...8,241 
Canal Dover..5,422 
Canal Fulton..1,172 

Canton .30,667 

Cardington ...1,354 

Carey .1,816 

Carrollton ....1,271 

Carthage .2,559 

Cedarville ....1,189 

Celina .2,815 

Chagrin Falls.1,586 

Chardon .1,360 

Chicago Jet...2,348 
Chillicothe ..12,976 
Cincinnati ..325,902 
Circleville ....6,991 
Cleveland ..381,768 

Cleves .1,328 

Clyde .2,515 

Coalgrove ....1,191 

Coalton .1,625 

College Hill..1,104 
Collinwood ...3,639 
Columbiana ..1,339 
Columbus ..125,560 
Columbus 

Grove .1,935 

Conneaut .7,133 

Continental ..1,104 

Corning .1,401 

Coshocton ....6,473 

Covington _1,791 

Crestline .3,282 

Cuyahoga 

Falls .3,186 

Dayton .85,333 

Defiance .7,579 

DeGraff .1,150 

Delaware .7,940 

Delphos .4,517 

Delta .1,230 

Dennison .3,763 

Deshler .1,628 

Doylestown ..1,057 

Dresden .1,600 

Dunkirk .1,222 

E. Cleveland. .2,757 
E. Liverpool.16,485 
E. Palestine.. .2,493 

Eaton .3,155 

Edgerton .1,043 

Elmore .1,025 

Elmwood 

Place .2,532 

Elyria .8,791 


Ohio.—Continued. 


Mt. Vernon.. 

.6,633 

Salineville . 

..2,353 

Murray City. 

.1,118 

Sandusky ... 

.19,664 

Napoleon .... 

.3,639 

Scio . 

. .1,214 

Nelsonville .. 

.5,421 

Shawnee ... 

..2,966 

Newark . 

18,157 

Shelby . 

..4,685 

New Bremen. 

.1,318 

Shreve . 

..1,043 

Newburg .... 

.5,909 

Sidney . 

..5,688 

New Comers- 


Somerset ... 

..1,124 

town . 

.2,659 

S. Brooklyn. 

..2,343 

New Lexington 

S. Charleston. 1,096 

(Perry Co.) 

.1,701 

Spencerville 

..1,874 

New London. 

•1.18C 

Springfield . 

.38,253 

New Philadel 

1- 

Steubenville 

.14,349 

phia . 

.6,213 

Stryker . 

..1,206 

N. Richmond 

.1,916 

Tiffin . 

.10,989 

N. StraitsvTe 

2,302 

Tippecanoe . 

..1,703 

Niles . 

.7,468 

Toledo . 

131,822 

North Am- 


Toronto .... 

...3,526 

herst . 

.1,758 

Troy . 

..5,881 

North Balti- 


Uhrichsville 

.4,582 

more . 

.3,561 

Union City.. 

,.1,2S2 

Norwalk . 

.7,074 

Upper San- 


Norwood .... 

.6,480 

dusky .... 


Oak Harbor.. 

.1,631 

Urbana . 

..6,808 

Oberlin . 

.4,082 

Van Wert... 

..6,422 

Orrville . 

.1,901 

Vermilion .. 

..1,184 

Ottawa . 

.2,322 

Versailles .. 

..1,478 

Oxford . 

.2,009 

Wadsworth . 

..1,764 

Painesville .. 

.5,024 

Wapakoneta 

.3,915 

Paulding .... 

.2,080 

Warren . 

..8,529 

Payne . 

.1,336 

Washington Court 

Pemberville . 

.1,081 

House .... 

...5,751 

Perrysburg .. 

.1,766 

Washington- 


Piqua . 

12,172 

ville . 

..1,092 

Plain City.... 

.1,432 

Wauseon ... 

..2,148 

Pleasant City.1,006 

Waverly ... 

..1,854 

Plymouth ... 

.1,154 

Wellington . 

..2,094 

Pomeroy .... 

.4,639 

Wellston ... 

..8,045 

Port Clinton. 

.2,450 

Wellsville .. 

..6.146 

Portsmouth . 

17,870 

Westerville 

. .1,462 

Ravenna .... 

.4,003 

West Liberty.1,236 

Reading . 

.3,076 

West Union. 

..1,033 

Richwood ... 

.1.640 

Williamsburg 1,002 

Ripley . 

.2,248 

Willoughby 

..1,753 

Rockford .... 

.1,207 

Wilmington 

..3,613 

Rockport .... 

.2,038 

Winton Place.1,219 

Rocky River. 

.1,319 

Woodsfield . 

..1,801 

Roseville .... 

.1,207 

Wooster .... 

..6,063 

Sabina . 

.1,481 

Wyoming ... 

..1,450 

St. Bernard.. 

.3,384 

Xenia . 

..8,696 

St. Clairsv’le.1,210 

Yellow Spgs. 

..1,371 

St. Marys_ 

.5,359 

Youngstown 

.44,885 

St. Paris. 

.1,222 

Zanesville .. 

.23,538 

Salem . 

.7,582 




Okayama, city, Japan, p. 58,025. 

Oklahoma, ter. So. Central pt. U. S., □ 
39,030, p. 398,331, * Guthrie. 

Incorporated cities and towns of 1,000 pop. 
or more in 1900: 


Aiva . 

...1,499 

Norman . 

..2,225 

Blackwell . 

...2,2S3 

Oklahoma 


Chandler .. 

...1,430 

City . 

.10,037 

Elreno .... 

...3,383 

Pawnee . 

..1,464 

Enid . 

...3,444 

Perry . 

..3,351 

Guthrie .... 

..10,006 

Ponca . 

..2,528 

Hennessey 

...1,367 

Shawnee ... 

..3,462 

Kingfisher 

...2,301 

Stillwater .. 

..2,431 

Newkirk .. 

...1,754 

Tecumseh .. 

..1,193 


Weatherford 

.1,017 


Oldenburg, Ger. grand-duchy, □ 2,479, p. 

398,499, * Oldenburg, p. 25,472. 

Oldham, city, Eng., p. 137,238. 

Old Marghelan, city, Rus. Turkestan, p. 

36 592 

Omaha, Neb., p. 102,555. 

Oman, ind. state, S. E. Arabia, □ 82,000, p. 

1,500,000, * Muscat. 

Omsk, city, Siberia, p. 37,470. 

Ontario, prov., Canada, □ 222,000, p. 2,167,- 
978, * Toronto. 

Oporto, city, Portugal, p. 138,860. 

Oran, city, Algeria, p. 85,081. 

Orange Free State, see Orange River Colony. 
Orange River Colony, British, So. Africa, 
□ 48,326, p. 207,503, * Bloemfontein. 


Evanston .1,716 

Fairport .2,073 

Findlay .17,613 

Forest .1,155 

Ft. Recovery..1,097 

Fostoria .7,730 

Franklin .2,724 

Fremont .8,439 

Gabon .7,282 

Gallipolis .5,432 

Garettsville ..1,145 

Geneva .2,342 

Georgetown . .1,529 
Germantown .1,702 
Gibsonburg ..1,791 

Girard .2,630 

Glendale .1,545 

Glenville .5,588 

Glouster .2,155 

Grafton .1,098 

Granville .1,425 

Greenfield ....3,979 
Greenville ....5,501 

Hamilton _23,914 

Harrison .1,456 

Hartwell .1,833 

Hicksville ....2,520 

Hillsboro .4,535 

Holgate .1,237 

Hubbard .1,230 

Huron .1,708 

Hyde Park... .1,691 

Irondale .1,136 

Ironton .11,868 

Jackson .4,672 

Jacksonville .1,047 
Jamestown ...1,205 

Jefferson .1,319 

Kelleys 

Island .1,174 

Kent .4,541 

Kenton .6,852 

Lakewood ....3,355 

Lancaster _8,991 

Lebanon .2,867 

Leetonia .2,744 

Leipsic .1,726 

Lima .21,723 

Lisbon .3,330 

Lockland .2,695 

Logan .3,480 

London .3,511 

Lorain .16,028 

Loudonville ..1,581 
Louisville ....1,374 

Loveland .1,260 

Lowellville ...1,137 

McComb .1,195 

McConnels- 

ville .1,825 

Madisonville .3,140 
Manchester ...2,003 
Mansfield ....17,640 

Marietta .13,348 

Marion .11,862 

Martins 

Ferry .7,760 

Marysville ....3,048 
Massillon ....11,944 

Maumee .1,856 

Mechanicsv’le 1,617 

Medina .2,232 

Miamisburg ..3,941 
Middleport ...2,799 
Middletown ..9,215 

Milford .1,149 

Millersburg ..1,998 
Mineral City..1,220 

Minerva .1,200 

Mingo Jet.2,954 

Minster .1,465 

Monroeville ..1,211 


Montpelier .. .1,869 
Mt. Gilead....1,528 
Mt. Healthy. .1,354 




































































































































































746 


Gazetteer o_f the *€Oorld 


Oregon, Western state, □ 96,030, p. 413,536, 
* Salem. 

Incorporated cities and towns of 1,000 pop. 
or more in 1900: 


Albany .3,149 

Ashland .2,634 

Astoria .8,381 

Baker City_6,663 

Corvallis .1,819 

Dallas .1,271 

Eugene .3,236 

Forest Grove.1,096 
Grants Pass...2,290 

Heppner .1,146 

Orel, city, Russia, p. 


LaGrande _2,991 

McM.nnv’le ..1,420 
Marshfield ...1,391 

Medford .1,791 

Oregon City..3,494 
Pendleton ....4,406 
Portland ....90,426 

Roseburg .1,690 

Salem .4,258 

The Dalles.. ..3,542 
69,858. 


Orenburg, city, Russia, p. 72,740. 

Orizaba, city, Mexico, p. 31,512. 

Orleans, city, France, p. 66,619. 

Osaka, city, Japan, p. 821,235. 

Osh, city, Rus. Turkestan, p. 36,474. 

Oshkosh, Wis.. p. 28.284. 

Ostend, city, Belgium, p. 38,481. 

Otaru, city, Japan, p. 56,961. 

Ottawa, * Canada, p. 59,902. 

Ottoman Empire, see Turkey. 

Oudh, prov., Brit. India, □ 24,217, p. 

12,884,150. 

Ouro Preto, city, Brazil, p. 59,249. 

Oviedo, city, Spain, p. 46,376. 

Oxford, co., Eng., □ 750, p. 137,118. —Its 
* p. 49,413. 


Pachuca, city, Mexico, p. 37,487. 

Padua, city, Italy, p. 83,748. 

Paisley, city, Scotland, p. 79,355. 

Palermo, city, Italy, p. 292,799. 

Palma, city, Balearic Islands, Spain, p. 62,525. 
Panama, city, Colombia, p. 30,000. 

Panay, isl., Philippines, □ 4,700. 

Paraguay, republic. So. Am., □ 98,000, p. 

600,000, * Asuncion. 

Paramaribo, * Dutch Guiana, p 
Paris, * France, on Seine R., p. 

Parma, city, Italy, p. 55,205. 

Partick, city, Scotland, p. 54,274 
Passaic, N. J., p. 27,777. 

Paterson, N. J.. p. 105,171. 

Patna, city, India, p. 135,172. 

Patras, city, Greece, p. 37,958. 

Pau, city, France, p. 33,012. 

Pavia, city, Italy, p. 38,722. 

Pawtucket, R. I., p. 39,231. 

Peking, * Chinese Empire, p. 

Pelew (Palao) Islands, group 
belong to Germany. 

Pelotas, city, Brazil, p. 41.591. 

Pembroke, co., Wales, □ 614 
City, Ireland, p. 25,524. 

Pennsylvania, No. Atlantic state, □ 45,215, 
p. 6,302,115, * Harrisburg. 

Incorporated cities and towns of 1,000 pop. 
or more in 1900: 


31,200. 

2,6S5,438. 


(est.) 1,300.000. 
in N. Pacific, 


p. 87,910. 


Pennsylvania.—Continued. 


Canonsburg.2,714 

Canton .1,525 

Carbondale _13,536 

Carlisle .9.626 

Carnegie .7,330 

Catasauqua .3 963 

Catawissa .2,023 

Centralia .2,048 

Chambersburg ..8,864 

Charleroi .5,930 

Chester .33,988 

Clarendon .1,092 

Clarion .2,004 

Clayville (Jeffer¬ 
son Co.).2,371 

Clearfield .5.081 

Clifton Heights.2,330 

Coatesville .5,721 

Columbia .12,316 

Colwyn .1,226 

Connellsville ...7,160 
Conshohocken ..5,762 

Coplay .1,581 

Corapolis .2,555 

Corry .5,369 

Coudersport _3,217 

Crafton .1,927 

Cressona .1,738 

Curwensville ...1,937 

Dale .1,503 

Dallastown .1,181 

Danville .8.042 

Darby .3,429 

Derry .2,347 

Dickson .4,948 

Dorrance .2,211 

Downingtown ..2.133 
Doylestown ....3,034 

Dubar .1,662 

Dubois .9,375 

Duncannon .1.661 

Duncansville ...1,512 

Dunmore .12,583 

Duquesne .9,036 

East Brady.1,233 

E. Conemaugh. .2,175 
E. Greensburg. .1,050 
East Mauch 

Chunk .3,458 

Easton .25,238 

EastPittsburg ..2,883 
E. Stroudsburg .2,648 
E. Washington..1,051 

Ebensburg .1,574 

Edgewood .1,139 

Edwardsville ...5,165 

Elizabeth .1,866 

Elizabethtown .1.473 

Elkland .1,109 

Elliott .3,345 

Ellwood City....2 243 

Emaus .1,468 

Emlenton .1,190 

Emporium .2,463 


Glen Campbell. .1,628 

Glen Rock.1,117 

Gordon .1,165 

Greencastle ....1,463 
Greensburg ....6,508 

Greenville .4,814 

Grove City.1,599 

Hallstead .1,404 

Hamburg .2,315 

Hanover .5,302 

Harrisburg ....50,167 

Hastings .1,621 

Hawley .1,925 

Hazelton .14,230 

Hollidaysburg ..2,998 

Homestead _12,554 

Honesdale .2,864 

Houtzdale .1,482 

Hughestown ....1,548 

Hughesville _1,528 

Hummelstown ..1,729 

Huntingdon _6,053 

Hyndman .1,242 

Indiana .4,142 

Irwin .2,452 

Jeannette .5,865 

Jeddo .1.632 

Jenkintown .2,091 

Jermyn .2.567 

Jersey Shore.. ..3,070 
Johnsonburg ...3,894 

Johnstown .35,936 

Juniata .1,709 

Kane .5,296 

Kennett Square.1,516 

Kingston .3.S46 

Kittanning .3,902 

Knoxville (Alle¬ 
gheny Co.)_3,511 

Kutztown .1,328 

Dancaster .41,459 

Lansdale .2,754 

Lansdowne .2,630 

Lansford .4,888 

Latrobe .4,614 

Lebanon .17,628 

Leechburg .2,459 

Lehighton .4,629 

Lewisburg .3,457 

Lewistown .4,451 

Ligonier .1,259 

Lilly .1,276 

Lititz .1,637 

Littlestown . , .1,118 
Lock Haven._ ,.7,210 
Luzerne ...... .3,817 

Lykens ....2,762 

McAdoo .2,122 

McDonald .2,475 

McKeesport ...34,227 
McKees Rock . .6,352 
McSherrystown 1,490 
Mahanoy City..13,504 
Manheim .2,019 


Allegheny . 

.129,896 

Berlin .1,030 

Ephrata . 

.2,451 

Mansfield _ 

.1,847 

Allentown . 

..35,416 

Berwick (Co- 

Erie . 

52,733 

Marcus Hook. 

.1,209 

Altoona .... 

..38,973 

lumbiaCo.) .3,916 

Esplen . 

.2,364 

Marietta . 


Ambler .... 

...1,884 

Bethlehem ...7,293 

Etna . 

.5.384 

Marysville .... 

..1,463 

Apollo . 

...2,924 

Birdsboro ....2,264 

Evans City. 

.1,203 

Mauch Chunk. 

..4,029 

Archbald .. 

...5,396 

Blairsville ....3,386 

Everett . 

.1.864 

Mayfield . 

.2.300 

Arnold . 

...1,426 

Blakely .3,915 

Exeter . 

.1,948 

Meadville . 

10,291 

Ashland ... 

...6,438 

Bloomsburg ..6,170 

Fairchance .... 

.1.219 

Mechanicsburg 


Ashley . 

...4,046 

Blossburg _2,423 

Fayette City.... 


(Cumbr’d Co.).3,841 

Aspinwall . 

...1,231 

Boyertown.. ..1,709 

Ford City. 

.2.S70 

Media . 

..3,075 

Athens .... 

...3,749 

Braddock. ...15,654 

Forest City. 

.4,279 

Mercer . 

.1,804 

Austin . 


Bradford.15,029 

Forty Fort. 

.1.557 

Meyersdale ... 

.3,024 

Avalon . 

...2,130 

Bridgeport (Fay- 

Fountain Hill.. 

.1,214 

Middletown .. 

.5,608 

Avoca . 

...3,487 

ette Co.).. ..1,805 

Frackville . 

.2,594 

Miffinburg .... 

.1,436 

Bangor .... 

...4,106 

Bridgeport (Mont- 

Franklin (V e 

- 

Millersburg .. 

.1,675 

Barnesboro 

...1,482 

gomery Co.)..3,097 

nango Co.)... 

.7,317 

Mill Hall. 

.1.010 

Rpavpr . 

...2.348 


Freedom . 

.1,783 

Millvale . 

.6,736 

Beaver Falls.10,054 

Bristol.7,104 

Freeland . 

.5,254 

Milton . 

.6,175 

B’ver M’dows.1,378 

Brockwayville 1.777 

Freeport . 

.1,754 

Miners Mills.. 

.2,224 

Bedford .... 

...2,107 

Brookville.2,472 

Galeton . 

.2,415 

Minersville ... 

.4,815 

Bellefonte 

...4,216 

Brownsville. ..1,552 

Gallitzin . 

.2,759 

Monaca . 

.2,008 

Bellevernon 

..1,901 

Butler.10,853 

Gettysburg .... 


Monessen .... 

.2,197 

Bellevue .. 

...3,416 

California.2,009 

Gilberton . 

.4,373 

Monongahela . 

.5,173 

Bellwood .. 


Cambridge Sp’sl,495 

Girardville . 

.3,666 

Montgomery .. 

..1,063 

















































































































































Gazetteer of the *GDorld 


747 


Pennsylvania.—Continued. 


Montoursville 

..1,665 

St. Clair. 


Montrose .... 


St. Marys. 


Moosic . 

...1,227 

Sayre. 

..5,243 

Morrisville .. 

...1,371 

Schuylkill 


Mt. Carmel... 

..13,179 

Haven . 

. .3,651 

Mt. Holiy Sp’s. .1,328 

Scottdale. 


Mt. Jewett... 

...1,553 

Scranton. 

102,0.6 

Mt. Joy. 

...2,018 

Selinsgrove.. . 

. .1,326 

Mt. Oliver_ 

...2,295 

Sellersville.... 

. .1,241 

Mt. Pleasant. 

...4,745 

Sewickley .... 

..3,568 

Mt. Union_ 

...1,085 

Shamokin .... 

.18,202 

Muncy . 

...1,934 

Sharon .... 

. .8 916 

Nanticoke ... 

..12,116 

Sharon Hill... 

..1,058 

Nazareth . 

...2,304 

Sharpsburg ... 

..6,842 

Nescopeck ... 

...1,100 

Sharpsville ... 

..2,970 

New Bethlehem.I,z69 

Shenandoah .. 

.20.321 

New Brighton. .6,820 

Sheraden . 


Newcastle ... 

.28,339 

Shickshinny .. 

..1,456 

New Cumber- 


Shippensburg . 

. 3,228 

land . 

...1,035 

Slatington ... 

..3 773 

New Haven... 

. .1,532 

Smethport .... 

• U704 

New Hope.... 

..1,218 

Somerset . 

..1.834 

New Kensing- 


Souderton .... 

.1,077 

ton . 


South Bethle- 


New Philadel- 


hem (North- 


phia . 

. .1,326 

ampton Co,). 

13,241 

Newport . 

..1,734 

South Fork.... 

.2,635 

Newtown .... 

..1,463 

South Washing 


Newville . 


ton . 

.1,230 

Norristown .. 

.22,265 

South Waverly 

1,215 

North Braddock.6,535 

South Williams 


Northeast ... 

..2,068 

port . 

.3,328 

Northumber- 


Spangler . 

.1,616 

land . 

..2.748 

Spring City... 

.2 568 

North Whales. 

..1,287 

Spring Garden 

1,015 

North Washing- 

Steelton . 

12.086 

ton. 


Spring Grove.. 

.1,005 

North York... 

..1,185 

Stoneboro .... 

.1.061 

Norwood .... 

. .1,286 

Stroudsburg . 

.3.450 

Oakdale . 

..1,147 

Sugar Notch.. 

.1.SS7 

Oakland . 

. .1.003 

Summit Hill.. 

.2,986 

Oakmont. 

..2,323 

Sunbury . 

.9,810 

Oil City. 

.13,264 

Susquehanna 

.3.813 

Old Forge.... 

..5.630 

Swissvale . 

.1,716 

Olyphant . 

..6.180 

Swoyersville .. 

.2,264 

Orwigsburg . 

..1,518 

Tamaqua . 

.7.267 

Osceola (Clear- 


Tarentum .... 

.5 472 

field Co.).... 

..2,030 

Taylor . 

.4,215 

Oxford . 

..2,032 

Throop . 

.2,204 

Palo Alto. 

..1,707 

Tidioute . 

.1,237 

Parker’s Land 


Titusville . 

.8.244 

1 r. g . 

. .1,070 

Towanda . 

.4.663 

Parkersburg .. 

. .1,788 

Tower City. 

.2,167 

Parnassus .... 

. .1,791 

Tremont. 


Parsons . 

. .2.529 

Troy. 

.1,450 

Patton . 

..2,651 

Tunkhannock . 

.1.305 

Pen Argyl. 

..2,784 

Turtle Creek... 

.3,262 

Pennsburg .... 

..1.032 

Tyrone. 

.5.847 

Perkasie . 

..1,803 

Union City. 

.3.104 

Philadelphia 1,293,697 

Uniontown (Fay- 

Philipsburg .. 

..3,266 

ette Co.) . 

.7.344 

Phoenixville .. 

.9,196 

Upland. 

.2,131 

Pinegrove .... 

. .1.084 

Vandergrift. ... 

.2,076 

Pitcairn . 

.2,601 

Vandergrift 


Pittsburg . 

321,616 

Heights. 

.1,910 

Pittston . 

.12.556 

Verona. 

.1,904 

Plymouth . 

.13,649 

Warren. 

.8,043 

Polk . 

.1,037 

Washington (Wash- 

Port Allegany. 

..1,853 

lngton Co.)... 

.7,670 

Port Carbon.. 

.2,168 

Watsontown ... 

.1,898 

Port Vue. 

.1.S03 

Waynesboro ... 

.5,396 

Pottstown .... 

13.696 

Waynesburg ... 

.2,544 

Pottsville .... 

15,710 

Weatherly . 

.2,471 

Prospect Park 

.1,050 

Wellsboro . 

2,954 

Punxsutawney. 

4,375 

West Bethle- 


Quakertown .. 

.3,014 

hem . 

.3.485 

Rankin . 

.3.775 

West Chester.. 

.9,524 

Reading . 

78.961 

West Consho- 


Red Lion. 

.1,337 

hocken . 

1,958 

Renovo . 

.4.082 

West Easton... 

1,000 

Reynoldsville 

.3.435 

Westfield . 

1,180 

Ridgway . 

.3.515 

West Hazelton. 

2,516 

Ridlev Park... 

.1.234 

West Liberty... 

1,281 

Roaring Spring.1,344 

West Newton... 

2,467 

Rochester .... 

.4.688 

West Pittston.. 

5,846 

Roscoe . 

.1.354 

West Washing- 


Royalton . 

.1.106 

ton . 

2,693 

Royersford .... 

.2,607 

West Wyoming 

1,344 1 


Pennsylvania.—Continued. 


White Haven... .1,517 Winton .3 425 

Wilkesbarre ...51,721 Womelsdorf 1136 

Wilkinsburg ,.11,S85 Wrightsville ....2^266 

Williamsport ..28,757 Wyoming.1909 

Williamstown ..2,934 York . 33708 

Wilmerding ....4.179 Yorkville .l|l25 


Penza, city, Russia, p. 61,851. 

Peoria, Ills., p. 56.100. 

Perpignan, city, France, p. 35,088. 

Perigueux, city, France, p. 31,313. 

Perim, isl. str. of Bab-el-Mandeb (British) 
□ 5. 

Pernambuco, city, Brazil, p. 111,556. 

Persia, kingdom, S. W. Asia, □ 628,000, p. 
7,653,600, * Teheran. 

Perth, town, Scotland, p 32.S72. — * Western 
Australia, p. 34,610. 

Peru, republic. So. Am., □ 695,733, p. 4,610,- 
000, 4 Lima. 

Perugia, city, Italy, p. 61,292. 

Pesaro, city, Italy, p. 27,206. 

Peterborough, soke of, Northampton Co., 
Eng,. □ 84, p. 41,119. 

Pforzheim, city. Baden. Germany, p. 33,345. 
Philadelphia, Pa., p. 1,293.697. 

Philippine Islands, group of about 2,000 isls.. 
S. E. of China, total area est. at □ 115,- 
500, p. est. 8.000,000, * Manila. 

Area of the largest islands: 


Luzon ... 

Sq. Mi. 
.44,000 

Leyte . 

.... 3.800 

Mindanao 

.37,500 

Negros .... 

.... 3,300 

Samar .. 

. 4,800 


2 400 

Panay ... 

. 4,700 

Nasbate ... 

.... 1.409 

Mindoro 

. 4,000 

Bohol . 

.... 1,300 

Principal 

Manila .. 

cities: 

Pop. 

.350,003 

Argao . 

....34.030 

Lipa . 

.40,000 

Albay . 

....34,000 

Banang . 

.39,500 

Taal . 

....33,380 

Batangas 

.39,300 

Carcar .... 

....30,300 

Laoang . 

.37,000 

Calbayog .. 

....30,250 

Cebu .... 

.35,240 


Philippopolis, * E. Rumelia, p. 41,068. 
Piacenza, city, Italy, p. 35,319. 

Pilsen, city, Austria, p. 68,292. 

Piraeus, city, Greece, p. 42,169. 

Pirmasens, city, Bavaria, Germany, p. 24,- 
548. 

Pisa, city, Italy, p. 66,567. 

Pittsburg, Pa., p. 321,616. 

Plauen, city, Saxony, p. 55,191. 

Plymouth, city, Eng., p. 107,509. 

Poitiers (or Poictiers), city, France, p. 38,- 
518. 

Pola, city, Austria, p. 39,273. 

Poland, prov. Russia, □ 49,159, p. 9,455,943. 
Poltava, city, Russia, p. 53,060. 

Ponce, city, Porto Rico, p. 27,952. 

Poona, city, India, p. 111,385. 

Port-au-Prince, * Haiti, p. 50,000. 

Portland, Me., p. 50,145. — Ore., p. 90,426. 
Porto Alegre, city, Brazil, 52,421. 

Porto Rico, isl. West Indies, E. of Haiti, ter. 
of U. S., area (including islets of Vieques, 
Culebra, Mona and Muertos) □ 3,606, p. 
953,243, * San Juan. 

Cities of more than 5,000 pop., in 1899: 


Aguadilla .6,425 Mayaguez .15,187 

Arecibo .8.008 Ponce .27,952 

Caguas .5,450 San Juan.32.048 

Guayama .5,334 Yauco .6,108 

Port Said, city, Egypt, p. 42,095. 

Portsmouth, city, Eng., p. 189,160. 


Portugal, kingdom, S. W. Europe, □ 34,528, 
p. 4,660,095, * Lisbon. 

Portuguese East Africa, E. of Transvaal, □ 
301,000, p. 3,120,000, * Lorenzo Marques, 
p. 6,630. 

Portuguese Guinea, W. Africa, □ 4,440, p. 

820,000. 

Portuguese West Africa, see Angola. 

Posen, city, Prussia, p. 117,014. 

Potsdam, city, Prussia, p. 58,455. 

Pozsong, city, Hungary, p. 61,861. 










































































































































74S 


Gazetteer of the *tOorld 


Prague, city, Austria, p. 204,478. 

Preston, city, Eng., p. 112,982. 

Pretoria, * Transvaal, p. (whites) 10,000. 
Prince Edward Island, G. of St. Lawrence, 
prov. of Canada, □ 2,000, p. 103,258, * 
Charlottetown. 

Providence, * R. I., p. 175,597. 

Prussia, Ger. kingdom, □ 134,603, p. 34,463,- 
377, 4 Berlin. 

Przemysl, city, Austria, p. 35,619. 

Puebla, state, Mex., □ 12,204, p. 973,876. — Its 

* p. 93 521. 

Pueblo, Colo., p. 28,157. 

Puerto Principe, city, Cuba, p. 25,102. 
Punjab, prov. Brit. India, □ 110,667, p. 22,- 
449,484. 

Punjab, states, Brit. India, □ 22,509, p. 
4,438,816. 

Q 

Quebec, prov. Canada, □ 347,350, p. 1,620,974, 

* Montreal. — city, Canada, p. 68,834. 
Queensland, state, Australia, □ 668,497, p. 

502,892, * Brisbane. 

Queretaro, state, Mex., □ 3,556, p. 224,848. — 
Its * p. 34,576. 

Quetta, city, Baluchistan, India. 

Quincy, Ill., p. 36,252. 

Quito, * Ecuador, p. 80,000. 


R 

Racine, Wis., p. 29,102. 

Radnor, co., Wales, □ 471, p. 23,263. 
Rajputana, state, India, □ 128,022, p. 9,841,- 
032. 

Rampur, city, India, p. 77,862. 

Rangoon, city, India, p. 232,326. 

Rathmines and Rathgar, city, Ireland, p. 
32,472. 

Ratisbon, city, Bavaria, Germany, p. 41,471. 
Ravenna, city, Italy, p. 68,065. 

Reading, Pa., p. 78,961. — town, Eng., p. 
72,214. 

Reggio di Calabria, city, Italy, p. 46,685. 
Reggio nell’Emilia, city, Italy, p. 60,462. 
Rennes, city, France, p. 69,937. 

Reunion, isl., 420 miles E. of Madagascar, 
belongs to France, □ 965, p. 173,192. 

Chief towns, St. Denis, St. Pierre, St. 
Paul and St. Louis. 

Reuss, Aeltere Linie, Ger. principality, □ 
122, p. 68,287, * Greiz, p. 22,296. 

Reuss, Juengere Linie, Ger. principality, □ 
319, p. 138,993, * Gera. 

Reval, city, Russia, p. 64,578. 

Rheims, city, France, p. 107,800. 

Rhode Island, No. Atlantic state, □ 1,250, p. 
428,556, * * Providence and Newport. 
Incorporated cities and town of 1,000 pop. 
or more in 1900: 

Central Falls. .18,167 Providence ..175,597 

Newport .22,034 Woonsocket ...28,204 

Pawtucket _39,231 

Rhodesia, large tract in So. Central Africa, 
div. by Zambesi Riv. into Northern and 
Southern Rhodesia, British, est. area □ 
362,000, p. (est.) 800,000. See Matabele- 
land and Mashonaland. 

Richmond, * Va., p. 85,050. 

Riga, city, Russia, p. 256,197. 

Rio de Janeiro, * Brazil, p. 780,000. 

Rio de Oro and Adrar, Sp. possess. W. 

Africa, □ 243,000, p. 100,000. 

Roanne, city, France, p. 33,912. 

Rochdale, town, p. 83,112. 

Rochefort, city, France, p. 34,329. 

Rochester, N. Y., p. 162,608. 

Rockford, Ill., p. 31,051. 

Rome, * Italy, p. 512,423. 

Rosario, city, Argentine Rep., p. 94,025. 
Rostock, city, Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Ger¬ 
many, p. 49,912. 

Rostov on Don, city, Russia, p. 119,889. 
Rotterdam, city, Holland, p. 319,866. 

Roubaix, city, France, p. 124,700. 

Rouen, city, France, p. 115,900. 


Rudolstadt, * Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, Ger¬ 
many, p, 11,907. 

Rumania, kingdom, E. Europe, □ 50,700, p. 
5,912,600, * Bucharest. 

Russia, empire, □ 8,644,100, p. 129,000.000, * 
St. Petersburg. 

Rustchuk, city, Bulgaria, p. 37,174. 

Rutland, co., Eng., □ 152, p. 19,708. 


Sacramento, * Cal., p. 29,282. 

Saginaw, Mich. p. 42,345. 

Saharanpur, city, India, p. 63,850. 

Sakai, city, Japan, p. 52,203. 

Salem, city, India, p. 70,627. 

Salerno, city, Italy, p. .39,239. 

Salford, city, Eng., p. 220,956. 

Salonica, city, Turkey, p. 105,000. 

Salop, co., Eng., □ 1,343, p. 239,297. 
Saltillo, city, Mexico, p. 26,801. 

Salvador, republic, Cen. Am., □ 7,225, p. 

803,534, * San Salvador, p. 50,000. 

Salzburg, prov. Austria, □ 2,767, p. 193,247. 
St. Croix, isl. West Indies, belongs to Den¬ 
mark, □ 74, p. 18,000. 

St. Denis, city, France, p. 54,432. 

St. Etienne, city, France, p. 146,700. 

St. Helena, isl. So. Atlantic, British, n 47, 
p. 5.000, 

St. Helens, town, Eng., p. 84,410. 

St. John, city. New Brunswick, Canada, p. 
40,711. — Isl, West Indies, belongs to Den¬ 
mark, □ 23, p. 1,000. 

St. Joseph, Mo., p. 102,979. 

St. Louis. Mo., p. 575,238. 

Ste, Marie, No. coast of Madagascar of 
which it is a dependency, □ 64, p. 9 - 
500. 

St. Nazaire, city, France, p. 30,813. 

St, Nicholas, city, Belgium, p. 30,288. 

St. Ouen, city, France, p. 30,715. 

St. Paul, * Minn., p. 163,065. 

St. Paul de Loanda, * Angola, p. 15,000. 

St. Petersburg, * Russia, p. 1,267,023. 

St. Quintin, city, France, p. 48,868. 

St. Thomas, isl. West Indies, belongs to Den¬ 
mark, □ 23, p 17,000. 

Salem, Mass., o. 35,956. 

Salt Lake City, * Utah, p. 53,531. 

Samar, isl. Philippines, □ 4,800. 

Samara, city, Russia, p. 91,672. 

Samarcand, city, Rus. Turkestan, p. 54,900. 
Samoa (or Navigator Islands), group in So. 
Pacific, belongs to Germany and TJ. S., 

□ 1,076. 

Samos, isl. Mediterranean, Turkish principal¬ 
ity, □ 180, p. 54,830, * Vathi. 

San Antonio, Tex., p. 53,321. 

San Francisco, Cal., p. 342,782. 

San Jose, * Costa Rica, p. 25,000. 

San Juan, * Porto Rico, p. 32,048. 

San Luis Potosi, state, Mexico, □ 25,316, p. 

562,195. — Its * p. 61,009. 

San Marino, republic, Italian pen., □ 23, 
p. 9.500. u 

Santa Cruz, city, Canary Isl.. p. 33,421. 

San Paulo, city, Brazil, p. 64,934. 

San Salvador, * Salvador, p, 50,000. 
Santander, city, Spain, p. 50,640. 

Santiago, * Chile, p. 320,638. — city, Cuba, 
p. 43.090. 

Santo Domingo, republic, isl. of Haiti, n 18,- 
045, p. 610,000, * Santo Domingo, p. 

14,150. 

Sarajevo, * Bosnia and Herzegovina, p. 38,- 
083. 

Saratov, city, Russia, p. 137,109. 

Sarawak, ter. on N. W. coast Borneo (Brit.), 

□ 50,000, p. 500,000, * Kuching. 
Saskatchewan, ter. Canada, □ 114,000. 
Sas'sari, city, Italy, p. 41,208. 

Savannah, Ga., p. 54,244. 

Saxe-Altenburg, Ger. duchy, n 511, p. 194 - 
273, * Altenburg. 

Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, Ger. duchy, n 755, p. 

229,567, * Gotha and Coburg. 
Saxe-Meiningen, Ger. duchy, □ 953, p. 250,683, 
* Meiningen, p. 12,869. 






Gazetteer o_f the 'World 


749 


Saxe-Weimar, Ger. grand-duchy, □ 1,388, p. 
362,018, * Weimar. 

Saxony, Ger. kingdom, □ 5,787, p. 4,199,758, 
* Dresden. 

Schaumburg-Lippe, Ger. principality, □ 131, 
p. 43,132, * Buckeburg, p. 5,620. 
Schenectady, N. Y., p. 31,682. 
Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, Ger. principality, □ 
363, p. 92,657, * Rudolstadt, p. 11,907. 
Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, Ger. principali¬ 
ty, □ 333, p. 80,678, * Sondershausen and 
Arnstadt. 

Schwerin, * Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Germany, 
p. 36,388. 

Scotland, pt. of Great Britain, □ 29,784, p. 

4,471,954, * Edinburgh. 

Scranton, Pa., p. 102,026. 

Seattle, Wash., p. 80,671. 

Sebastopol, city, Russia, p. 50,710. 

Sendai, city, p. 83,325. 

Senegal, Fr. colony, in W. Africa, bet. Sahara 
and R. Gambia. □ 115,800, p. 2,000,000. 
Seoul, * Korea, p. 201,000. 

Seraing, city, Belgium, p. 39,102. 

Servia, kingdom. S. E. Europe, p. 19,050, 
2,312,484, * Belgrade. 

Sevilla, city, Spain, p. 146,205. 

Shahjahinpur, city, India, p. 75,662. 

Shanghai, city, China, p. 586,000. 

Shansi, prov. China, □ 66,700, p. 12,211,000. 
Shantung, prov. China, □ 55.500, p. 36,248,000. 
Sheffield, city, Eng., p. 380,717. 

Shensi, prov., China, □ 74,000, p. 8,432,000. 
Shiraz, city, Persia, p. 50,000. 

Sholapur, city, India, p. 74,521. 

Siam, kingdom, S. E. Asia, □ 200,000, p. 
5,000,000, * Bangkok. 

Siberia, prov. Russia, □ 4,833,496, p. 5, 727.090. 
Siena, city, Italy, p. 31,367. 

Sierra Leon, Brit. W. Africa, crown colony, 

□ 4,000, p. 74,835, * Freetown, p. 30,033. 
Si-gnan-fu, city, China, on Weit R., p. (est.) 

750,000. 

Sikkim, India, feudatory state in Himalayas, 

□ 2,818, p. 30,458, * Tumlong. 

Silesia, prov. Austria, □ 1,987, p. 680,529. 
Sinaloa, state, Mex., □ 33,671, p. 256,858. 
Sioux City, Iowa, p. 33,111. 

Sivas, city, Asia Minor, p. 43,100. 

Smyrna, city, Asia Minor, p. 201,000. 

Sofia, * Bulgaria, p. 46,593. 

Sokoto' Empire (Fula), included in Nigeria. 
Sokotra, isl. S. of Arabia (British), □ 1,382, 

p. 12,000. 

Solomon Islands, E. of N?w Guinea, belong to 
Germany and Great Britain, □ 12,000. 
Somali Coast, Africa, Gulf of Aden, British, 
'□ 68,000, * Berbera, p. 30,000. 

Somerset, co., Eng., □ 1.624, p. 385,060. 
Somerville, Mass., p. 61.643. 

Sonora, state, Mex., □ 76,900, p. 189,158. 

South African Republic, Boer Republic, So. 
Africa, taken by British in 1900. See 
Transvaal Colony. 

South America, see America. 

Southampton, co., Eng.. □ 1,466, p. 377,118, 
— city, Eng., p. 104,911. 

South Australia, state. Australia, □ 903,690, 
p. 362.595, * Adelaide. 

South Bend, Ind., p. 35,999. 

South Carolina, So. Atlantic state, □ 30,570, 
p. 1,340,316, * Columbia. 

Incorporated cities and towns of 1,000 pop. 
or more in 1900: 

Abbeville ..3,766 

Aiken .3,414 

Allendale .1,030 

Anderson ...5,498 

Bamberg .1,533 

Barnwell .1,329 

Beaufort .4,110 

Bennettsville ...1,929 

Blacksburg .1,285 

Blackville .1,116 

Branchville .1,101 

Brookland .1.089 

Camden .2.441 

Charleston .55,807 


Cheraw .1,151 

Chester .4,075 

Clinton .1.869 

Columbia .21.108 

Darlington .3,028 

Dillon .1,015 

Edgefield .1,775 

Florence .4,647 

Fort Mill.1,394 

Gaffney .3,937 

Georgetown ....4,138 

Greenville .11,860 

Greenwood .4,824 

Lancaster .1,477 


South Carolina.—Continued. 


Laurens .4,029 

McColl .1,311 

Manning .1,430 

Marion .1,831 

Mt. Pleasant_2,252 

Newberry .4,607 

Orangeburg .. . .4,455 
Rock Hill.5.4S5 


Spartanburg ...11,395 
Summerville ....2,420 

Sumter .5.673 

Union .5,400 

Walhalla .1,307 

Walterboro .1,491 

Wlnnsboro .1,765 

Yorkville .2,012 


South Dakota, No. Central state, □ 77,650, 
p. 401,570, * Pierre. 


Incorporated cities and towns of 1,000 or 
more pop. in 1900: 


Aberdeen ... 

....4,087 

Milbank . 

....1,426 

Beresford .. 

....1,046 

Mitchell . 


Brookings .. 

....2,346 

Pierre . 

_2,306 

Canton . 

....1,943 

Rapid City... 

...1,342 

Deadwood .. 

....3.498 

Sioux Falls... 

...10,266 

Dell Rapids.. 


Spearfish . 

...1,166 

Elk Point.... 

....1,081 

Sturgis . 

...1,100 

Flandreau .. 

....1,244 

Tyndall . 

.. .1,167 

Hot Springs. 

....1,319 

Vermilion ... 

...2.183 

Huron . 

....2.793 

Watertown .. 

...3,352 

Lead City.... 

... .6.210 

Webster, .... 

.. .1,506 

Madison .... 

....2,550 

Yankton .... 

.. .4,125 

>uth Omaha, 

Neb., p. 

26,001. 



Southern Rhodesia, (Matabeleland and Ma- 
shonaland), So. Africa, □ 192,000, p. 462,- 
000, * Salisbury. 

South Shields, town, Eng., p. 97,267. 

Spain, kingdom, S. W. Europe, □ 197,670, 
p. 18,226,040, * Madrid. 

Spandau, city, Prussia, p. 55,841. 

Spokane, Wash., p. 36,848. 

Springfield, * Ill., p. 34,159, — Mass., p. 62,059, 
— Ohio, p. 38, 253. 

Srinagar, city, India, p. 122,536. 

Stafford, co., Eng., □ 1,142, p. 879,618. 
Stavropol, city, Caucasus, Russia, p. 41,621. 
Steppes, The, prov., Russia, □ 908,073, p. 
3,451,385. 

Stettin, city, Prussia, p. 210,680. 

Stockholm, * Sweden, p. 302,462. 

Stockport, town, Eng., p. 78,871. 

Straits Settlements, Brit, crown colony, 
Malay Pen., □ 27,083, p. 512,342, * Singa¬ 
pore. 

Strassburg, * Alsace-Lorraine, Germany, p. 

150,268. 

Stuttgart, * Wurttemberg, Germany, p. 176 - 
318. 

Styria, prov., Austria, □ 8,670, p. 1,356,058. 
Suchon, city. China, p. (est.) 500,000. 

Sucre. * Bolivia, p. 27,350. 

Suffolk (East), co., Eng., □ 859, p. 189,152, — 
(West), co., Eng., □ 609, p. 117,535. 

Sulu Islands, E. of Borneo (U. S.), □ 950, 

p. 80,000. 

Sumatra, isl., Dutch East Indies, □ 161,612, 
p. 3,209,037. 

Sunderland, city, Eng., p. 146,565. 

Superior, Wis., p. 31,091. 

Surat, city, India, p. 118,364. 

Surinam, see Dutch Guiana. 

Surrey, co., Eng., □ 707, p. 519,521. 

Sussex (East), co., Eng., □ 822, p. 261,691, 
— (West), co., Eng., □ 629, p. 151,541. 
Swansea, city, Wales, p. 94.514. 

Sweden, pt. of kingdom of Europe, □ 172,876, 
p. 5,097,402, * Stockholm. 

Sweden and Norway, kingdom, N. Europe, 
□ 297.321, p. 7,328,797. 

Switzerland, republic, Cen. Europe, □ 15,976, 
p. 3,327,207, * Bern. 

Sydney, New South Wales, p. 488,968. 
Syracuse, N. Y., p. 108,374, — (St. Siracusa), 
city. Sicily, p. 26,346. 

Syria, Turkish prov., Asia, □ 109,509, p. 3, 
317,600. 

Szabadka, city, Hungary, p. 72,588. 

Szeged, city, Hungary, p. 100,552. 


T 

Tabasco, state, Mex., □ 10,072, p. 133,926. 
Tabriz', city, Persia, p. 180,000. 

Tacoma, Wash., p. 37,714. 



























































750 


Gazetteer of the XTOorld 


Taganrog, city, Russia, p. 51,965. 

Talca, city, Chile, p. 42,625. 

Tamaulipas, state, Mex., □ 32,128, p. 203,342. 
Tangier, city, Morocco, p. 30,000. 

Tanjore, city, India, p. 57,605. 

Tantah, city, Egypt, p. 57,289. 

Tashkend, city, Rus. Turkestan, p. 156,414. 
Tasmania, isl., state, Australia, □ 26,215, p. 

171,066, * Hobart. 

Taunton, Mass., d. 31,036. 

Tegucigalpa, * Honduras, p. 12,600. 

Teheran', * Persia, p. 250,000. 

Temesvar, city, Hungary, p. 49,977. 
Tennessee, So. Central state, □ 42,050, p. 
2,020,616, * Nashville. 

Incorporated cities and towns of 1,000 pop. 
or more in 1900: 


Athens . 

...1,849 

Lexington ... 

.. .1,332 

Bolivar . 

...1,035 

McKenzie .... 

.. .1,266 

Bristol . 

..5,271 

McMinnville . 

...1.980 

Brownsville .. 

...2 645 

Martin . 


Chattanooga . 

..30,154 

Memphis . 

.102,320 

Clarksville ... 

. .9,431 

Milan . 

. ..1,682 

Cleveland . 

..3,858 

Morristown .. 

...2,973 

Clinton . 

.. .1,111 

Mt. Pleasant. 

...2,007 

Columbia . 

..6,052 

Murfreesboro 

...3,999 

Covington .... 

..2,787 

Nashville .... 

..80,865 

Dayton . 

..2,004 

Newbern . 

...1,433 


.. 1,363 

Newport . 

. 1,630 

Dyer . 

.. .1,204 

Obion . 

. ..LC34 

Dyersburg .... 

...3,647 

Paris . 

.. 2,018 


...2.708 

Pulaski . 


Franklin . 

.. .2,180 

Ripley . 

...1,640 

Gallatin . 

...2,409 

Rockwood ... 

...2,899 

Greeneville ... 

. ..1,817 

Rogersville .. 

...1,386 

Harriman .... 


Shelbyville ... 

...2.236 

Humboldt _ 

,. .2,866 

So. Pittsburg. 

...1,789 

Huntingdon ., 

, .1,332 

Springfield .. 

...1,732 

Jackson. 

.14,511 

Sweetwater .. 

.. .1,716 

Jeilico . 

. .1,283 

Trenton . 

...2.328 

Johnson City. . 

. .4,645 

Tullahoma .. 

...2,684 

Knoxville . 

.32,637 

Union City... 

...3,407 

Lebanon . 


Winchester .. 

...1,338 


Lewisburg .1,421 


Tepee, ter., Mex., □ 11.275, p. 146,805. 

Terre Haute, Ind., d. 36,673. 

Texas, So. Central state, □ 265,780, p. 3,- 
048,710, * Austin. 

Incorporated cities and towns of 1,000 pop. 
or more in 1900: 


Abilene . 

..3,411 

El Paso . 

.15,906 

Alvarado . 

..1,342 

Ennis . 

..4,919 

Amarillo . 

..1,442 

Farmersville . 

...1,856 

Arlington .... 

...1,079 

Flatonia . 

...1,210 

Atlanta . 




Austin . 

.22,258 

Gainesville ... 

..7.874 

Baird . 

..1,502 

Galveston . 

.37.789 

Ballinger . 

. .1.128 

Gatesville . 


Bastrop . 

. .2,145 

Georgetown ... 

..2,790 

Beaumont .... 

. .9,427 

Goldthwaite .. 

..1,282 

Belton . 

..3.700 

Gonzales . 

..4,297 

Bonham . 

..5,042 

Granbury . 

..1,410 

Bowie . 

..2,600 

Greenville .... 

..6.860 

Brenham . 

..5,968 

Groesbeck .... 

..1,462 

Brownsville ... 

..6,305 

Hallettsville .. 

..1,457 

Brownwood .. 

..3.965 

Hearne . 

..2.129 

Bryan . 



1 fil 4 

Burnet . 

. .1.003 

Hico . 

..1.480 

Caldwell . 

. .1,535 

Hillsboro . 

..5.346 

Calvert . 

. .3.322 

Honey Grove.. 

..2,483 

Cameron . 



44 

Cisco . 

..1,514 

Hubbard . 

. .1,608 

Clarksville ... 

..2.069 

Huntsville ... 

..2,485 

Cleburne . 

..7.493 

Italy . 

. .1.061 

Coleman . 



1 977 

Columbus .... 

..1.824 

Jacksboro . 

..1,311 

Comanche .... 

..2,070 

Jacksonville .. 

..1.568 

Commerce .... 

..1,800 

Jefferson . 

..2.850 

Cooper . 


Kaufman . 

..2,378 

Corpus Christi. 

..4,703 

Kerrville . 

..1.423 

Corsicana . 

..9,313 

Ladonia . 

..1,409 

Crockett . 

..2,612 

La Grange ... 

..2,392 

Cuero . 

..3.422 

Lampasas .... 

. .2,107 

Dallas . 

.42,638 

Lancaster .... 

. .1,045 

Decatur . 

..1,562 

Laredo __ 

.13,429 

Denison . 

.11.807 

Lockhart . 

..2,306 

Denton . 

..4,187 

Longview .... 

..3,591 

Dublin . 

..2,370 

Lufkin . 

..1,527 

.Eagle Lake... 


Luling . 

..1,349 


Texas.—Continued. 


McGregor .. 

.1,435 

Sherman . 

.10,243 

McKinney . 

.4,342 

Smithville .... 

. .2,577 

Marlin . 

.3,092 

Stephenville .. 

. .1,902 

Marshall .... 

.7,855 

Sulphur Spgs. 

..3,635 

Mexia . 


Taylor .... 

. 4 211 

Mineola .... 

.1.725 

Temple . 

..7,065 

Mineral Wells.. .2,048 

Terrell . 

..6,330 

Nacogdoches 

.. .1,827 

Texarkana .... 


Navasota .. 

.3.857 

Tyler . 

..8,069 

New Braunfels..2,097 

Uvalde . 

..1,8S9 

Oak Cliff... 

.3,630 

Van Alstyne .. 

..1,940 

Orange . 

.3,835 

Vernon . 

. .1,993 

Palestine .. 

.8,297 

Victoria . 

..4,010 

Paris . 

.....9,358 

Waco . 

.20,686 

Pittsburg ... 

.1,783 

Waxahachie .. 

..4,215 

Plano . 

.1,301 

Weatherford .. 

..4,786 

Quanah . 

.1,651 

Weimar . 

..1,337 

Rockdale ... 

.2,515 

Whitesboro ... 

. .1,243 

Rockport ... 

.1,153 

Whitewright . 

..1,804 

Rockwall ... 

.1.245 

Wichita . 

..2,480 

San Antonio. 


Wills Point .. 

..1,347 

San Marcos 

_2,292 

Wolfe City ... 


Schulenburg 
Seguin . 

....1,149 
... .2,421 

Yoakum. 

..3,499 

The Hague, * 

Holland, 

p. 205,328. 


Tibet, depend. 

p. 6,000,000. 

, Chinese 

Empire, □ 651,500, 

Tientsin, city, 
1,000,000. 

China, on Peiho R., p. 

(est.) 


Tiflis, city, Caucasus, Russia, p. 160,645. 

Tilburg, city, Holland, p. 40,684. 

Tlaxcala, state, Mex., □ 1,595, p. 163,244. 

Tobago, isl., N. E. of Trinidad, British, n 
114, p. 21,400. 

Tobolsk, city, Siberia, p. 20,427. 

Togoland, Africa, German depend, on Slave 
Coast, □ 33,000, p. 2,500,000, * Lome. 

Tokusima, city, Japan, p. 61,501. 

Tokio, * Japan, p. 1,440,121. 

Toledo, Ohio, p. 131,822. 

Tomsk, city, Siberia, p. 52,430. 

Tonga (Friendly Islands), Brit, protectorate, 
□ 374, p. 20,000, * Nukualofa. 

Tongking (or Tonquin), Fr. posses., Indo¬ 
china, □ 119,660, p. 12,000,000, * Hanoi, 
p. 150,000. 

Topeka, * Kans., p. 33,608. 

Toronto, * prov., Ontario, Canada, p. 207,971. 

Toulon, city, France, p. 101,200. 

Toulouse, city, France, p. 147,700. 

Tourcoing, city, France, p. 73.353. 

Tournai, city, Belgium, p. 36,835. 

Tours, city, France, p. 63,267. 

Toyama, city, Japan, p. 59,558. 

Trans-Caucasia, prov., Russia, n 94,182, p 
5,516,139. 

Transvaal Colony, So. Africa, British, n 119 - 
139, p. 1,094,156, * Pretoria. 

Trapani, city, Italy, p. 51,747. 

Trebizond, city, Asia Minor, p. 35,000. 

Trenton, * N. J., p. 73,307. 

Treviso, city, Italy, p. 36,906. 

Trichinopoli, city, India, p. 104,690.. 

Trieste, city, Austria, p. 178,672. 

Trinidad, isl. No. of Orinoco R., British, □ 
1,754, p. 260,517, * Port of Spain, p. 34,037. 

Tripoli, Turkish prov. N. Africa, n 344,000 

p. 800,000. 

Trondhjem, city, Norway, p. 29,162. 

Troy, N. Y., p. 60,651. 

Troyes, city, France, p. 52,998. 

Tsaritsyn, city, Russia, p. 55,967. 

Tucuman, city, Argentine Rep., p. 34,300. 

Tula, city, Russia, p. 111,048. 

Tunis, Fr. protectorate, N. Africa, n 51,000, 
p. 1,900,000, * Tunis, p. 153,000. 

Turin, city, Italy, p. 359,295. 

Turkestan, prov. Russia, □ 257,134, p. 3,898,- 
076. 

Turkey (or Ottoman Empire), Europe, Asia 
and Africa, □ 1,580,000, p. 40,000,000, * 
Constantinople. 

Turkey, European, □ 65.752, p. 6,086.300 

Turkey, Asiatic, □ 650,394, p. 17,545,300. 

Turkey, African possessions, □ 398 900 p 
1,300,000. ’ 

Tutuila, isl. Samoa (U. S.), □ 54, p. 3 800 * 
Pago Pago. 

Tver/ city, Russia, p. 53,477. 









































































































































/ 


Gazetteer of the XOorld. 


751 


Tyrol and Vorarlberg, prov. Austria, □ 11,- 
324, p. 979,878. 


u 


Udine, city, Italy, p. 37,628. 

Uganda, protectorate, E. Africa, British, 
140,000, p. (est.) 3,000,000. 

Ulm, city, Wurttemberg, Germany, p. 39,304. 

Ulster, prov. Ireland (inc. Antrim, Armagh, 
Cavan, Donegal, Down, Fermanagh, Lon¬ 
donderry, Monaghan and Tyrone counties), 
□ 8,613, p. 1,581,351. 

Ungava, ter. Canada, □ 456,000. 

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ire¬ 
land, Europe, □ 120,979, p. 41,454,575, * 
London. 

United States of America, area (ex. Alaska 
and Hawaii) □ 3,622,933, p. (inc. Alaska 
and Hawaii) 76,303,387, * Washington. 

Upper Austria, prov. Austria, □ 4,631, p. 
809,910. 

Uralsk, city. The Steppes, Russia, p. 36,597. 

Uruguay, republic. So. Am., □ 72,210, p. 
900,600, * Montevideo. 

Utah, Western state, □ 84,970, p. 276,749, * 
Salt Lake City. 

Incorporated cities and towns of 1,000 pop. 
or more in 1900: 


American Fork.2,732 

Beaver .1,701 

Bountiful .1,442 

Brigham .2,859 

Cedar .1,425 

Ephraim .2,086 

Eureka .3.085 

Fairview .1,119 

Fillmore City...1.037 

Grantsville .1,058 

Heber .1,534 

Hyrum .1,652 

Kaysville .1,70S 

Lehi City.2,719 

Logan .5,451 

Manti .2,408 

Mercur .2,351 

Monroe .1,057 

Moroni .1,224 


Mt. Pleasant...2,372 


Nephi .2.208 

Ogden .16,313 

Park City.3 759 

Parowan .1,039 

Payson .2.636 

Pleasant Grove.2,460 

Provo City.6,185 

Richfield .1,969 

Richmond .1,111 

St. George.1,600 

Salt Lake 

City .53,531 

Sandy .1.030 

Smithfield .1.494 

Spanish Fork...2,735 

Spring City.1,135 

Springville .3,422 

Tooele .1,200 


Utica, N. Y., p. 56,383. 

Utrecht, city, Holland, p. 102,040. 




Valencia, city, Spain, p. 204,768. — city, Ven¬ 
ezuela, p. 38,654. 

Valladolid, city, Spain, p. 68,746. 

Valparaiso, city, Chile, p. 143,022. 

Vancouver, city, Brit. Columbia, p. 26,196. 
Varna, city, Bulgaria, p. 28,174. _ 

Venezuela, republic, So. Am., □ 593,943, p. 

2,444,816, * Caracas. 

Venice, city, Italy, p. 157,785. 

Vera Cruz, state, Mex., □ 29,201, p. 853,892. 

— city, Mex., p. 24,085. 

Vermont, No. Atlantic state, □ 9,565, p. 343,- 
641, * Montpelier. 

Incorporated cities and towns of 1,000 pop. 


Northfield .1,508 

Proctor .2,013 

Randolph .1,540 

Richford .1.513 

Rutland . • -..-...11,499 

St. Albans. 6,239 

St. Johnsbury. ..5.666 

Springfield .2,040 

Swanton .1,16! 

Vergennes .1,751 

Waterbury .1597 

Windsor .1,656 

Winooski .3,783 

Woodstock .1,284 


or more in 1900: 


Barre .8,448 

Barton .1,050 

Bellows Falls... .4,337 

Bennington .5,656 

Brattleboro .5,297 

Burlington .18,640 

Essex Junction. .1,141 

Fair Haven.2,470 

Hardwick .1,334 

Ludlow .1,454 

Londonville .1,274 

Middlebury .1,897 

Montpelier .6,266 

Morrisville .1,262 

.Newport .1,874 


Verona, city, Italy, p. 71,912. 

Versailles, city, France, p. 54,432. 

Verviers, city, Belgium, p. 52,496. 

Vevey, city, Switzerland, p. 32,982. 

Vicenza, city, Italy, p. 44,244. 

Victoria, state, Australia, □ 87,884, p. 1,195,- 
874, * Melbourne. 

Vienna, * Austria-Hungary, 4th city of 
Europe, p. 1,662,269. 

Villa Rica, city, Paraguay, p. 25,000. 

Vilna, city, Russia, p. 159,56*. 

Virginia, So. Atlantic state, □ 42,450, p. 
1,854,184, * Richmond. 

Incorporated cities and towns of 1,000 pop. 
or more in 1900: 


Abingdon .... 

. .1.306 

Manchester .. 

..9,715 

Alexandria ... 

.14,528 

Marion . 


Ashland . 

. .1.147 

Martinsville. 

. 2.384 

Basic City. 

, .1,270 

Newport News 19.635 

Bedford City... 

..2.416 

Norfolk . 

.46,624 

Berkley . 

. .4,988 

Petersburg ... 

.21,810 

Big Stone Gap.1.617 

Phoebus . 

..2,094 

Bristol . 

.4,579 

Pocahontas .. 

..2.789 

Buena Vista.., 

. .2,388 

Portsmouth .. 

.17.427 

Cape Charles.. 

.1,040 

Pulaski . 

..2,S13 

Charlottesville. 

6,449 

Radford . 


Clifton Forge.. 

.3,212 

Richmond .... 

.85,050 

Covington .... 


Roanoke . 

.21,495 

Crewe . 

.1,329 

Salem . 

..3,412 

Culpeper . 

.1.618 

Saltville . 

..1.051 

Danville . 

16,520 

Scottsville ... 

. .1.248 

Emporia . 

.1,027 

Shenandoah . 

..1.220 

Falls Church.. 

.1,007 

Smithfield .... 

..1,225 

Farmville . 

.2,471 

South Boston. 

..1.851 

Franklin . 

.1.143 

Staunton . 

..7.239 

Fredericksburg 

5.068 

Suffolk . 

. .3.827 

Front Royal... 

.1,005 

Tazewell . 

. 1.096 

Graham . 

.1.554 

Vinton . 

. .1.438 

Hampton . 

.2.764 

Warrenton ... 

..1.627 

Harrisonburg . 

.3,521 

West Point... 

. .1.307 

Leedsburg . 

.1.513 

Williamsburg 

..2.044 

Lexington . 

.3,203 

Winchester .. 

..5.161 

Luray . 

.1.147 

Woodstock ... 

..1.069 

Lynchburg .... 

18,891 

Wytheville .. 

..3,003 

Vitebsk, city, Russia, p. 

66,143. 



Vitoria, city, Spain, p. 30,514. 

Vladikavkaz, city, Caucasus, Russia, p. 43,- 
843. 

Vladivostok, city. Siberia, p. 38,896. 
Voronezh, city, Russia, p. 84,146. 

w 


Wakayama, city, Japan, p. 63,667. 

Waldeck, Ger. principality, □ 433, p. 57,913, 
* Arolsen, p. 2,768. 

Wales, pt. of Great Britain, □ 7,441. 
Walsall, town, Eng., p. 86,440. 

Warrington, town, Eng., p. 64,241. 

Warsaw, city, Poland, Russia, p. 638,209. 
Warwick, co. Eng., □ 879, p. 347,691. 
Washington, Western state, □ 69,180, p. 518,- 
103, * Olympia. 

Incorporated cities and towns of 1,000 pop. 
or more in 1900: 


Aberdeen .3,747 

Anacortes .1.476 

Ballard .4,568 

Blaine .1,592 

Buckley .1,014 

Centralia .1,600 

Chehalis .1,775 

Colfax .2.121 

Cosmopolis ....1,004 

Davenport .1,000 

Dayton .2,216 

Ellensburg .1,737 

Everett .7,838 

Falrhaven .4,228 

Hoquiam .2,608 

Montesano .1.194 


New Whatcom.9,135 
North Yakima. .3,154 

Olympia .3,863 

Port Angeles.. .2,321 
Port Townsend..3.443 

Pullman .1,308 

Puyallup .1.884 

Republic .2.050 

Roslyn .2,786 

Seattle .80 671 

Snohomish .2,101 

Spokane .36,848 

Steilacoom .1,015 

Tacoma .37,714 

Vancouver .3,126 

Waitsburg .1,011 

Wallawalla .. .10,049 


Mt. Vernon.1,120 

Washington, D. C., * U. S. A., p. 278,718. 
Waterbury, Conn., p. 45,859. 

Waterford, city, Ireland, p. 26,743. 
Wei-Hai-Wei, city and port, Shantung, prov. 
China, leased to British (1898), □ 270, p. 
118,000. 




















































































































752 


Gazetteer of the XOorld 


Weimar, • Saxe-Weimar, Germany, p. 26,- 
670. 

Weisbaden, city, Prussia, p. 74,133. 
Wellington, * New Zealand, p. 37,441. 

West Bromwich, town, Eng., p. 65,172. 
Western Australia, state, Australia, □ 975,- 
920, p. 182,553, * Perth. 

West Ham, city, Eng., p. 267,308. 
Westmoreland, co. Eng., □ 783, p. 64,411. 
West Virginia, So. Atlantic state, □ 24,780, 
p. 958,800,* Charleston. 

Incorporated cities and towns of 1,000 pop. 
or more in 1900: 


Ansted . 


Mannington .. 

..1,681 

Benwood . 

..4,511 

Martinsburg . 

. .7,564 

Bluefield . 

..4,644 

Monongah ... 

. .1,786 

Buckhannon . 

..1,589 

Montgomery . 

..1,594 

Central City.. 

..1,580 

Morgantown . 

..1,895 

Ceredo . 

. .1,279 

Moundsville . 

..5,362 

Charles Town. 

..2,392 

.11,099 

New Cumber- 


Charleston ... 

land . 

..2,198 

Clarksburg .. 

..4.050 

New Martinsv’e.1,089 

Davis . 

..2,391 

Parkersburg . 

.11,703 

Elkins . 

..2.016 

Piedmont _ 

..2,115 

Fairmont .... 

..5,655 

Point Pleasant 

. .1,934 

Grafton . 

..5,650 

Ravenswood .., 

. .1,074 

Guyandot .... 

..1,450 

Shepherdstown 

.1,184 

Hinton . 

..3,763 

Sistersville ... 

.2,379 

Huntington .. 

.11,923 

Thomas . 

..2,126 

Keyser . 

..2,536 

Wellsburg .... 

..2,588 

Keystone . 

..1,088 

Weston . 

.2,560 

McMechen ... 


Wheeling __ 

.38,378 


Wheeling, W. Va., p. 38,878. 

Wigan, town, Eng., p. 60,770. 

Wilkesbarre, Pa., p. 51,721. 

Williamsport, Pa., p. 28,757. 

Wilmington, Del., p. 76,508. 

Wilts, co., Eng., □ 1,375, p. 271,372. 

Windward Islands, Brit. West Indies (com¬ 
prise Grenada, St. Vincent, the Grenadines 
and St. Lucia), total area □ 508, p. 

159,793. 

Winnipeg, * prov. Manitoba, Canada, p. 42,- 
336. 

Wisconsin, No. Central state, □ 56,040, p. 
2,069,042, * Madison. 

Incorporated cities and towns of 1,000 pop. 
or more in 1900: 

Algoma .1,738 

Alma .1.201 

Antigo .5,145 

Appleton .15,085 

Arcadia .1,273 

Ashland .13,074 

Augusta .1,256 

Baraboo .5,751 

Barron .1.493 

Bayfield .1,689 

Beaverdam .5.128 

Beloit .10,436 

Berlin ..4,489 

Black River 

Falls .1,938 

Boscobel .1,637 

Brodhead .1,584 

Burlington .2.526 

Cedarburg .1,626 

Chilton .1,460 

Chippeway F’ls.8,094 
Clintonville ....1,653 

Columbus .2.349 

Cudahy .1,366 

Cumberland ...1.328 

Darlington .1,808 

Delavan .2,244 

Depere .4,038 

Dodgeville .1,865 

Durand .1,458 

Eau Claire.17,517 

Edgerton .2,192 

Elkhorn .1,731 

Ellsworth .1,052 

Elroy .1,685 

Evansville .1,864 

Fennimore .1,035 


Wisconsin.—Continued. 


New Lisbon... 

. .1,014 

Sheboygan ... 

.22,962 

New London.. 

..2,742 

Sheboygan 


New Richmond 

1,631 

Falls . 

..1,301 

North Milwau- 


Shullsburg ... 

..1,250 

kee . 

..1.049 

South Milwau- 


Oconomowoc .. 

,.2,880 

kee . 

..3,392 

Oconto _... 


Sparta . 


Omro . 

. .1,358 

Spring Valley. 

. .1,021 

Onalaska . 

. .1,368 

Stanley . 

..2,387 

Oshkosh .. 

.28.284 

Stevens Point. 

..9,524 

Phillips .. 

..1,820 

Stoughton .... 

..3,431 

Platteville _ 

..3,340 

Sturgeon Bay. 

..3,372 

Plymouth . 

.2,257 

Superior . 

.31,091 

Portage . 


Tomah .. 

. .2,840 

Port Washing- 


Tomahawk .... 

..2,291 

ton . 

.3,010 

Two Rivers.... 

..3,784 

Prairie duChien 3,232 

Viroqua . 

. .1,950 

Prescott . 

.1,002 

Waterloo . 

, .1,137 

Princeton . 

.1,202 

Watertown .... 

.8,437 

Racine . 

29,102 

Waukesha .... 

.7,419 

Reedsburg .... 

.2,225 

Waupaca . 

.2,912 

Rhinelander .. 

.4,998 

Waupun . 

.3,185 

Rice Lake. 

.3.002 

Wausau . 

12,354 

Richland C’nt’r.2,321 

Wauwatosa ... 

.2,842 

Ripon . 

.3,818 

West Bend. 

.2,119 

River Falls.... 

.2,008 

Whitewater ... 

.3,405 

Seymour . 

.1,026 

Winneconne .. 

.1,042 

Shawano . 

.1,863 




Woonsocket, R. I., p. 28,204. 

Worcester, Mass., p. 118,421. — co. Eng., 

□ 740, p. 358,356. — Its * p. 46,623. 
Worms, city, Hesse, Germany, p. 33,175. 
Wuhu, city, China, on Yangtse R., p. 85,000. 
Wurttemberg, Ger. kingdom, □ 7,528, p. 2,- 
165,765, * Stuttgart. 

Wurzburg, city, Bavaria, Germany, p. 68,747. 
Wyoming, Western state, □ 97,890, p. 92,531, 

* Cheyenne. 

Incorporated cities and towns of 1,000 pop. 
or more in 1900: 

Cheyenne .14,087 Rawlins.2,317 

Evanston .2,110 Rock Springs.. .4,363 

Green River-1.361 Sheridan .1,559 

Laramie .8,207 

Y 

Yarmouth, Great, town, Eng., p. 51,250. 
Yaroslovl, city, Russia, p. 70,610. 

Yeisk, city, Caucasus, Russia, p. 35,446. 
Yekaterinburg, city, Siberia, p. 55,488. 
Yekaterinodar, city, Caucasus, Rus., p. 65,- 
697. 

Yekaterinoslav, city, Russia, p. 121,216. 
Yemen, Turkish prov. Arabia, □ 77,200, p. 
750,000. 

Yezd, city, Persia, p. 45,000. 

Yonkers, N. Y., p. 47.931. 

Yokohoma, city, Japan, p. 193,762.. 

York, Pa., p. 33,708 — co. Eng. (E. W. and 
N. Ridings), □ 5,939, p. 1,891,726. — Its 

* p. 77,793. 

Youngstown, Ohio, p. 44,885. 

Yucatan, state, Mex., □ 35,203, p. 297,088. 
Yukon, ter. Canada, □ 198,300. 

Yunnan, prov. China, □ 155,000, p. 11,722,000. 

z 

Zacatecas, state, Mex., □ 24,757, p. 447,265. 

— Its * p. 32,856. 

Zagazig, city, Egypt, p. 35,715. 

Zagrab, city, Hungary, p. 57,930. 

Zanzibar Protectorate (including islands of 
Zanzibar and Pemba), British, □ 1,020, 
p. 200,000, * Zanzibar, p. 30,000. 

Zaragoza, city, Spain, p. 98.188. 

Zhitomir, city, Russia, p. 35,452. 

Zittau, city, Saxony, p. 28,132. 

Zululand, prov. of Natal, So. Africa, □ 10,470. 
Zurich, city, Switzerland, p. 150,239. 

Zwickau, city, Saxony, p. 50,391. 


Fond du Lac..15,110 
Fort Atkinson. .3,043 
Fountain City. .1,031 


Glenwood .1,789 

Grand Rapids.. .4,493 

Green Bay.18,681 

Hartford .1,632 

Horicon .1,376 

Hudson .3,259 

Janesville .13,185 

Jefferson .2,584 

Kaukauna .5,115 

Kenosha .11,606 

Kewaunee .1,773 

Kilbourne City.1,134 

La Crosse.28,895 

Lake Geneva. ..2,585 

Lake Mills.1,387 

Lancaster .2,403 

Lodi .1.068 

Madison .19,164 

Manitowoc ....11,786 

Marinette .16,195 

Marshfield .5,240 

Mauston .1,718 

Mayville .1,815 

Medford .1,758 

Menasha .5,589 

Menominee .5,655 

Merrill .8,537 

Milwaukee ...285,315 
Mineral Point...2,991 

Mondovi .1,208 

Monroe .3,927 

Necedah .1.209 

Neenah .5,954 

Neilsville .2,104 





















































































































r 


INDEX 


A. 

PAGE 

Abandoned Cities of Holland.389 

Abyssinia and Its Ancient Christian Faith...426 

Abyssinia, Coffee in .217 

Abyssinians, a Group of, in Their Own Coun¬ 
try .424 

Abyssinian Women in Holiday Dress.423 

Accidents in the United States.593 

Acetylene Gas .305 

Aconcagua, the Highest American Mountain.368 

Aden, Arabia, Boy Caught by a Shark.466 

Adulteration in Alcoholic Liquors.703 

Adulteration of Baking Powder.699, 700 

Adulteration of Food.698 

Aerial Navigation .257 

Afghanistan, the “Buffer Nation”.437 

Africa, Abyssinia .217, 423, 424, 426 

Africa, Algeria .404 

Africa, Christianity in Abyssinia.426 

Africa, Coffee in .215 

Africa, Congo Free State.255 

Africa, Diamond Mines of Kimberley.. .423, 633 


Africa, Extinct Animals in.535 

Africa, French Railway Across the Sudan.. 46 

Africa, Hunting Elephants.251 

Africa, Irrigation in the Sahara.320 

Africa, Kongo Free State .255 

Africa, Liberia, the American Colony in 217, 418 

Africa, Morocco .404, 416 

Africa, Natal .255 

Africa, Ostriches in South.420 

Africa, Ostrich Farms in.255 

Africa, Pygmies in Central.419 

Africa, Rivers of .727 

Africa, South, Diamond Mines.423, 633 

Africa, Suez Canal .194, 411 

Africa, Troglodytes of.417 

African Railways . 45 

Ages to Which Animals Live.715 

Age, The Industrial . 33 

Aid to the Injured, First.591 

Air, Compressed, and Pneumatic Tubes.288 

Air Ferry-Bridge at Rouen.318 

Air-Ships a Success .257 

Aladdin Clock .303 

Alaska .337 

Alaska, Delivering Mail in.331 

Alaskan Glaciers .493 

Alaska, Totemism .344 

Alcoholic Liquors, Adulteration in.703 

Algeria, Uses of Cork .404 

Alligators on the Indian River, Florida.212 

Almanac, the Nautical .312 

Alum in Baking Powder.703 

Amazing Wonders of Nature.481 

America, Borajc jaa .499 


PAGE 

America, Catholic Pilgrims and Shrines in..341 
America, Center of Population in the United 


States .712 

America, Chicago Drainage Canal.197 

America, Child Labor Laws in.549 

America, Compulsory Education in.548 

America, Copper Mines in.119 

America, Crater Lake, Oregon.509 

America, Dakota “Bad Lands”.507 

America, Death Valley.496, 499 

America, Diamonds in .635 

America, Education in_548, 553, 556, 709, 721 

America, Erie Canal .196 

America, Extinct Animals in.535 

America, Facts about the United States... .719 

America, Farm Animals in the United 

States .713 

America, Fisheries in.75, 77, 79 

America, Flour Mills in .244 

America, Fur-Trading Companies in.338 

America, Geysers in .482 

America, Grain Production of United States.713 

America, Grand Canyon of Arizona.502 

America, Graphite Mines in.660 

America, Great Caves .524 

America, Great Trees in.489 

America, Hogs Packed and Marketed in the 

United States .137, 714 

America, How Immigrants Come to.325 

America, Hudson’s Bay Company.338 

America, Hudson’s Bay Railway. 43 

America, Mexico..43, 217, 239, 357, 358, 359, 361 
America, National Park Reserves in the 

United States .712 

America, Olives Raised in.213 

America, Oranges Raised in.209 

America, Ostrich Farms in.255 

America, Pearls in Rivers.628 

America, Public Lands in the United States.712 

America, Salt Fields in.239 

America, Textile Fabrics in .157 

America, the City of Quebec.340 

America, Tobacco Industry in.228 

America, Welland Canal .196 

America, Winter Sports in.560 

American Archives and National Institutions.328 

American Colleges and Their Growth.553 

American College Sports.556 

American Colony in Africa, Liberia, the.418 

American Forests, Lumbering in.151 

American Industrial Invasion of Europe. 57 

American Mountain, the Highest .368 

American Progress in Twenty Years.707 

American Railways . 43 

American Totemism ... 

American Vessels, Tonnage of.709 

Ammonia in Baking Powder ..70?. 

753 




































































































754 


Index 


PAGE 

Ammonia Used in Making Ice.248 

Animals, Age to Which They Live.715 

Animals Extinct .535 

Anniversaries, Historical .717 

Anniversaries, Marriage .718 

Antarctic Ocean, Area and Depth of.727 

Antarctic Regions .519 

Antidotes for Poisons .591, 592 

Antiquities, Recent Discoveries in Egyptian. .413 

Antwerp, Ivory Market in.255 

Apollo di Belvedere .402 

Arabia, Boy.Caught hy a Shark .466 

Arabia, Coffee in .217 

Arabia, Pilgrims to Mecca .433 

Arabian Desert .488 

Arabians .426, 427, 428 

Arbitration, Compulsory .466 

Archives, American, and National Institutions.328 
Arctic Exploration, Peary and the North Pole.334 

Arctic Ocean, Area of.727 

Arctic Regions, Alaska .337 

Arctic Regions, Aurora Borealis .527 

Arctic Regions, Delivering Mail in.331 

Arctic Regions, Glaciers and Icebergs.491 

Arctic Regions, Greenland .481 

Arctic Regions, Iceland .481 

Arctic Regions, Midnight Sun.527 

Area and Depth of Oceans.727 

Area of the Great Lakes . 71 

Areca Nut Palms .706 

Argentine Republic, Prosperity in.369 

Arizona, Copper Mines in.119 

Arizona, Grand Canyon of the Colorado 

River in .502 

Arizona, Ice Mines in.521 

Arizona, Ostrich Farms in.255 

Armies and Wars of the World To-day.565 

Armor Plate for Men-of-War .... 81 

Around the South Pole.519 

Artesian Wells, How They Are Bored.583 

Artificial Ice .248 

Artificial Silk, How Made.606 

Artillery Wound With Wire.649 

Art Work in Brass .578 

Asbestos Cloth That Will Not Burn.601 

Asia, Afghanistan .437 

Asia, Arabia....217, 426, 427, 428, 433, 466, 488 

Asia, Artificial Pearls in China.629 

Asia, Beggars in China.451 

Asia, Bokhara and Central.439 

Asia, Borneo .460 

Asia, Boy Caught by a Shark at Aden.466 

Asia, Buddhists in China .450 

Asia, Caspian Sea and Caucasus . 436 

Asia, Caves of Elephanta.441 

Asia, Central, and Bokhara .439 

Asia, Ceylon .215, 445, 660 

Asia, Ceylon Tea-Picker .446 

Asia, China.44, 218, 447, 450, 451, 453, 629 

Asia, Chinese Beggars .451 

Asia, Chinese Eastern Railway. 44 

Asia, Chinese Food and Cookery.447 

Asia, Colombo, Ceylon . 445 

Asia, Conjurers of India.440 

Asia, Extinct Animals in. 535 

Asia, Food and Cookery in China.447 


Agiq,, Grand Canal in China. f ,,,,,448 


PAGE 

Asia, Graphite Mines in Ceylon.660 

Asia, India.217, 218, 253, 440, 441, 540 

Asia, Indian Magicians .440 

Asia, Island of Saghalien.487 

Asia, Island Temples of India .441 

Asia, Ivory from .253 

Asia, Japan .218, 457 

Asia, Korea and Its Awakening.455 

Asia, Lhassa, Forbidden City .438 

Asia, Manchuria, Railways in. 44 

Asia, Mount Sinai .488 

Asia, Palestine . 486 

Asia, Persia .428 

Asia, Philippine Islands.459, 546 

Asia, Pilgrims to Mecca.433 

Asia, Railways of . 44 

Asia, Rivers of .727 

Asia, Ruby Mines in Burma.636 

Asia, Russian Ports on the Pacific Ocean ....453 

Asia, Saghalien Island .487 

Asia, Sarawak .460 

Asia, Siam .444 

Asia, Siberia.44, 253, 453, 454, 487, 540 

Asia, Tea in China.218 

Asia, Temples at Nikko, Japan .457 

Asia, Three Centuries of War in the East 

Indies .461 

Asia, Tibet, the Hermit Nation .439 

Asia, Transcaspian Railway . 45 

Asia, Yogi of India .440 

Asphalt Lake of Trinidad .495 

Astronomy .292, 522, 709 

Atlantic Ocean, Area and Depth of.727 

Atlantic Ocean, Bahama Islands..346 

Atlantic Ocean, Bermuda Islands.345 

Atlantic Ocean, Currents in .483 

Atlantic Ocean, Falkland Islands.472 

Atlantic Ocean, Fisheries in.75, 77, 79 

Atlantic Ocean, Glaciers and Icebergs.491 

Atlantic Ocean, Grand Banks Fisheries. .77, 494 

Atlantic Ocean, Isthmian Canal .195 

Atlantic Ocean, St. Helena.357 

Atlantic Ocean, the Maelstrom.484 

Aurora Borealis .529 

Australasia .463, 465 

Australasia, Tasmania .478 

Australia, Extinct Animals in.535 

Australia, Horse Racing in.564 

Australia, Railways of . 46 

Australia, Rivers of.727 

Australia, Telegraph Lines Across . 46 

Australia, Totemism .344 

Australia, United States of .463 

Austria, Salt Produced in.242 

Automobile and Its Development, the.264 

Automobile Race .263 

Average of Wealth for Each Inhabitant... .716 
Average Velocities of Various Bodies.710 

13 

Backward Republic, Bolivia.367 

Bad Lands of Dakota.507 

Bahamas, Negro Life in the .346 

Baking Powder, Pure and Adulterated.700 

Baku Oil Fields .436 

Balloons .257 



























































































































Indejc 


755 


PAGE 


Balloons, Military .259 

Baltic Sea Fisheries. 79 

Bananas, Gathering in Jamaica .347 

Bangkok, Capital of Siam .444 

Bank of England .374 

Banks .201 

Banks in United States.708 

Banks of Newfoundland, Grand.77, 494 

Bards and Druids, Welsh .380 

Barrels and Kegs.666 

Basket Making by Machinery .275 

Battles, Naval, in the Future. 89 

Beaumont, Texas, Oil Fields.436 

Beef Extract, How Made.688 

Beeswax and How It Is Prepared.619 

Beet and Cane Sugar, Production of....220, 715 

Beggars, Chinese .451 

Belgium, Ivory Market in Antwerp.255 

Belgium’s Great Trade .389 

Bell, Alexander Graham, Inventor of the 

Telephone .293 

Bells and How They Are Made.580 

Bells, Famous and Large.583 

Belvedere, Apollo di. ....402 


Bermuda, the Island of Lilies and Onions... .345 


Betel Nut Palms .706 

Big Canals, the World’s.194 

Big Check, for Eight Million Dollars .207 

Billiard Balls, How Made .251 

Bills of Sale. 595 


Binding Twine Made from Manila Hemp. 183, 614 


Biograph, Moving Picture Machine.285 

Birds, Extinct .541 

Bituminous Lake of Trinidad .495 

Blast Furnaces .105 

Blue Grotto of Capri.524 

Boards of Trade .201 

Boers Exiled to St. Helena.357 

Boers, Who Are the .421 

Bokhara and Central Asia .439 

Bolivia, the Backward Republic.367 

Books and Magazines, How Illustrated.172 

Borax and Its Production.499 

Borneo and Its White Rajah .460 

“Bounty,” the Mutineers of the .473 

Brass, Art Work in.578 

Brazil, Coffee in .216 

Brazil, India Rubber in.371,663 

Bridge, Brooklyn.569 

Bridge-Ferry at Rouen.318 

Bridge, Lift, Chicago .199 

Bridge, Tower, London .374 

Brocken, Spectre of the .485 

Brooke, White Rajah of Borneo .460 


Brooklyn Bridge, the Second and Greater.. .569 


Broom-corn and Broom Making.646 

Bucket Shops .205 

Buda-pest, Flour Mills in.244 

Buddhist Temple in China .450 

Buddhist Temples in Japan .457 

Buddhists in Tibet .440 

Buenos Ayres .370 


“Buffer Nation,” Afghanistan, the 

Building Methods in Cities . 

Burma, Ruby Mines in. 

Burns and Scalds, What to Do.. 
Bushel, Pounds Contained in. 


PAGE 

Butter, Chemical Analysis of .679 

Butterine and Oleomargarine.676 

Buttons, their Invention and Manufacture. .607 

C 

Cable Across the Pacific Ocean, First ..!_95 

Cable Railway Power Transmission .181 

Cables, Submarine, How Made . 95 

Cairo to Cape Railway . 45 

California, Borax in .499 

California, Death Valley .496 

California, Graphite Mines in .660 

California, Great Trees of .489 

California Olive Orchards .213 

California Orange Groves .209 

California, Ostrich Farms in.255 

California, Salt Field in.239 

Cameras, for Moving Pictures .285 

Cameras, Great .260 

Camphor Tree, a .227 

Canada, Fur-Trading Companies in .338 

Canada, Pilgrims and Shrines in .341 

Canada, Quebec .310 

Canada, Salt Produced in .242 

Canada, Sports in .560 

Canada, Welland Canal .196 

Canal Boats Operated by Trolley.272 

Canal, Chicago Drainage .197 

Canal, Erie .196 

Canal, Grand, in China .448 

Canal, Kiel .196 

Canal, Nicaragua .195 

Canal, Panama .195 

Canal, Suez .194, 411 

Canal, Welland .196 

Canals, World’s Big.194 

Cane and Beet Sugar .220 

Cane and Beet Sugar of the World, Produc¬ 
tion of .715 

Cane Sugar .224 

Cannon Wound with Wire .649 

Canyon of Arizona, Grand.502 

Cape Colony, Ostrich Farms in.255 

Cape Nome, Delivering Mail to .331 

Cape to Cairo Railway .45 

Capri, Blue Grotto of .524 

Capri, Famous Stairs of .404 

Carbon Black and Its Uses.627 

Carbon, see Coal, Diamonds and Graphite... 

Carnegie, Andrew . 553 

Carriage, Horseless .264 

Caspian Railway . 45 

Caspian Sea Oil Fields .436 

Cassava and Tapioca From the Manioc.148 

Castles of France .383 

Castle of Wartburg, Luther’s Prison.391 

Catacombs of Paris .385 

Cathedrals of England .379 

Caught by a Shark .466 

Cause of Earthquakes and Volcanoes.511 

Caves, Great, of the World.524 

Caves of Elephanta .441 

Caviare . 79 

Center of Population in the United States...712 

Central Africa, Pygmies in .419 

Central America, Coffee in .217 

Central America, Honduras .363 





























































































































756 


Index 


PAGE 

Central America, Nicaragua Canal.195 

Central Asia and Bokhara.439 

Cephalonia, in Greece, Strange Sea Mills of ..406 

Ceylon, Coffee in .217 

Ceylon, Colombo .445 

Ceylon, Graphite Mines in.660 

Ceylon, Tea in .218 

Ceylon Tea-Picker .446 

Chambers of Commerce .201 

Chapultepec, Mexico .357, 358 

Chariot Race, the Modern .263 

Check, Eight Million Dollars in One.207 

Chesapeake Bay Oyster Fisheries . 77 

Chicago City Markets .147 

Chicago Drainage Canal .197 

Chicago, Great Packing Houses of.137 

Chicago Stock Yards, World’s Meat Market..134 

Chicory for Adulterating Coffee.699 

Child Labor Lav/s.549 

Chile, Easter Island a Colony of.472 

Chile, Juan Fernandez Island.470 

.China, Buddhist Temple in.450 

China, Food and Cookery in .447 

China, How Made .189 

China, Russian Ports in .453 

China, Tea in . 218 

Chinese Artificial Pearls .629 % 

Chinese Beggars .451 

Chinese Eastern Railway . 44 

Chinese Food and Cookery.447 

Chocolate, Coffee and Tea ...215 

Christianity in Abyssinia ..’.426 

Christopher Columbus, Place of Interment of.351 

Cigar Making and Tobacco Raising .228 

Cigars and Cigarettes .233 

Cinematograph, Moving Picture Machine ....285 

Cities, Population of Largest.724 

City, How a Great, Is Fed.145 

City Market Place, Chicago .146 

City Market Place, London .149 

City of the Dead in Honduras, Copan.363 

City, Phases of Street Life in a Great.131 

City Sky-Scraper, the .121 

Civilization, How, Has Developed .24 

Civilization, Progress and Tendencies of ... 21 

Civil Service and Its Laws.545 

Civil Service, How to Enter the.547 

Civil War of 1861-1865.719 

Climate, Saghalien, a Paradox of .487 

Climbing the Highest American Mountain.. .368 

Clocks and Watches .573 

Clocks Which Furnish Light.303 

Coal, Drugs from .620 

Coal, Dyes from .625 

Coal Mining and Coke Making.109 

Coal Production of United States.708 

Cocoa .220 

Cocoanut and Its Uses, the.354,706 

Cod Fisheries . 77 

Coffee, Adulteration of .698 

Coffee, Tea and Chocolate.215 

Coinage of United States, Volume of.708 

Coins of the United States, How Made.205 

Coins, Value of Foreign.716 

Coke Making and Coal Mining .109 

Colleges and Their Growth, American.553 

College Sports, American.556 


PAGE 


Colombo, Capital of Ceylon .445 

Colony of American, Guam.477 

Colony of America, Liberia.418 

Colony of America, Philippine Islands.. .459, 546 

Colony of America, Porto Rico.220, 355, 546 

Colony of America, Samoa.467 

Colorado, Caves in . 527 

Colorado, Extinct Animals in.539 

Colorado River, Grand Canyon of.502 

Color Printing and Illustration .173 

Colors, How to Mix Paints.710 

Columbus, Place of Interment of .351 

Commerce of the Great Lakes . 67 

Common Food Adulterations.698 

Commonwealth of Australia.463 

Comparative Yield of Various Kinds of Vege¬ 
tables .715 

Compass, the Mariner’s.309 

Compressed Air and Pneumatic Tubes.288 

Compulsory Education .548 

Congo Free State, Ivory from.255 

Conjurers of India .440 

Consolidations, Great Railway . 49 

Constantinople, Yildiz Palace and Mosque...409 
Constitution, Launching of the Famous Ship. 81 

Construction, Unique Novelty in Hotel.98 

Consumption of Liquor Throughout the 

World .716 

Contagious and Eruptive Diseases.590 

Copan, a City of the Dead in Honduras.363 

Copper Mines .119 

Copper Production of United States.709 

Copra, Product of the Cocoanut.354, 706 

Corea and Its Awakening.455 

Cork in Portugal and Spain .403 

Corn, Glucose Made from.693 

Corn Production of United States.709 

Corn Stalks, Finding Value in.306 

Cosmetics from Palm Trees.354, 706 

Cotton .157 

Cotton Production of United States.709 

Countries of the World, Facts Concerning 

All .321 

Crater Lake, an Oregon Wonder.509 

Cream of Tartar.700 

Cremation .593 

Crete, the Island of .406 

Crystal Palace, London .375, 376 

Cuba, Interment of Columbus .351 

Cuba’s First President .348 

Cuba, Tobacco Industry in.228 

Cults and Cures.587 

Cuvier, the Great Scientist.536 

1 ) 

Dakota “Bad Lands”.507 

Dalny, Russian Port on the Pacific Ocean...453 

Dancing and Howling Dervishes .430 

Danish West Indies .357 

Dariel Gorge .437 

Dates, Table of Memorable.717 

Dead, a City of the, in Honduras.363 

Dead Sea, Salt in .243 

Death and Life Rates.593 

Death, Tests of .591 

Death Valley, Borax in. 499 
























































































































Index 


757 


PAGE 


Death Valley, California .. 496 

Debt of the United States.708 

Deeds .595 

Deep Sea, Wonders of .532 

Deep Water in Oceans.727 

Deluge, Man and Nature before.541 

Depth of the Oceans.727 

Derby Day, Chicago.564 

Derby Day, London.564 

Dervishes, Dancing and Howling.430 

Desert, Arabian .488 

Desert, a Salt Deposit in California.239 

Desert, Borax Deposits .499 

Desert, Death Valley .496 

Desert, Irrigation in the Sahara.320 

Desert of Iceland, Great Lava .483 


Development and Transmission of Power.... 179 


Development of the Automobile.264 

Developments of Electricity, Modern .270 

Diamond Cutting .633 

Diamond Mines .633 

Diamond Mines of Kimberley .423 

Diamonds .423, 632, 637 

Diamonds in the United States .635 

Diaz, President of Mexico .358 

Dinosaurus .538 

Disasters, Famous Earthquake and Volcanic.515 

Discoveries and Inventions, Greatest. 28 

D’ overies in Medicine and Prolongation of 

Life .585 

Diseases, Contagious and Eruptive.590 

Docks, Dry . 93 

Docks, Floating, for Men-of-War . 93 

Drainage Canal, Chicago .197 

Drowning, What to Do in.591 

Dr. Rizal, Philippine Patriot.459 

Druids and Bards, Welsh .380 


Dry Docks . 

Dutch in the East Indies 
Dwarfs in Central Africa 
Dyaks, Natives of Borneo 

Dyes from Coal . 

Dynamos, Electric .. 


E 

Earthquake and Volcanic Disasters, Famous.515 

Earthquakes and Volcanoes, Cause of.511 

Easter Island and Its Strange Ruins.472 

East Indies, Areca or Betel Nut Palm.706 

East Indies, Borneo.460 

East Indies, Chocolate in .220 

East Indies, Coffee in .216 

East Indies, Java ..216 

East Indies, Philippine Islands.459,546 

East Indies, Sarawak .460 

East Indies, Three Centuries of War in.461 

Ecuador, Quito, Capital of .364 

Edison, Thomas A., the World’s Most Famous 

Inventor . Frontispiece 

Editorial Department of a Great Newspaper. 169 

Education .548, 553, 556, 709, 721 

Education, Compulsory .548 

Education, Illiteracy ... 

Eggs and How They Are Inspected.°72 

Egypt as It Is Today .411 

Egypt, Coffee in . 217 


PAGE 

Egypt, Great Pyramids of .415 

Egyptian Antiquities, Recent Discoveries in..413 

Egypt, Suez Canal.194, 411 

Eight Million Dollars in One Check.207 

Eisteddfods, Welsh .380 

Electoral Vote in 1904.719 

Electricity, Baking Bread by.246 

Electricity, Modern Developments or .270 

Electricity, the Telephone.292 

Electricity, the Wireless Telegraph.33 

Electricity, the Wireless Telephone.297 

Electric Light Improvements .275 

Elements of Physical Health.589 

Elephanta, Caves of .441 

Elephants, Ivory Hunting.251 

Emergencies, What to Do.591 

Emigration From Europe to the United 

States .321 

Engines, Railway, and Their Construction.. .175 

England, Cathedrals of .379 

England, London . 373 

England, Tea Drinking in. . .215 

Erie Canal .’..196 

Europe, Abandoned Cities of Holland.389 

Europe, American Industrial Invasion of_ 57 

Europe, Belgium .255, 389 

Europe, Blue Grotto of Capri.524 

Europe, Capri .404, 524 

Europe, Castles of France.383 

Europe, Catacombs of Paris.385 

Europe, Cathedrals of England.379 

Europe, Coffee in .217 

Europe, Constantinople . 1 .409 

Europe, Cork in Portugal and Spain...403 

Europe, Extinct Animals in.535 

Europe, France .318, 383, 385, 387, 654 

Europe, Geneva and Its Lake.400 

Europe, Germany .196, 391, 568 

Europe, Gibraltar .404 

Europe, Great Britain.373, 378, 379, 380, 381 

Europe, Greece .406 

Europe, Holland .215, 389, 461 

Europe, How Matches Are Made in.654 

Europe, Hungary.244, 397 

Europe, Ireland .381, 383 

Europe, Italy.214, 401, 402, 404, 524 

Europe, Ivory Markets in.255 - 

Europe, Kiel Canal.196 

Europe, Military Resources of.721 

Europe, Martin Luther’s Prison.391 

Europe, Norway .527 

Europe, Palace of Fontainebleau.387 

Europe, Portugal .403 

Europe, Remarkable Ferry at Rouen.318 

Europe, Rivers of .727 

Europe, Russia.44, 

215, 242, 253, 327, 394, 436, 453, 456, 487, 583 

Europe, Salt Produced in .243 

Europe, Sea Mills of Cephalonia .4C6 

Europe, Spain .403 

Europe, Sweden .656 

Europe, Switzerland .399, 400 

Europe, Turkey .404, 409, 428, 488 

Europe, Wales .380 

Evolution, Order of Social. 26 

Exiles, St. Helena, the Island of .357 

Explosives .83, 568 


























































































































758 


Index 


PAGE 

Exports from United States.708 

Extinct Monsters .535 

Extract of Beef and Its Preparation.688 

Extracts, Flavoring, How Made...«,.685 


K 

Fabrics, Textile, in America.157 

Facts About Our Postal Service .331 

Facts in the History of the United States...323 

Facts of All Countries, Noteworthy.321 

Fainting, What to Do.591 

Falkland Islands .472 

Falls of Niagara .530 

Famous and Great Telescopes.290 

Famous Fountains of Palestine .486 

Famous Volcanic and Earthquake Disasters. .515 

Farm Animals in the United States.713 

Farming, Up-to-Date Methods in.184 

Farm Products, Value of.708 

Farm Values in United States.708 

Ferry-Bridge at Rouen.318 

Fiji and Its People.476 

Filipino Patriot, Dr. Rizal .459 

Finances of the United States.708 

Financial Methods of Today.201 

Financial, Value of Foreign Coins.716 

Finding Value in Corn Stalks.306 

Fireproof Cloth .601, 604 

Fire, Rules in Case of.592 

Fires, How They Are Extinguished.599 

Fireworks and Their Manufacture.651 

First Aid to the Injured.591 

First Cable Across the Pacific Ocean . 95 

Fisheries, Baltic Sea . 79 

Fisheries, Cod . 77 

Fisheries, Inland . 77 

Fisheries, Mackerel . 77 

Fisheries, North Sea . 79 

Fisheries of the Great Lakes . 79 

Fisheries on the Grand Banks of Newfound¬ 
land . 77 

Fisheries, River . 79 

Fisheries, Salmon . 75 

Fisheries, Sardine . 75 

Flavoring Extracts, How Made.685 

Floating Docks for Men-of-War . 93 

Florida, Alligators in .212 

Florida Orange Groves . 209 

Flour and Flour Mills.244 

Flying Machines . 257 

Fontainebleau, Palace of . 387 

Food Adulterations .698 

Food and Cookery, Chinese .447 

Forbidden City, Lhassa .438 

Foreigners in the United States .323 

Foreign Coins, Value of.716 

Forest Reserves .453 

Forests, Lumbering in American .151 

Formosa, Tea in .318 

Fountains of Palestine .486 

France, Air Ferry at Rouen.318 

France, Castles of .3 Q 3 

France, Catacombs of Paris. 

France, How Matches Are Made in.654 

France, Palace of Fontainebleau .387 

Freight Rates in United States:.709 


PAGti 

Freight Transfer Yards, the Greatest in the 


World . 53 

French Islands in the Pacific Ocean.474 

French Railway Across the Sudan . 46 

Fruit Baskets Made by Machinery .27a 

Fruit Flavoring Extracts, How Made.685 

Fur-Trading Companies of Canada .338 

Future, Naval Battles in . 89 

Furniture, Veneers for Covering.657 


a 


Gas, Acetylene .305 

Gas, Coal .622 

Gas, Natural .627 

Geneva and Its Lake .400 

George, Henry .598 

German Emperor’s American Yacht.568 

Germany, Kiel Canal .196 

Germany, Martin Luther’s Prison .391 

Geysers, Iceland and Its .481 

.Geyser, Yellowstone Park .482 

Giant Moa of New Zealand.541 

Gibraltar .404 

Gipsies, Hungarian .397 

Glaciers and Icebergs, How Made .491 

Glaciers, Greenland and Its .481 

Glass and Its Uses .187 

Globes and Maps, How Made.570 

Glucose and How It is Made.693 

Gold from Soot, Saving.308 

Gold Production of United States.708 

Grain Production of United States in 

Bushels .713 

Gramophones.287 

Grand Banks of Newfoundland .494 

Grand Banks of Newfoundland, Fisheries on. 77 

Grand Canyon of Arizona.502 

Grand Canyon of the Colorado River in 

Arizona, Illustration .480 

Graphite and Lead Pencils.659 

Graphophones .287 

Great and Famous Telescopes .290 

Great Britain, Cathedrals of .379 

Great Britain, Interesting Facts Concerning.378 

Great Britain, London .373 

Great Britain, Round Towers of Ireland.381 

Great Britain, Welsh Eisteddfods, Bards and 

Druids .380 

Great Buildings .121 

Great Businesses, Great Offices for.129 

Great Cameras .260 

Great Caves of the World.524 

Great City, How It Is Fed.145 

Great City, Phases of Street Life in a.131 

Greatest Discoveries and Inventions. 28 

Greatest Facts in the History of the United 

States .323 

Greatest Freight Transfer Yards in the World 53 

Greatest Industry, the Railway. World’s.41 

Great Fur-Trading Companies of Canada_338 

Great Industries of the Seas and Lakes. 73 

Great Lakes, Area of the. 71 

Great Lakes, Commerce of . 67 

Great Lakes, Fisheries of the. 79 

Great Lakes, Ice Jams on the. 69 

Great Lakes, Shipping on the . 67 

Great Lava Desert of Iceland .483 






















































































































Index 


759 


PAGE 

Great Libraries of the World.721 

Great Newspapers, How Made .167 

Great Offices for Great Businesses .129 

Great Packing Houses of Chicago.137 

Great Pyramids of Egypt, the .415 

Great Railway Consolidations . 49 

Great Rivers, Length of.726 

Great Salt Lake . 243 

Greatest Telescope in the World.292 

Great Trade of Belgium.389 

Great Trees of California .489 

Greece, the Strange Sea Mills of Cephalonia 

in .406 

Greenland and Its Glaciers .481 

Greenland, Birthplace of Icebergs.491 

Grotto of Capri, Blue.524 

Guam, the Island of.477 

Gulf Stream .483 

Guns Wound With Wire .649 

Haiti, Bones of Columbus .351 

Haiti, Voodoo Worship in .353 

Halftone Engravings .172 

Hammerfest, Most Northern Town.527 

Harem, Life in a Turkish .409 

Havana, Interment of Columbus.351 

Hawaii, “The Paradise of the Pacific”.468 

Hawsers, Making .*.641 

Head-Hunters of Borneo .460 

Health, Elements of .589 

Health, the Pulse in.590 

Heights of Tallest Monuments, Towers and 

Steeples .726 

Heights of Waterfalls .721 

Hemp, Binding Twine From.614 

Hemp, Making Ropes From.641 

Hennepin, Father Louis.530 

Hermit Nation, Tibet, the .439 

High Buildings .121 

Highest American Mountain, Climbing the...368 

Highest Mountains, the World’s.726 

Historical Anniversaries .717 

History of Paper .161 

History of the United States, Greatest Facts 

in .323 

Hogs Packed and Marketed .714 

Holland, Chocolate Drinking in .215 

Holland, Colonies of in the East Indies.461 

Holland of the East, Siam .444 

Holland’s Abandoned Cities .389 

Holland, Submarine Vessel . 90 

Holy Land, Fountains of .486 

Honduras, Mysterious Copan, a City of the 

Dead .363 

Horseless Carriage .264 

Horse Racing the World Over.563 

Hotel Construction, Unique Novelty in. 98 

How Acetylene Gas Is Made.a05 

How African Deserts Are Irrigated.320 

How a Great City Is Fed .145 

How a Great Newspaper Is Made.167 

How Air Ships Are Made.257 

How American Industry Has Invaded Europe.57 
How Americans Founded an African Re¬ 
public .418 

How Ammonia Is Used.248,703 


PAGE 

How Antarctic Exploration Has Advanced.. .519 


How Arctic Exploration Advances.334 

How Argentina Is Advancing.369 

How Artesian Wells Are Bored.583 

How Artificial Silk Is Made.606 

How Asbestos Cloth Is Made.601 

How Asphalt Is Obtained.495 

How Baling Powder Is Adulterated... .699, 700 

How Baking Powder Is Made.700 

How Balloons Are Made.257 

How Barrels and Kegs Are Made.666 

How Baskets Are Made by Machinery.275 

How Battle Ships Are Armed and Armored...81 

How Beef Extract Is Made.688 

How Beeswax Is Prepared .619 

How Bells Are Made .580 

How Billiard Balls Are Made.251 

How Binding Twine Is Made.183, 614 

How Blast Furnaces Are Used.105 

How Boards of Trade Operate.201 

How Books and Magazines Are Illustrated.. .172 

How Borax Is Obtained. 499 

How Brooms Are Made.646 

How Butterine Is Made.676 

How Buttons Are Made.607 

How Cable Railways Are Operated.181 

How Caviare Is Obtained.79 

How Chocolate Is Cultivated.215 

How Cigars Are Made.228 

How Civilization Has Developed. 24 

How Clocks and Watches Are Made.573 

How Coal Is Mined.109 

How Coffee Is Adulterated.699 

How Coffee Is Cultivated.215 

How Coke Is Made.109 

How College Sports Are Conducted.556 

How Color Illustrations Are Printed.173 

How Copper Is Mined.119 

How Cork Is Prepared and Used.403 

How Cotton Is Shipped.156 

How Diamonds Are Mined.423,633 

How Drugs Are Made From Coal.620 

How Dyes Are Made From Coal.625 

How Earthquakes and Volcanoes Are Caused.511 

How Eggs Are Inspected.672 

How Elephants Are Hunted.251 

How Extinct Animals Are Studied.535 

How Fires Are Extinguished.599 

How Fireworks Are Made.651 

How Flour Is Made.244 

How Food Is Adulterated.698 

How Fruit Flavoring Extracts Are Made.685 

How Glaciers and Icebergs Are Made .491 

How Glass Is Made.187 

How Glucose Is Made.693 

How Graphite Is Mined.659 

How Great Packing Houses Are Operated... .137 

How Halftone Engravings Are Made.172 

How Ice Is Made.248 

How Ice Is Mined in Arizona.521 

How Illuminated Clocks Are Made.303 

How Immigrants Come to America .325 

How Indian Magicians Do Their Tricks.440 

How Iron and Steel Are Produced.101 

How Ivory is Obtained.251 

How Lead Pencils Are Made.659 

Howling Dervishes, Dancing and .-..430 

























































































































Index 


760 


PAGE 

How Liquors Are Adulterated.703 

How Macaroni Is Made.681 

How Mail Is Delivered in Arctic Alaska.331 

How Mammoth Cave Was Found.524 

How Maps and Globes Are Made.570 

How Matches Are Made.654 

How Mince-Meat Is Made.674 

How Mineral Wool Is Made.604 

How Mirrors Are Made.576 

How Money Is Coined.205 

How Moving Pictures Are Made .285 

How Naval Battles Will Be Fougm. in the 

Future . 89 

How Ocean Cables Are Made...'. 95 

How Oleomargarine Is Made.676 

How Olive Oil Is Prepared.213 

How Opium Is Prepared.226 

How Ostriches Are Raised.255,420 

How Paper Is Made .161 

How Pepsin Is Prepared.690 

How Phonographs Talk .287 

How Pianos Have Multiplied .190 

How Pilgrims Journey to Mecca.433 

How Pneumatic Tubes Are Utilized.288 

How Pottery Is Made.189 

How Power Is Developed and Transmitted.. .179 

How Railways Are Operated. 41 

How Railways Are Spreading. 43 

How Resin Is Made.623 

How Rock Candy Is Made.696 

How Ropes Are Made.641 

How Rubber Goods Are Made.663 

How Rubies Are Obtained.636 

How Salt Is Obtained .239 

How Sheet Music Is Printed.638 

How Shoddy Is Made.643 

How “Sky-Scrapers” Are Built.123 

How Sponges Are Obtained.348 

How Starch Is Made.691 

How Strikes Are Settled in New Zealand... .466 

How Talking Machines Talk.287 

How Tar Is Made.620 

How Tea Is Cultivated.215 

How Textile Fabrics Are Made.157 

How the Chicago Stock Yards Are Operated. 134 

How the Lumber Industry Operates.151 

How the Mariner’s Compass Is Made.309 

How the Nations Prepare for War.81, 565 

How the Nautical Almanac Is Made and 

Used .312 

How the Telephone Transmits Sound.292 

How the United States Has Advanced in 

Twenty Years .707 

How the Weather Is Foretold.281 

How the Wireless Telephone Works.297 

How to Aid the Injured.591 

How Tobacco Is Raised.228 

How to Counteract Poisons.591, 592 

How to Cure Mad Dog Bites.591 

How to Detect Adulterations in Baking 

Powder .703 

How to Enter the Civil Service.547 

How to Mix Paint for Tints.710 

How to Revive Drowned Persons.591 

How to Test Seeds.669 

How Trunks Are Made .235 

How Turpentine Is Made.623 


PAGE 

How Type Is Made. . .610 

How Varnish Is Made.616 

How Veneers Are Made.657 

How Vinegar Is Made.683 

How Wireless Telegraphy Works. 33 

How Wire Wound Cannon Are Made.649 

Hudson’s Bay Company .338 

Hudson’s Bay Railway . 43 

Humboldt Glacier .492 

Hungarian Gipsies .397 

Hungary, Flour Mills in.244 

I 

Ice, Artificial and Natural.248 

Icebergs and Glaciers, How Made .491 

Ice Jams on the Great Lakes. 69 

Iceland and Its Geysers .481 

Iceland, Great Lava Desert .483 

Ice Mines in Arizona.521 

Ichthyosaurus .537 

Illinois, Chicago Drainage Canal.197 

Illiteracy Statistics .721 

Illuminants, Acetylene Gas.305 

Illuminants, Coal Gas .622 

Illuminants, Electricity .275 

Illuminants, Natural Gas .627 

Illuminants, Petroleum .436,708 

Illustrations for Newspapers .171 

Illustrations, Magazine and Book, How Made.172 

Illustrations Printed in Colors .173 

Immigrants to America, How They Come....325 

Immigration, Statistics of .328 

Immigration to the United States .321 

Imports Into United States.708 

In a Macaroni Factory..681 

In a Type Foundry.'.610 

India, Caves of Elephanta .441 

India, Coffee in .217 

India, Extinct Animals in.540 

India, Island Temples of .441 

India, Ivory from .253 

Indian Ocean, Area and Depth of.727 

Indian Ocean, Madagascar . 541 

Indian Ocean, the Railway Race for the ....428 

Indian River, Florida, Alligators .212 

India Rubber in the Brazilian Forests .371 

India, Tea in .218 

India, the Yogi of .440 

Industrial Age, the . 33 

Industrial Invasion of Europe, American_ 57 

Industries, Iron and Steel .101 

Industries of the Seas and Lakes, Great. 73 

Industry, the Railway, the World’s Greatest. 41 

Injured, First Aid to the.591 

Inland Fisheries . 77 

Inspecting Eggs.672 

Institution, Smithsonian .328 

Institutions, National, and American Ar¬ 
chives .328 

Insurance, Life and Death Rates.593 

Inter American Railway . 43 

Interesting Facts Concerning Great Britain..378 

In the Falkland Islands.472 

Invasion of Europe, American Industrial .... 57 

Inventions. Greatest Discoveries and. 28 

Invention, World’s Science and . 257 






















































































































Index 


761 


PAGE 

Inventor, Thomas A. Edison, the World’s 


Most Famous . Frontispiece 

Ireland, Round Towers of .381 

Ireland, St. Patrick’s Grave .383 

Iron and Steel Industries .101 

Iron Mining .102 

Irrigation, Processes of in the Sahara Desert.320 

Island of Crete, the .406 

Island of Guam.477 

Island of Lilies and Onions, Bermuda .345 

Island Temples of India .441 

Italian Olive Orchards .214 

Italy, Blue Grotto of Capri.524 

Italy, Leaning Tower of Pisa.402 

Italy, the Vatican .401 

Italy, Uses of Cork .404 

Ivory, How Obtained and Used.251 

J 

Jamaica, Gathering Bananas in .347 

Japan, Tea in .218 

Japan, Temples at Nikko .457 

Jefferson, Thomas, on Declaration of Inde¬ 
pendence .751 

Java, Coffee in .216 

Jewels .423, 628, 632, 637 

Juan Fernandez, Robinson Crusoe’s Island...470 


Iv 

Kaiser Wilhelm’s American Yacht.... 

Kansas, Salt Produced in. 

Kegs and Barrels. 

Kentucky, Mammoth Cave. 

Khiva . 

Kiel Canal . 

Kimberley Diamond Mines. 

Kinetoscope, Moving Picture Machine 

Klondike . 

Kongo Free State .. 

Korea and Its Awakening . 

Kremlin of Moscow . 


....568 

.242 

....666 
....525 

.439 

....196 
423, 633 
....285 

.337 

....255 
....455 
....394 




Labor Laws, Advanced .465 

Lake Geneva, Switzerland .400 

Lake, Mountain and Ocean Resorts.559 

Lakes, Area of the Great . 71 

Lakes, Commerce of the Great . 67 

Lakes, Fisheries of the Great. 79 

Lakes, Great Industries of the Seas and. 73 

Lakes, Ice Jams on the Great . 69 

Lakes, Shipping on the Great. 67 

Lakes, Vessels on the Great . 67 

Lakes, Whaleback Steamers on the Great- 69 

Lamas, Buddhist Priests in Tibet.440 

Land of the Midnight Sun.527 

Lands, Public, in the United States.712 

Largest Cities of the Earth.724 

Lava Desert of Iceland .483 

Law, Forms of Legal Papers.594 

Lead Mines .119 

Lead Pencils, How Made.659 

Leaning Tower of Pisa, the .402 

Legal Facts and Forms.594 

Lemon Extract, How Made.687 

Lengths of the World’s Principal Rivers.726 


PAGE 

Leper Island of Molokai .469 

Lhassa, Capital of Tibet .438 

Liberia, Coffee in .217 

Liberia, American Colony in Africa.418 

Liberty Bell .321, 326 

Liberty Enlightening the World .325, 316 

Libraries of the World, Great.721 

Libraries, Public .551 

Life and Death Rates.593 

Life in a Turkish Harem .409 

Life in the Bahamas, Negro.346 

Life, Prolongation of.585 

Lightning, Struck by, What to Do.591 

Lilies and Onions in Bermuda .345 

Lima, the City of Mud .366 

Linotype Machines .169 

Liquid Air .277 

Liquor, Consumption of, Throughout the 

World .716 

Liquors, Adulteration in Alcoholic.703 

Lisbon, Botanical Gardens of .403 

Little Planets in Our Solar System.522 

Lobster Fisheries on the Maine Coast. 77 

Locomotives and Their Construction.175 

Logging .151 

London City Market .149 

London, the World’s Metropolis .373 

Looking Glasses and Their Manufacture.576 

Lumbering in American Forests .151 

Luther’s Prison, Wartburg Castle .391 

Luxfer Prisms as Light Transmitters.279 

NI 

Macaroni, How It Is Made.681 

Machinery for Making Baskets.275 

Mackerel Fisheries . 77 

Madagascar, Extinct Birds in.541 

Mad Dog Bite, What to Do.591 

Maelstrom, the .484 

Magazines and Books, How Illustrated.172 

Maine, Launching of the New American Bat¬ 
tleship . 80 

Making Baskets by Machinery.275 

Mammoth Cave .525 

Mammoth, Extinct Animals .540 

Mammoths, Ivory from .253 

Man and Nature Before the Deluge.541 

Manchuria, Russian Railway in. 44 

Mandalay, Ruby Mines Near.636 

Manila Hemp, Binding Twine From.614 

Manioc, Tapioca and Cassava From .148 

Mankind, Races of .728 

Manufactories in United States.708 

Maps and Globes, How Made.570 

Marconi, Guglielmo, Wireless Telegraphy Ex¬ 
pert . 32 

Mariner’s Compass.309 

Marquesas Islands .474 

Marriage Anniversaries .718 

Martin Luther’s Prison, Wartburg Castle_391 

Marvelous Peculiarities of All Countries.321 

Masonic Societies in the Philippines.459 

Masonic Temple, Chicago .122 

Massachusetts, Graphite Mines in.660 

Mastodon, Extinct Animals .540 

Match Making in Various Countries.654 

Maximilian, Emperor of Mexico .358 






















































































































TG2 


Index 


PAGE 

Maximite, the New Explosive . 86 

Meat Market, the World’s, the Chicago Stock 

Yards .134 

Mecca, Pilgrims to .433 

Medical Treatment, Systems of.588 

Medicine, Discoveries in .585 

Mediterranean Sea, Capri .404, 524 

Mediterranean Sea, Crete .406 

Mediterranean Sea, Gibraltar .404 

Mediterranean Sea, Suez Canal.194, 411 

Melbourne Cup Race .564 

Men-of-War, Floating Docks for . 93 

Men-of-War, Illustrations of. 

.80, 81, 83, 84, 85, 86, 89, 91, 92, 93 

Merv .439 

Meteor, Kaiser Wilhelm’s American Yacht..568 

Methods of Building .123 

Methods of Farming Up-to-Date .184 

Methods of Naval Warfare, Progress in. 81 

Methods of Speculation .203 

Methods of Today, Financial.201 

Metropolis of the World, London.373 

Mexico, Chapultepec .357, 358 

Mexico, City of.358 

Mexico, Coffee in .217 

Mexico, Gathering Salt in .239 

Mexico, Mines in .359 

Mexico, Pulque, the National Drink.361 

Mexican Railways . 43 

Michigan, Copper Mines in .119 

Michigan, Salt Produced in .242 

Midnight Sun, Land of.527 

Migrations and Settlements of Nationalities 

in the United States .321 

Military Affairs, Civil War.719 

Military Affairs To-day .565 

Military Affairs, Wire-Wound Cannon.649 

Military, American Soldiers in the Philip¬ 
pines .459 

Military Balloons . 259 

Military, Bayonet Exercise in the Russian 

Army .456 

Military Resources of Europe in Able Bodied 

Men .721 

Military Telephones in France.295 

Military, Three Centuries of War in the East 

Indies .461 

Military, Wars of the United States.720 

Milk, Adulteration of .698 

Mince-Meat Made by Machinery..674 

Mineral Wool and Its Uses.604 

Mines, Diamond .423,633 

Mines, Graphite.659 

Mines of Ice in Arizona.521 

Mines, Diamond, of Kimberley.423 

Mines of Riches in Mexico .359 

Mining, Coal, and Coke Making.109 

Mining, Copper .119 

Mining, Iron .102 

Mining, Lead.119 

Mining, Zinc .119 

Minneapolis, Flour Mills in.244 

Mints, How Money Is Made .205 

Mirage .485 

Mirrors and Their Manufacture .576 

Miss Stone After Her Release .398 

Moa, Great Bird of New Zealand .541 


PAGE 

Modern Chariot Race ..263 

Modern Developments of Electricity.270 

Mohammedans .429, 430, 433, 488 

Molokai, Leper Island' .469 

Money in United States.707 

Money, Our, Where It Is Made .205 

Monsters, Extinct .535 

Montana, Copper Mines in .119 

Montezuma .358 

Monuments, Towers and Steeples, Tallest... .726 

Morocco, Slave Market in .416 

Morocco, Uses of Cork .404 

Moscow, Great Bell of .583 

Moscow, the Kremlin . 394 

Mountain Climbing, Highest American .368 

Mountain, Lake and Ocean Resorts.559 

Mountains and Oil-Wells of the Caucasus_436 

Mountains, the World’s Highest.726 

Mount Kazbek . 437 

Mount Sinai, Convent at .".488 

Moving Pictures and How They Are Made ..285 

Muir Glacier . 493 

Museum, National .,. 328 

Music, How It Is Printed .638 

Mutineers of the “Bounty”. 473 

Mysterious Copan, a City of the Dead in 
Honduras .. 

N 

Napoleon Exiled to St. Helena. 357 

Natal, Ostrich Farms in.255 

National Banks in United States.708 

National Institutions and American Archives.328 
Nationalities in the United States, Migrations 

and Settlements of .'. 321 

National Museum . 328 

National Park Reserves in the United States.712 
Nations of the World, Facts Concerning All.321 

Nation, Tibet, the Hermit . 439 

Natural Gas, Carbon Black from.”*627 

Nature, Amazing Wonders of .481 

Nature Before the Deluge. 541 

Nautical Almanac and Its Importance.312 

Naval Battles in the Future . 89 

Naval Warfare, Progress in Methods of. 81 

Navigation, Aerial .257 

Navigation, Science of . 309 , 312 

Navy, Ships of the United States .92 

Negro Life in the Bahamas .346 

Netherlands, Abandoned Cities of.389 

New Caledonia .. .474 

Newfoundland, Fisheries on the Grand Banks. 77 

Newfoundland, Grand Banks of . 494 

Newfoundland, Scene of Experiments in 

Wireless Telegraphy . 39 

New Hampshire, Graphite Mines in.660 

New Jersey, Pearls in .630 

New Mexico, Caves in.” * ” !527 

New Mexico, Ostrich Farms in.255 

New South Wales, Australia .463 

Newspaper Illustrations . 171 

Newspaper Printing Presses .171 

Newspaper Row, New York City.!!! 123 

Newspapers, Great, How Made .”i 67 

Newspapers in United States... 709 

New York, Graphite Mines in.660 

New York, Salt Produced in.242 





















































































































Index 


Y63 


PAGE 

New Zealand, Extinct Birds in.541 

New Zealand, the Land of Liberal Laws.465 

Niagara Falls .530 

Niagara Falls, Power Transmitted From....273 

Niagara Falls, Welland Canal Around.196 

Nicaragua Canal .195 

Nikko, Japan, Temples at .457 

Nome, Delivering Mail at Cape .331 

Norfolk Island .^74 

North America, Diamonds in.635 

North American Totemism ..343 

North Pole, Peary and .334 

North Sea Fisheries .79 

Norway, Land of the Midnight Sun.527 

Notes .596 

Noteworthy Facts of All Countries.321 

Novelty in Hotel Construction, Unique. 98 

Number of Farm Animals in the United 

States . 713 

Number of Pensioners on Rolls and Amount 
of Pensions .720 

O 

Observatories, Great .290 

Observatory, Yerkes .289 

Ocean, Currents in Atlantic .483 

Ocean, First Cable Across the Pacific. 95 

Ocean, Lake and Mountain Resorts.559 

Ocean, Life in the Depths.532 

0 eans, Area and Depth of.727 

Ocean Traffic, Its Stupendous Growth. 63 

Offices for Great Businesses, Great .129 

Oil Cake .694 

Oil Field, Beaumont, Texas.436 

Oil-Wells of the Caucasus .436 

Oleomargarine and Butterine .676 

Olive Orchards and the Olive Industry.213 

Onions and Lilies in Bermuda .345 

Ontario, Salt Produced in .242 

Opium and Its Production .226 

Orange Groves and Their Products .209 

Orchards, Olive .213 

Orchards, Orange .209 

Order of Social Evolution. 26 

Oregon Wonder, Crater Lake.509 

Ostriches in South Africa .420 

Ostrich Farms in Africa and California.255 

Our American Archives and National Insti¬ 
tutions .328 

Our Money, Where It Is Made .205 

Oyster Fisheries in Chesapeake Bay. 77 

F> 

Pacific Ocean, Area and Depth of.727 

Pacific Ocean, Australia. .46, 344, 463, 535, 564, 727 

Pacific Ocean, Easter Island.472 

Pacific Ocean, Fiji Islands .476 

Pacific Ocean, First Cable Across. 95 

Pacific Ocean, French Islands in.474 

Pacific Ocean, Guam.477 

Pacific Ocean, Hawaiian Islands .468 

Pacific Ocean, Isthmian Canal .195 

Pacific Ocean, Japan .218, 457 

Pacific Ocean, Juan Fernandez Island .470 

Pacific Ocean, Marquesas Islands.474 

Pacific Ocean, New Caledonia .474 


PAGE 

Pacific Ocean, New Zealand.465, 541 

Pacific Ocean, Norfolk Island.474 

Pacific Ocean, Penal Colonies in.474 

Pacific Ocean, Pitcairn Island.473 

Pacific Ocean, Russian Ports on .453 

Pacific Ocean, Saghalien.487 

Pacific Ocean, Samoan Islands .467 

Pacific Ocean, Society Islands.474 

Pacific Ocean, Tahiti .468, 474 

Pacific Ocean, Tasmania .463, 478 

Packing Houses of Chicago, Great.137 

Paint, How to Mix for Tints.710 

Palestine, Fountains of .486 

Palma, Cuba’s First President .348 

Palm Trees and Their Products.706 

Panama Canal .195 

Paper, Its History and How It Is Made.161 

“Paradise of the Pacific,” Hawaii .468 

Paradox of Climate, Saghalien .487 

Paraguay and Its History of Violence.371 

Paris, Catacombs of .385 

Park Reserves, National, in the United 

States . 712 

Patents Issued in United States.709. 

Peanuts and Their Uses .679 

Pearls, Artificial .629 

Pearls From American Rivers .628 

Peary and the North Pole .331 

Peculiarities of All Countries.321 

Penal Colonies .474, 478 

Pencils, How Made .659 

Pensioners on Rolls and Amount of ren- 

sions .720 

Pepsin and Its Production .690 

Perpetual Motion Machines.302 

Persia, Railways in .428 

Peru, Lima, the Capital of .366 

Petroleum Production of United States.708 

Phases of Street Life in a Great City .131 

Philippine Islands, Civil Service in.546 

Philippine Patriot, Dr. Rizal .'.459 

Philippines, Secret Societies in the ...' .459 

Phonograph and Its Uses .287 

Photograph by Roentgen or X-Rays.267 

Photography, Moving Pictures .285 

Photography, Triumphs of .260 

Physical Health, Elements of .589 

Pianos, How They Have Multiplied .190 

Pictures, Moving, and How They Are Made . .285 

Pilgrims and Shrines in Canada.341 

Pilgrims to Mecca .433 

Pisa, the Leaning Tower of.402 

Pitcairn Island .473 

Pitch Lake in Trinidad.495 

Planets, Little, in Our Solar System.522 

Planets, the Principal.709 

Plumbago or Graphite.659 

Pneumatic Tubes and Compressed Air.288 

Poisons, Antidotes for .591, 592 

Politics, Electorial Vote of 1904.719 

Pope, Palace of the .401 

Poppies, Making Opium From .226 

Population Areas of the United States .329 

Population, Center of, in the United States..712 

Population of Largest Cities .724 

Port Arthur, Russian Port on the Pacific 
Ocean .44, 453 

























































































































764 


Index 


PAGE 

Porto Rico and Its Characteristics .355 

Porto Rico, Chocolate in .220 

Porto Rico, Civil Service in.546 

Portugal and Spain, Cork in .403 

Portugal, Botanical Gardens of Lisbon.403 

Postal Regulations .711 

Postal Service, Facts About .331 

Postoffice Department .331 

Postoffices in United States.709 

Potter, the Work of the.189 

Pounds Per Bushel, Legal.715 

Power, Its Development and Transmission. .179 

Power of Attorney .594 

Power Transmitted From Niagara Falls ....273 
Precious Stones, Real and Artificial. .423, 628, 632 

Prehistoric Animals .535 

Prehistoric Man .541 

Principal Planets .709 

Printing, How Sheet Music Is Made.638 

Printing Presses for Newspapers .171 

Prison of Martin Luther .391 

Product^ of the Mines, Zinc and Other.119 

Progress and Tendencies of Civilization. 21 

Progress in America.707 

Progress in Methods of Naval Warfare. 81 

Prosperity in the Argentine Republic .369 

Pterodactyls .539 

Public Lands in the United States.712 

Public Libraries, Their Growth and Adminis¬ 
tration .551 

Public School Salaries in United States.709 

Puerto Rico .220, 355, 546 

Pulque, the National Drink of Mexico .361 

Pulse in Health.590 

Pure Food, the Struggle for.698 

Pygmies in Central Africa .419 

Pyramids of Egypt, the Great .415 

Q 

Quebec .•.340 

Queensland, Australia .463 

Quito, the Strangest City in the World.364 

R 

Race, Automobile .263 

Races of Mankind .728 

Racing Horses, the World Over.563 

Rags, Making Paper From.161 

Rags, Making Shoddy From.643 

Railway Across the Sudan, French. 46 

Railway, Cape to Cairo . 45 

Railway, Chinese Eastern . 44 

Railway Consolidations, Great . 49 

Railway, Greatest Freight Transfer Yards in 

the World . 53 

Railway in Manchuria, Russian . 44 

Railway, Inter American . 43 

Railway Locomotives and Their Construc¬ 
tion .175 

Railway Mileage in United States.709 

Railway Race for the Indian Ocean.428 

Railways, African . 45 

Railways, American . 43 

Railways, Asiatic . 44 

Railway, Siberian .44, 454 

Railways in Persia and Turkey .428 


PAGE 

Railways, Mexican .......43 

Railways of Australia . 46 

Railways, South American . 43 

Railway to Hudson’s Bay . 43 

Railway, Trans African .45 

Railway, Trans Caspian . £5 

Railway, Trans Siberian.44, 454 

Railway, World’s Greatest Industry. 41 

Rajah of Borneo, White .460 

Rates of Postage .711 

Rays, Roentgen or X.267 

Rebellion, War of .719 

Recent Discoveries in Egyptian Antiquities. .413 

Red Sea, Suez Canal.194, 411 

Referendum of Switzerland .399 

Region of the Yukon .337 

Religions and Denominations of the World..722 

Resin and Turpentine .623 

Resorts, Mountain, Lake and Ocean.559 

Ri\ er Fisheries .:_ 79 

Rivers, Length of Greatest.726 

Rizal, Philippine Patriot .459 

Robinson Crusoe’s Island, Juan Fernandez. .470 

Rock Candy, and How It Is Made.696 

Roentgen or X-Ray, the .267 

Roosevelt, Miss Alice .568 

Ropes and Rope Making.641 

Rouen’s Air Ferry, Oddest of Bridges.318 

Round Towers of Ireland .381 

Rubber Goods, How Made.663 

Rubber in Brazil .371 

Rubies, Real and Artificial.632 

Ruby Mines in Burma.636 

Rules in Case of Fire.592 

Russia, Caucasus and Baku .436 

Russia, Fossil Ivory From .253 

Russia, Kremlin of Moscow .394 

Russia, Ports on the Pacific Ocean.44, 453 

Russia, Saghalien Island .487 

Russia, Salt Produced in .242 

Russia, Tea Drinking in .215 

Russian Army, Bayonet Exercise .456 

Russian Immigrants to the United States... .327 
Russian Railway in Manchuria . 44 

S 

Saghalien, a Paradox of Climate .487 

Sago From Palm Trees. 706 

Sahara Desert, Irrigation in.320 

Sailing Vessels, Illustrations of...59, 61, 62, 81 

St. Helena, the Island of Exiles.'..357 

St. John’s, Newfoundland, Scene of Experi¬ 
ments in Wireless Telegraphy. 39 

St. Lawrence River . 340 

St. Patrick’s Grave, Ireland .383 

St. Petersburg Museum, Skeleton of a Mam¬ 
moth . . 

Salmon Fisheries . 75 

Salt and its Production .239 

Samarkand . 439 

Samoa, Totemism . 344 

Samoa, Tutuila, Our Island in.467 

Sandwich Islands, Hawaii . 408 

Santo Domingo, Bones of Columbus !!!!!!.351 

Santo Domingo, Voodoo Worship in. 353 

Santos-Dumont, Inventor . 257 

Sarawak, Borneo . 4 firi 




















































































































Indejc 


765 


PAGE 

Sardine Fisheries . 75 

Saving Gold From Soot.308 

Savings Banks in United States.708 

Scalds and Burns, What to Do.591 

Schools in United States.709 

Science and Invention, World’s .257 

Sta Mills of Cephalonia in Greece, Strange..406 

Seas and Lakes, Great Industries of the. 73 

Seas, Area and Depth of.727 

Sea, Wonders of the Deep.532 

Secret Societies in the Philippines .459 

Seeds and How to Test Them.669 

Seine River, Ferry Across .318 

Settlements and Migrations of Nationalities 

in the United States .321 

Shark, Boy Caught by a .466 

Sheet Music, How Printed.638 

Ship Building . 63 

Shipping on the Great Lakes . 67 

Ships, Illustrations of ...56, 59, 61, 62, 63, 66 , 

67, 71, 72, 80, 81, 83, 84, 85, 86 , 89, 91, 92, 93 

Ships, Tonnage of American .709 

Ship Yards . 63 

Shoddy, What It Is and How Made:.643 

Shrines and Pilgrims in Canada .341 

Siam and Its Strange People .444 

Siberia, Fosil Ivory in.253, 540 

Siberia, Frozen Mammoth in .540 

Siberian Railway .44, 454 

Siberia, Russian Ports on the Pacific Ocean..453 

Siberia, Saghalien Island .487 

Signal Service, Work of the Weather Bureau.281 

Silk .157 

Silk, Artificial, How Made.606 

Silver Production of United States.708 

Sinai, Convent at Mount .488 

Single Tax, Its Meaning and Its Theories-598 

Size of Greatest Telescopes in the World....292 

Skiagraphs, by Roentgen or X-Rays.267 

Sky-Scrapers, City .121 

Slave Market in Morocco, the.416 

Smithfield Market, London .149 

Smithsonian Institution .328 

Snake Bite, What to Do.591 

Social Evolution, Order of. 26 

Society Islands .174 

Solar System, Little Planets in Our.522 

Soldiers in the Civil War .719 

Soot, Sawing Gold From .308 

South Africa, Diamond Mines .633 

South Africa, Ostriches in .420 

South Africa, Who Are the Boers.421 

South America, Aconcagua, the Highest 

Mountain .368 

South America, Argentine Republic .369 

South America, Bolivia .367 

South America, Buenos Ayres .370 

South America, Chocolate in .220 

South America, Climbing Aconcagua, the 

Highest Mountain .368 

South America, Coffee in .216 

South America, Extinct Animals in....540 

South America, Lima, Capital of Peru .366 

South American Raikways .43 

South America, Panama Canal.195 

South America, Paraguay .371 

South America, Quito, Capital of Ecuador.. ..364 


PAGE 

South America, Rivers of.727 

South America, Rubber in Brazil.371, 663 

South America, Totemism.344 

South Australia .463 

South Carolina, Wireless Telephones in.302 

South Dakota, “Bad Lands” of.507 

South Dakota, Caves in .526 

South Pole, Around the .519 

South Water Street, Chicago.146 

Spaghetti .681 

Spain, Cork in Portugal and .403 

Special Cults and Cures .587 

Special Poisons and Antidotes.592 

Spectre of the Brocken .485 

Speculation, Methods of .203 

Speed of Various Bodies .710 

Sponges, Gathering in the Bahamas.348 

Sports in American Colleges.556 

Sports, Winter, in Northern Cities.560 

Standard Time Over the World.549 

Starch and How It Is Made. 691 

Stars .709 

Steamships . 63 

Steamships, Illustrations of-56, 61, 63, 65, 

66 , 67, 71, 72, 80, 83, 84, 85, 86, 89, 91, 92, 93 

Steamships on the Great Lakes . 67 

Steel and Iron Industries .101 

Steel Production of United States.708 

Steeples, Tallest .726 

Stewart, J. C., Builder of Westinghouse 

Works in England . 57 

Stock Exchanges .201 

Stock Yards, Chicago, the World’s Meat 

Market .134 

Stone, Miss Ellen After Her Release .398 

Strange People, Siam and Its .444 

Strange Ruins in Easter Island.472 

Strange Sea Mills of Cephalonia in Greece, 

the .406 

Strangest City in the World, Quito .364 

Street Life in a Great City, Phases of.131 

Strength of Various Substances .710 

Stubblefield, Nathan, Inventor of Wireless 

Telephone .297 

Submarine Cables, How Made . 95 

Submarine Pacific Cable . 95 

Submarine Vessels .90 

Sudan, French Railway Across the. 46 

Suez Canal .194, 411 

Sugar, Beet and Cane .220 

Sugar Consumption of United States.709 

Sugar, Production of Beet and Cane.715 

Sugar Production of United States.709 

Summer Resorts .559 

Sunstroke, What to Do.591 

Sweden, How Matches Are Made in.656 

Switzerland, Geneva and Lake Geneva.400 

Switzerland. Referendum of .399 

Systems of Medical Treatment.588 

'T 

Table of Memorable Dates .717 

Tahiti .468, 474 

Talianwan, Russian Port on the Pacific 

Ocean .453 

Talking Machines .287 


















































































































7 (3G 


Indejc 


PAGE 

Tall Buildings .121 

Tall Monuments, Towers and Steeples.726 

Tamerlane, Tomb of .439 

Tapioca and Cassava From the Manioc.148 

Tar and Its Uses in the Sciences.620 

Tashkend .439 

Tasmania, Past and Present.463, 478 

Taxidermist at Work .330 

Tea .218 

Tea, Coffee and Chocolate .215 

Tea Picker, Ceylon . 446 

Telegrams in United States .709 

Telegraph Lines Across Australia . 46 

Telegraphy, Improvements in .272 

Telegraphy, Wireless . 33 

Telephones, Their Mechanism and Develop¬ 
ment .292 

Telephoning Without Wires.297 

Telescopes, Great and Famous .290 

Telescopes, Greatest in the World.292 

Temperature, How to Measure.315 

Temples at Nikko, Japan .457 

Temples of India, Island .441 

Tendencies of Civilization, Progress and .... 21 
Territories of the United States, Facts 

About The .719 

Tests for Seeds .669 

Texas Oil Fields .436 

Textile Fabrics in America .157 

The American Industrial Invasion of Europe. 57 

The Arabian Desert .488 

The Automobile and Its Development .264 

The Average Velocities of Various Bodies...710 

The “Buffer Nation,’’ Afghanistan.437 

The Cathedrals of England .379 

The Chicago Stock Yards, the World’s Meat 

Market .134 

The City Sky-Scraper .121 

The Cocoanut and Its Uses.354 

The Dakota “Bad Lands” .507 

The First Cable Across the Pacific Ocean.... 95 

The German Emperor’s American Yacht.568 

The Grand Canyon of Arizona.502 

The Greatest Freight Transfer Yards in the 

World . 53 

The Great Industries of the Seas and Lakes. 73 

The Great Lava Desert of Iceland .483 

The Great Pyramids of Egypt .415 

The Great Trees of California .489 

The Gulf Stream .483 

The Hermit Nation, Tibet .439 

The Holland, Submarine Vessel . 90 

The Industrial Age . 33 

■The Island of Crete.406 

The Island of Guam.477 

The Island Temples of India .441 

The Kremlin of Moscow .394 

The Land of the Midnight Sun.527 

The Leaning Tower of Pisa.402 

The Leper Island of Molokai .469 

The Maelstrom .484 

The Mariner’s Compass .309 

The Modern Chariot Race .263 

The Mutineers of the “Bounty”.473 

The Nautical Almanac and Its Importance.. .312 

The Order of Social Evolution . 26 

The Phonograph and Its Uses .287 


PAGE 

The Principal Planets.709 

The Progress and Tendencies of Civilization 21 

The Pulse in Health .590 

The Railway Race for the Indian Ocean.428 

The Railway, the World’s Greatest Industry. 41 

The Referendum of Switzerland .399 

The Region of the Yukon .337 

Thermometers and the Measure of Tempera¬ 
ture .315 

The Roentgen or X-Rays .267 

The Round Towers of Ireland .381 

The Second and Greater Brooklyn Bridge... .569 

The Slave Market in Morocco .416 

The Spectre of the Brocken .485 

The States and the Union .719 

The Strange Sea Mills of Cephalonia in 

Greece .408 

The Temples at Nikko, Japan .457 

The Troglodytes of Africa.417 

The United States of Australia . 463 

The Vatican .401 

The Walled City of the North .340 

The Weather Bureau and Its Work .281 

The Work of the Potter .189 

The World as It Is Today. 29 

The World’s Big Canals . 194 

The World’s Greatest Industry, the Railway.. 41 

The World’s Science and Invention .257 

The Yogi of India .440 

Things We All Should Know.545 

Thomas A. Edison, the World’s Most Famous 

Inventor . Frontispiece 

Three Centuries of War in the East Indies..461 

Tibet, the Hermit Nation .439 

Ticonderoga Graphite Mines.660 

Time, Standard Over the World.549 

Tobacco Raising and Cigar Making.228 

Today, the World as It Is.. 29 

Toilet Preparations From the Tropics.706 

Tonnage of American Vessels.709 

Tooth Powder From Nuts.706 

Totemism . 343 

Tower Bridge, London .375 

Tower of London . 374 , 376 

Tower of Pisa, Leaning.402 

Towers of Ireland, Round .381 

Towers, Tallest .726 

Trade of Belgium .389 

Trafalgar Square . 373 

Traffic, Ocean, Its Stupendous Growth. 63 

Trans African Railway . 45 

Transcaspia . 439 

Trans Caspian Railway . 45 

Transfer Yards, Greatest Freight, in the 

World . 53 

Transmission and Development of Power_179 

Transmission of Power from Niagara Falls...273 

Trans Pacific Cable . 95 

Trans Siberian Railway . 44 , 454 

Trees of California, Great ..'.489 

Trinidad and Its Bituminous Lake . 495 

Triumphs of Photography.260 

Troglodytes of Africa . 447 

Trolley Cars .271 

Trollope, Anthony . 530 

Tropics, Toilet Preparations From.706 

Trunks, How Made .235 



















































































































Indejc 


767 


PAGE 

Tubes, Pneumatic, and Compressed Air.288 

Turkestan .439 

Turkey, Constantinople .409 

Turkey in Asia .488 

Turkey, Railways in .428 

Turkey, Uses of Cork in .404 

Turkish Harem, Life in a .409 

Turpentine and Resin .623 

Tutuila, Our Samoan Island .467 

Type Foundry, In a .610 

Typesetting Machines ..169 

u 

Unique Novelty in Hotel Construction. 98 

United States, Accidents in.593 

United States, Alligators in.212 

United States, Borax in .499 

United States, Caves in.524 

United States, Center of Population.712 

United States, Chicago Drainage Canal.197 

United States, Coffee in.217 

United States, Compulsory Education in.548 

United States, Copper Mines in.119 

United States, Crater Lake, Oregon.509 

United States, Dakota “Bad Lands”.507 

United States, Death Valley.496 

United States, Diamonds in.635 

United States, Education in. .548, 553, 556, 709, 721 

United States, Erie Canal .196 

United States, Facts About the.719 

United States, Farm Animals in.713 

United States, Finances of.708 

United States, Flour Mills in.244 

United States, Foreign-Born Population of...323 

United States, Geysers in.482 

United States, Grain Production.713 

United States, Grand Canyon of Arizona.502 

United States, Graphite Mines in.660 

United States, Greatest Facts in the History 

of .323 

United States, Great Trees in.489 

United States, Hawaiian Islands .468 

United States, Hogs Packed and Marketed.. .714 
United States, How Immigrants Come to....325 

United States, Immigration to .321 

United States, Lumber Interests in.151 

United States, Migrations and Settlements of 

Nationalities in .321 

United States, National Park Reserves in_712 

United States Navy, Ships of the . 92 

United States of Australia.463 

United States of Colombia, Panama Canal... 195 

United States, Oranges Raised in.209 

United States, Olives Raised in.213 

United States, Ostrich Farms in.255 

United States, Pearls in Rivers.628 

United States, Population Areas of.329 

United States Postal Regulations.711 

United States Postal Service .331 

United States, Progress in.707 

United States, Public Lands in.712 

United States, Salt Fields in.239 

United States, Samoa .467 

United States, Tobacco Industry in .228 

United States, Wars of the .720 

Universities, American . 553 


PAGE 

Universities, Sports in American.556 

Up-to-Date Methods in Farming .184 

Uses of the Phonograph .287 

Utah, Great Salt Lake ...243 

V 

Value of Diamonds . 637 

Value of Foreign Coins.716 

Van Diemen’s Land .463, 478 

Vanilla Extract, How Made.685 

Varnish, How Made .616 

Vatican, the .401 

Vegetables, Comparative Yield of.715 

Velocities of Various Bodies.710 

Veneers for Fine Furniture.657 

Venice of the East, Siam.444 

Vermicelli .681 

Vermont, Graphite Mines in.660 

Vessels, Illustrations of ..56, 59, 61, 62, 63, 66, 

67, 71, 72, 80, 81, 83, 84, 85, 86, 89, 91, 92, 93 

Vessels on the Great Lakes . 67 

Vessels, Submarine. 90 

Vessels, Tonnage of American...709 

Victoria, Australia .463 

Vinegar and Its Manufacture .683 

Vladivostok Harbor, Russian Port on the 

Pacific.44, 453 

Volcanic and Earthquake Disasters, Famous.515 

Volcanoes and Earthquakes, Cause of.511 

Volcanoes in Hawaiian Islands.469 

Voodoo Worship in Haiti.353 

Vote, Electoral, in 1904.719 

w 

Wales, Eisteddfods, Bards and Druids.380 

Walled City of the North, the .340 

Warfare, American Soldiers in the Philip¬ 
pines .459 

Warfare, Bayonet Exercise in the Russian 

Army .456 

Warfare, Civil War .719 

Warfare, Military Balloons.259 

Warfare, Military Resources of Europe.721 

Warfare, Military Telephones .295 

Warfare, Naval, Progress in Methods of. 81 

Warfare, Three Centuries of, in the East 

Indies .461 

Warfare, Wire Woivnd Cannon.649 

War of the Rebellion.719 

Wars and Armies of Today.565 

Warships, Illustrations of . 

.80, 81, 83, 84, 85, 86, 89, 91, 92, 93 

Wars of the United States.720 

Wartburg Castle, Luther’s Prison .391 

Watches and Clocks .573 

Waterfalls, Heights of .721 

Wealth, Average for Each Inhabitant.716 

Wealth of United States .707 

Weather Bureau and Its Work .281 

Weights Per Bushel, Legal.715 

Welland Canal .196 

Welsh Eisteddfods, Bards and Druids.380 

West Baden, Indiana, Odd Hotel at. 98 

Western Australia .463 

West Indies, Bahamas .346 

West Indies, Chocolate in ..220 

















































































































Index 


768 


PAGE 

West Indies, Coffee in. 217 

West Indies, Cuba .348 

West Indies, Danish .357 

West Indies, Haiti.351, 353 

West Indies, Jamaica .347 

West Indies, Pearls in.628 

West Indies, Place of Burial of Columbus... .351 

West Indies, Porto Rico .355 

West Indies, St. Croix .357 

West Indies, St. Thomas .357 

West Indies, Salt in .241 

West Indies, Santa Cruz .357 

West Indies, Santo Domingo.351, 353 

West Indies, Tobacco Industry in.228 

West Indies, Trinidad .495 

Westinghouse Works Built in England. 57 

Westminster Abbey .374, 380 

Whaling . 73 

Whaleback Steamers on the Great Lakes .69, 193 

What to Do in Emergencies.591 

Wheat, Making Flour .244 

Wheat Production of United States.709 

Wheat, World’s Production of.714 

Where Mexican Rulers Dwell .358 

Where Our Money Is Made.205 

Whirlpool, the Maelstrom .484 

Who Are the Boers? .421 

Wills .595 

Winter Resorts .559 

Winter Sports in Northern Cities.560 

Wire and Its Manifold Uses.649 

Wireless Telegraphy . 33 

Wireless Telephone .297 

Wisconsin, Pearls in .628, 631 

Wonders of Nature, Amazing .481 


PAGE 


Wonders of the Deep Sea.532 

Wool . 157 

Wool Production of United States.709 

Wool, World’s Production of.714 

Work of the Potter .189 

Work of the Weather Bureau..'..281 

World As It Is Today, the . 29 

World, Facts Concerning All Countries.321 

World’s Big Canals, the .194 

World’s Greatest Industry, the Railway.41 

World’s Highest Mountains .726 

World’s Meat Market, the Chicago Stock 

Yards .134 

World’s Metropolis, London .373 

World’s Production of Wheat in Bushels-714 

World’s Production of Wool.714 

World’s Science and Invention .257 

Wyoming, Extinct Animals in.539 

X 

X-Ray, the Roentgen or .268 

Y 

Yards, Greatest Freight Transfer, in the 

World . 53 

Yerkes Observatory .289 

Yildiz Palace and Mosque, Constantinople ...409 

Yogi of India .440 

Yukon, Region of the.337 


z 

Zinc and Other Products of the Mines 

Zinc Etchings . 

Zoetrope, Moving Picture Machine ... 


119 

173 

286 





























































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